Chapter IV: Part 4

ANNAM', a country of Asia occupying the east side of the South-eastern or Indo-Chinese Peninsula, along the China Sea. It comprises Tonquin in the north, Annam (in a narrower sense), and Cochin-China farther south; with the inland territory of the Laos tribes: together, area, 170,000 sq. miles; pop. 15,000,000, 9,000,000 being in Tonquin. In the narrow sense Annam now denotes the country between Tonquin and French Cochin-China, under the nominal rule of a native king (the present ruler, Khai-Dinh, succeeded to the throne in 1916). Annam has an area of 52,100 sq. miles. Pop. (1919), 5,952,000, including 2117 Europeans. The coast is considerably indented, especially at the mouths of the rivers, where it affords many commodious harbours. Tonquin is mountainous on the north, but in the east is nearly level, terminating towards the sea in an alluvial plain yielding good crops of rice, cotton, fruits, ginger, and spices, and a great variety of varnish trees, palms, &c. The principal river is the Song-ka, which has numerous tributaries, many of them being joined together by canals, both for irrigation and commerce. Tonquin is rich in gold, silver, copper, and iron. Annam (in the narrow sense) is, generally speaking, unproductive, but contains many fertile spots, in which grain, leguminous plants, sugar-cane, cinnamon, &c., are produced in great abundance. Agriculture is the chief occupation, but many of the inhabitants are engaged in the spinning and weaving of cotton and silk into coarse fabrics, the preparation of varnish, iron-smelting, and the construction of ships or junks. The inhabitants are said to be the ugliest of the Mongoloid races of the peninsula, being under the middle size and less robust than the surrounding peoples. Their language is monosyllabic, and is connected with the Chinese. The religion of the majority is Buddhism, but the educated classes hold the doctrines of Confucius. The principal towns are Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, and Hue, the capital of the kingdom and formerly of the whole empire. Annam was conquered by the Chinese in 214 B.C., but in A.D. 1428 it completely won its independence. The French began to interfere actively in its affairs in 1847 on the plea of protecting the native Christians. By the treaties of 1862 and 1867 they obtained the southern and most productive part of Cochin-China, subsequently known as French Cochin-China; and in 1874 they obtained large powers over Tonquin, notwithstanding the protests of the Chinese. Finally, in 1883, Tonquin was ceded to France, and next year Annam was declared a French protectorate. After a short period of hostilities with China the latter recognized the French claims, and Tonquin is now a French colony, while the kingdom of Annam is, since 1886, entirely under French direction. Cf. F. R. Eberhardt, _Guide de l' Annam_.

ANNAMABOE (-b[=o]'), a seaport in Western Africa, on the Gold Coast, 10 miles east of Cape Coast Castle, with some trade in gold-dust, ivory, palm-oil, &c. Pop. about 5000.

AN'NAN, a royal and police burgh in Scotland, on the Annan, a little above its entrance into the Solway Firth, one of the Dumfries district of burghs. Pop. 3928.--The River _Annan_ is a stream 40 miles long running through the central division of Dumfriesshire, to which it gives the name of _Annandale_.

ANNAP'OLIS, the capital of Maryland, United States, on the Severn, near its mouth in Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college (St. John's), a state-house, and the United States Naval Academy. Pop. (1920), 11,214.

ANNAP'OLIS, a small town in Nova Scotia, on an inlet of the Bay of Fundy, with an important traffic by railway and steamboat. It is one of the oldest European settlements in America, dating from 1604.

ANN ARBOR, a town of Michigan, United States, on the Huron River, about 40 miles west of Detroit; the seat of the State university. It has flour-mills, and it manufactures woollens, iron, and agricultural implements. Pop. 19,516.

ANNATES (an'n[=a]ts), a year's income claimed for many centuries by the Pope on the death of any bishop, abbot, or parish priest, to be paid by his successor. In England they were at first paid to the Archbishop of Canterbury, but were afterwards appropriated by the Popes. In 1532 the Parliament gave them to the Crown; but in 1703 Queen Anne restored them to the Church by applying them to the augmentation of poor livings. See _Queen Anne's Bounty_.

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ANNAT'TO, or ANNATO, an orange-red colouring matter, obtained from the pulp surrounding the seeds of _Bixa Orell[=a]na_, a shrub native to tropical America, and cultivated in Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East Indies. It is sometimes used as a dye for silk and cotton goods, though it does not produce a very durable colour, but it is much used in medicine for tinging plasters and ointments, and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving a rich colour to milk, butter, and cheese. The colour given by annatto approaches very nearly the natural colouring matter of milk fat. It is guaranteed to preserve the same colour throughout the year, and is considered to be a legitimate colouring matter.

ANNE, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland was born at Twickenham, near London, 6th Feb., 1664. She was the second daughter of James II, then Duke of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. With her father's permission she was educated according to the principles of the English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince George, brother of King Christian V of Denmark. On the arrival of the Prince of Orange in 1688, Anne wished to remain with her father; but she was prevailed upon by Lord Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) and his wife to join the triumphant party. After the death of William III in 1702 she ascended the English throne. Her character was essentially weak, and she was governed first by Marlborough and his wife, and afterwards by Mrs. Masham. Most of the principal events of her reign are connected with the war of the Spanish Succession. The only important acquisition that England made by it was Gibraltar, which was captured in 1704. Another very important event of this reign was the union of England and Scotland under the name of Great Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. Anne seems to have long cherished the wish of securing the succession to her brother James, but this was frustrated by the internal dissensions of the cabinet. Grieved at the disappointment of her secret wishes, she fell into a state of weakness and lethargy, and died, 20th July, 1714. The reign of Anne was distinguished not only by the brilliant successes of the British arms, but also on account of the number of admirable and excellent writers who flourished at this time, among whom were Pope, Swift, and Addison. Anne bore her husband many children, all of whom died in infancy, except one son, the Duke of Gloucester, who died at the age of twelve.

ANNE (of Austria), daughter of Philip III of Spain, was born at Madrid in 1602, and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII of France. Richelieu, fearing the influence of her foreign connections, did everything he could to humble her. In 1643 her husband died, and she was left regent, but placed under the control of a council. But the Parliament overthrew this arrangement, and entrusted her with full sovereign rights during the minority of her son Louis XIV. Having brought upon herself the hatred of the nobles by her boundless confidence in Cardinal Mazarin, she was forced to flee from Paris during the wars of the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and was able in 1661 to transmit to her son unimpaired the royal authority. She spent the remainder of her life in retirement, and died 20th Jan., 1666.

ANNEALING (an-[=e]l'ing), a process to which many articles of metal and glass are subjected after making, in order to render them more tenacious and which consists in heating them and allowing them to cool slowly. When the metals are worked by the hammer, or rolled into plates, or drawn into wire, they acquire a certain amount of brittleness, which destroys their usefulness, and has to be remedied by annealing. The tempering of steel is one kind of annealing. Annealing is particularly employed in glass-houses, and consists in putting the glass vessels, as soon as they are formed and while they are yet hot, into a furnace or oven, in which they are suffered to cool gradually. The toughness is greatly increased by cooling the articles in oil.

ANNECY ([.a]n-s[=e]), an ancient town in France, department of Haute-Savoie, situated on the Lake of Annecy, 21 miles s. of Geneva; contains a cathedral and a ruinous old castle once the residence of the counts of Genevois; manufactures of cotton, leather, paper, and hardware. Pop. 15,622.--The lake is about 9 miles long and 2 broad.

ANNEL'IDA, or ANNULATA, an extensive division or class of Annulosa or articulate animals, so called because their bodies are formed of a great number of small rings, the outward signs of internal segmentation. The earth-worm, the lobworm, the nereis, and the leech belong to this division. They have red, rarely yellow or green, blood circulating in a double system of contractile vessels, a double ganglionated nervous cord, and respire by external branchiae, internal vesicles, or by the skin. Their organs of motion consist of bristles or _setae_, which are usually attached to the lateral surfaces of each segment, the bristles being borne on 'foot processes' or _parapodia_. The number of body segments varies. As many as 400 may be found in some sea-worms. A complete digestive system is developed, consisting of a mouth--armed with horny jaws and a protrusible proboscis--gizzard, stomach, and intestine. See _Earth-worm_, _Leech_, &c.

ANNEXATION, a term applied to the acquisition by a State of territory previously belonging to another Power, or independent. It is applicable not only to the extension of a State's sovereignty over adjoining territory, but also to an acquisition of a remote territory. The inhabitants of the annexed territory are absolved from their allegiance to their former sovereign. Such annexations in modern history were those of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany in 1871, of California by the United States, of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, and of the Boer Republics by Great Britain.

ANNFIELD PLAIN, a straggling colliery town (urban district) of England, Durham, about 7 miles south-west of Gateshead. Pop. (1921), 16,524.

ANNOBON', or ANNOBOM, a beautiful Spanish island of Western Africa, south of the Bight of Biafra, about 4 miles long by 2 miles broad, and rising abruptly to the height of 3000 feet, richly covered with vegetation. Pop. 2000.

ANNONAY ([.a]n-o-n[=a]), a town in southern France, department of Ardeche, 37 miles S.S.W. of Lyons, in a picturesque situation. It is the most important town of Ardeche, manufacturing paper and glove leather to a large extent, also cloth, felt, silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, chemical manures, glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate, and candles. There is an obelisk in memory of Joseph Montgolfier of balloon fame. Pop. 16,660.

AN'NUAL, in botany, a plant that springs from seed, grows up, produces seed, and then dies, all within a single year or season. Among annual grasses may be noted all our cereals, barley, wheat, rye, and oats.

AN'NUAL, in literature, the name given to a class of publications which at one time enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and were distinguished by great magnificence both of binding and illustration, which rendered them much sought after as Christmas and New Year presents. Their contents were chiefly prose tales and ballads, lyrics, and other poetry. The earliest was the _Forget-me-not_, started in 1822, and followed next year by the _Friendship's Offering_. The _Literary Souvenir_ was commenced in 1824, and the _Keepsake_ in 1827. Among the names of the editors occur those of Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S. C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessington, Mary Howitt, &c. The popularity of the annuals reached its zenith about 1829, when no less than seventeen made their appearance; in 1856 the _Keepsake_, the last of the series, ceased to exist.

ANNUAL REGISTER, an English publication commenced in 1758 by Dodsley, the publisher, and since continued in yearly volumes down to the present day. There was also an _Edinburgh Annual Register_, the historical part of which was for several years contributed by Sir Walter Scott and afterwards by Robert Southey. It commenced in 1808 and came to a close in 1827.

ANNU'ITY, a periodical payment, made annually, or at more frequent intervals, and continuing either a certain number of years, or for an uncertain period, to be determined by a particular event, as the death of the recipient or annuitant, or that of the party liable to pay the annuity; or the annuity may be perpetual. An annuity is usually raised by the present payment of a certain sum as a consideration whereby the party making the payment, or some other person named by him, becomes entitled to an annuity, and the rules and principles by which this present value is to be computed have been the subjects of careful investigation. The present value of a perpetual annuity is evidently a sum of money that will yield an interest equal to the annuity, and payable at the same periods; and an annuity of this description, payable quarterly, will evidently be of greater value than one of the same amount payable annually, since the annuitant has the additional advantage of the interest on three of the quarterly payments until the expiration of the year. In other words, it requires a greater present capital to be put at interest to yield a given sum per annum, payable quarterly, than to yield the same annual sum payable at the end of each year. The present value of an annuity for a limited period is a sum which, if put at interest, will at the end of that period give an amount equal to the sum of all the payments of the annuity and interest; and, accordingly, if it be proposed to invest a certain sum of money in the purchase of an annuity for a given number of years, the comparative value of the two may be precisely estimated, the rate of interest being given. But annuities for uncertain periods, and particularly life annuities, are more frequent, and the value of the annuity is computed according to the probable duration of the life by which it is limited. Such annuities are often created by contract, whereby the Government or a private annuity office agrees, for a certain sum advanced by the purchaser, to pay a certain sum in yearly, quarterly, or other periodical payments to the person advancing the money, or to some other named by him, during the life of the annuitant. Or the annuity may be granted to the annuitant during the life of some other person, or during two or more joint lives, or during the life of the longest liver or survivor among a number of persons named. If a person having a certain capital, and intending to spend this capital and the income of it during his own life, could know precisely how long he should live, he might lend his capital at a certain rate during his life, and by taking every year, besides the interest, a certain amount of the capital, he might secure the same annual amount for his support during his life in such manner that he should have the same sum to spend every year, and consume precisely his whole capital during his life. But since he does not know how long he is to live, he agrees with the Government or an annuity office to take the risk of the duration of his life, and they agree to pay him a certain annuity for life in exchange for the capital which he proposes to invest in this way. The probable duration of his life therefore becomes a subject of computation; and for the purpose of making this calculation tables of longevity are made by noting the proportion of deaths at certain ages in the same country or district. Founding on a comparison of many such tables, the British Government has empowered the Postmaster-General to grant annuities at the following rates, which are probably more closely adjusted to their actual value than those of insurance companies and other dealers in annuities: To secure an immediate annuity of L100, the cost is, for males of 20 years, L2279, 3s. 4d.; for females of same age, L2482, 10s.; for males of 30 years, L2045, 8s. 4d., for females, L2258, _6s._ 8d.; for males of 40 years, L1789, 6s. 8d.; for females, L1990; for males of 60, L1148, 6s. 8d.; females, L1275, 8s. 4d.; and so on. _Deferred_ annuities, that is, such as have their first payments postponed for a greater or less number of years, are also granted. We give the rates for an annuity of L100 deferred 20 years: Males aged 20, L848, 6s. 8d.; females, L1014, 13s. 4d.; males aged 35, L557, 1s. 8d.; females, L697, 1s. 8d.; and so on. If a person on whose life the deferred annuity is to depend should die before payment commences, the purchase-money may be returned to his or her representatives, provided that an agreement to that effect had been made in the first instance, but in this case the purchase-money is necessarily higher. See _Insurance_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Baily, _Life Annuities and Assurances_; J. Henry, _Government Life Annuity Commutation Tables_.

ANNULOI'DA, one of Professor Huxley's eight primary groups, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals, including the Rotifera, Scolecida (tape-worms, &c.), all which are more or less ring-like in appearance, and the Echinodermata, whose embryos show traces of annulation.

ANNULO'SA, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals regarded by some as synonymous with the Arthropoda or Articulata; according to other systematists, including both the Articulata and Annulata or worms.

ANNUNCIATION, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary informing her that she was to become the mother of our Lord.--_Annunciation_ or _Lady Day_ is a feast of the Church in honour of the annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of March.--The Italian order of _Knights of the Annunciation_ was instituted by Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy, in 1360. The king is always grand-master. The knights must be of high rank, and must already be members of the order of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus. The decoration of the order consists of a golden shield suspended from a chain or collar of roses and knots, the letters F. E. R. T. being inscribed on the roses, and standing for _Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit_ (its bravery held Rhodes).--There are two orders of _nuns of the Annunciation_, one originally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna of Valois; the other Italian, founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa.

ANNUNZIO ([.a]n-n[u:]nt'sy[=o]), Gabriele d', Italian poet, novelist, and dramatist, born at Pescara in 1863, his patronymic being Rapagnetta. He was educated at Prato and in Rome, and early took to literature and journalism. In 1898 he was elected a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in which he joined the Socialist party. He came before the public when a schoolboy with a volume of verse called _Primo Vere_, to which others--naturally much more mature--were subsequently added. Several of his novels have been published in English, as: _The Child of Pleasure_, _The Victim_, _The Triumph of Death_, _The Virgin of the Rocks_, _The Fire of Life_. Some of these have been very successful, though disfigured to some extent by coarse realism and voluptuousness. He began to write plays later in life. Among them _Gioconda_, _The Dead City_, and _Francesca da Rimini_ may be read in English versions, and _Gioconda_ and _Francesca_ have been performed on the English stage. His more recent works include: _Le Martyr de Saint Sebastien_ (1911), _Le Chevrefeuille_ (1914), _La Beffa di Buccari_ (1918), _Notturno_ (1918). D'Annunzio is the most prominent Italian writer of the present day, and in wealth of language and distinction of style stands far ahead of all others. He served in the European War from 1915-18, and was wounded. In Sept., 1919, he led a raid and occupied the port of Fiume. See _European War_ and _Fiume_.

AN'OA, an animal (_Anoa depressicornis_) closely allied to the buffalo, about the size of an average sheep, very wild and fierce, inhabiting the rocky and mountainous localities of the Island of Celebes. The horns are straight, thick at the root, and set nearly in a line with the forehead.

ANO'BIUM, a genus of coleopterous insects, the larvae of which often do much damage by their boring into old wood. By means of their heads they produce a loud, ticking sound in the wood, the so-called _death-watch_ ticking. _A. stri[=a]tum_, a common species, when frightened, is much given to feigning death.

AN'ODE, (Gr. _ana_, up, _hodos_, way), the positive pole of the voltaic current, being that part of the surface of a decomposing body which the electric current enters: opposed to _cathode_ (Gr. _kata_, down, _hodos_, way), the way by which it departs.

AN'ODON, or ANODON'TA, a genus of lamellibranchiate bivalves, including the fresh-water mussels, without or with very slight hinge-teeth. See _Mussel_.

AN'ODYNE, a medicine, such as an opiate or narcotic, which allays pain.

ANOINTING, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often perfumed. From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the habit of anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. The Greeks and Romans anointed themselves after the bath. Wrestlers anointed themselves in order to render it more difficult for their antagonists to get hold of them. In Egypt it was common to anoint the head of guests when they entered the house where they were to be entertained. In the Mosaic law a sacred character was attached to the anointing of the garments of the priests, and things belonging to the ceremonial of worship. The Jewish priests and kings were anointed when inducted into office, and were called the _anointed of the Lord_, to show that their persons were sacred and their office from God. In the Old Testament also the prophecies respecting the Redeemer style him _Messias_, that is, the _Anointed_, which is also the meaning of his Greek name Christ. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman Catholic Church in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of believers and the sacrament of extreme unction. The ceremony is also frequently a part of the coronation of kings.

ANOM'ALURE (_Anomal[=u]rus_), a genus of rodent animals inhabiting the west coast of Africa, resembling the flying-squirrels, but having the under surface of the tail furnished for some distance from the root with a series of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the trunk of a tree, may subserve the same purpose as those instruments with which a man climbs up a telegraph pole to set the wires.

ANOM'ALY, a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy, the angle which a line drawn from a planet to the sun has passed through since the planet was last at its perihelion or nearest distance to the sun. The _anomalistic year_ is the interval between two successive times at which the earth is in perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes 48 seconds. In consequence of the advance of the earth's perihelion among the stars in the same direction as the earth's motion, and of the precession of the equinoxes, which carries the equinoxes back in the opposite direction to the earth's motion, the anomalistic year is about 4 minutes 40 seconds longer than the sidereal year, and about 25 minutes longer than the tropical or common year. The time of a complete revolution of the perihelion is computed at 108,000 years.

ANOMU'RA, a section of the crustaceans of the ord. Decapoda, with irregular tails not formed to assist in swimming, including the hermit-crabs and others.

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ANO'NA, a genus of plants, the type of the nat. ord. Anonaceae. _A. squam[=o]sa_ (sweet-sop) grows in the West Indian Islands, and yields an edible fruit having a thick, sweet, luscious pulp. _A. muric[=a]ta_ (sour-sop) is cultivated in the West and East Indies; it produces a large pear-shaped fruit, of a greenish colour, containing an agreeable slightly-acid pulp. The genus produces other edible fruits, as the common custard-apple or bullock's heart, from _A. reticul[=a]ta_, and the cherimoyer of Peru, from _A. Cherimolia_.

ANONA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of trees and shrubs, having simple, alternate leaves, destitute of stipules, by which character they are distinguished from the Magnoliaceae, to which they are otherwise closely allied. They are mostly tropical plants of the Old and the New World, and are generally aromatic. See _Anona_.

ANOPLOTHE'RIUM, an extinct genus of the Ungulata or Hoofed Quadrupeds, forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many respects intermediate between the swine and the true ruminants. These animals were pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with two rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a guinea-pig, others as large as an ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars existed in each jaw, the series being continuous, no interval existing in the jaw. _A. comm[=u]ne_, from the Eocene rocks, is a familiar species.

ANOPLU'RA, an order of apterous insects, of which the type is the genus Pedic[)u]lus or louse,

ANOPSHEHR. See _Anupshahr_.

ANOREXIA. See _Appetite_.

ANOS'MIA, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction of the power of smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most frequently caused by strong and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves.

ANOURA. See _Anura_.

ANQUETIL-DUPERRON ([.a]nk-t[=e]l-d[.u]-p[=a]-ro[n.]), Abraham Hyacinthe, a French orientalist, born 1731, died 1805. He studied theology for some time, but soon devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian. His zeal for the Oriental languages induced him to set out for India, where he prevailed on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him in the Zend and Pehlevi and to give him some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he returned to France with a valuable collection of MSS. In 1771 he published his _Zend-Avesta_, a translation of the _Vendidad_, and other sacred books, which aroused much interest. Among his other works are _L'Inde en rapport avec l'Europe_ (1790), and a selection from the _Vedas_. His knowledge of the Oriental languages was by no means exact.

ANSBACH. See _Anspach_.

AN'SELM, St., a celebrated Christian philosopher and theologian, born at Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033, died at Canterbury 1109. At the age of twenty-seven (1060) he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy, whither he had been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years later he was elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he remained for fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his first philosophical and religious works: the dialogues on _Truth_ and _Free-will_, and the treatises _Monologion_ and _Proslogion_; and at the same time his influence made itself so felt among the monks under his charge that Bec became the chief seat of learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm was offered by William Rufus the archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted it, though with great reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands belonging to the see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with the archbishop, who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in acknowledging Pope Urban II in opposition to the antipope Clement. William ultimately had to give way. He acknowledged Urban as Pope, and conferred the pallium upon Anselm. The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so great were Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to consult with the Pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did not venture really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though William had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized on the revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death in 1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitled _Cur Deus Homo_ (_Why God was made Man_). When William was succeeded by Henry I Anselm was recalled; but Henry insisted that he should submit to be reinvested in his see by himself, although the Popes claimed the right of investing for themselves alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did not surrender his claims till 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf of the rights of the Church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a deep and original thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety. Anselm's great achievement in philosophy was his ontological argument for the existence of God; and his importance in the ecclesiastical history of England cannot be exaggerated. The chief of his writings are the _Monologion_, the _Proslogion_, and the _Cur Deus Homo_. The first is an attempt to prove inductively the existence of God by pure reason without the aid of Scripture or authority; the second is an attempt to prove the same by the deductive method; the _Cur Deus Homo_ is intended to prove the necessity of the incarnation. Among his numerous other writings are more than 400 letters. His life was written by his domestic chaplain and companion, Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, and is edited by M. Rule for the 'Rolls Series'. See _Scholasticism_. Cf. Pere Ragey, _Histoire de Saint Anselme_; J. M. Rigg, _Anselm of Canterbury_.

ANS'GAR, or ANSHAR, called the _Apostle of the North_, born in 801 in Picardy, died in 864 or 865. He took the monastic vows while still in his boyhood, and in the midst of many difficulties laboured as a missionary in Denmark and Sweden. He died with the reputation of having made, if not the first, the most successful attempts to propagate Christianity in the North.

AN'SON, George, Lord, celebrated English navigator, born 1697, died 1762. He entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in 1722, and captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina station. In 1740 he was made commander of a fleet sent to the South Sea, directed against the trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition consisted of five men-of-war and three smaller vessels, which carried 1400 men. After much suffering and many stirring adventures he reached the coast of Peru, made several prizes, and captured and burned the city of Paita. His squadron was now reduced to one ship, the _Centurion_, but with it he took the Spanish treasure galleon from Acapulco, and arrived in England in 1744 with treasure to the amount of L500,000, having circumnavigated the globe. His adventures and discoveries are described in the well-known _Anson's Voyage_, compiled from materials furnished by Anson. A few days after his return he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and not long after rear-admiral of the white. His victory over the French admiral Jonquiere, near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised him to the peerage, with the title of Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. Four years afterwards he was made First Lord of the Admiralty. In 1758 he commanded the fleet before Brest, protected the landing of the British at St. Malo, Cherbourg, &c., and received the repulsed troops into his vessels. Finally, in 1761, he was appointed to convey the queen of George III to England.

ANSO'NIA, a town of the United States, Conn., on the Nangatuck, with manufactures of brass and copper, and especially clocks. Pop. 17,643.

ANSPACH ([.a]n'sp[.a]_h_), or ANSBACH, a town in Bavaria, at the junction of the Holzbach with the Lower Rezat, 24 miles south-west of Nuernberg. Anspach gave its name to an ancient principality or margravate, which had a territory of about 1300 sq. miles, with 300,000 inhabitants. in the end of the eighteenth century. The last margrave sold his possessions in 1791 to Prussia. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and transferred by Napoleon to Bavaria. The town has manufactures of trimmings, buttons, straw-wares, &c. Pop. 19,995.

AN'STED, David Thomas, an English geologist, born 1814, died 1880. He was professor of geology at King's College, London, and assistant-secretary to the Geological Society, whose quarterly journal he edited for many years.

AN'STER, John, LL.D., professor of civil law in the University of Dublin, born in County Cork, 1793, died 1867. He published a volume of poems, but is chiefly known by his fine translation of Goethe's _Faust_, Part I, 1835; Part II, 1864.

AN'STEY, Christopher, an English poet, born 1724, died 1805. He was author of _The New Bath Guide_, a humorous and satirical production describing fashionable life at Bath in the form of a series of letters in different varieties of metre, which had a great reputation in its day, but is now almost forgotten.

ANSTRUTHER (an'stru_th_-[.e]r; popularly an'st[.e]r), Easter and Wester, two small royal and police burghs of Scotland, in Fifeshire, forming, with the contiguous royal burgh of Cellardyke or Nether Kilrenny, one fishing and seaport town. Total pop. (1921), 4641.

1. Egg. 2. Larva. 3. Cocoon of fine white silk. 4. Young ant, taken out of cocoon. 5. Male ant. 6. Female ant. 7. Worker ant. (All magnified.)]

ANT, the common name of hymenopterous (or membranous-winged) insects of various genera, of the family Formic[)i]dae, of which there are numerous species, at least 2000 being known. They are found in most temperate and tropical regions. They are small but powerful insects, and have long been noted for their remarkable intelligence and interesting habits. They are social insects, living in communities regulated by definite laws, each member of the society bearing a well-defined and separate part in the work of the colony. Each community consists of males; of females much larger than the males; and of barren females, otherwise called neuters, workers, or nurses. The neuters are wingless, and the males and females only acquire wings for their 'nuptial flight', after which the males perish, and the few females which escape the pursuit of their numerous enemies divest themselves of their wings, and either return to established nests, or become the foundresses of new colonies. The neuters perform all the labours of the ant-hill or abode of the community; they excavate the galleries, procure food, and feed the larvae or young ants, which have not got organs of motion. In fine weather they carefully convey them to the surface for the benefit of the sun's heat, and as attentively carry them to a place of safety either when bad weather is threatened or the ant-hill is disturbed. In like manner they watch over the safety of the nymphs or pupae about to acquire their perfect growth. Some communities possess a special type of neuters, known as 'soldiers', from the duties that specially fall upon them, and from their powerful biting jaws. There is a very considerable variety in the materials, size, and form of ant-hills, or nests, according to the peculiar nature or instinct of the species. Most of the British ants form nests in woods, fields, or gardens, their abodes being generally in the form of small mounds rising above the surface of the ground and containing numerous galleries and apartments. Some excavate nests in old tree-trunks. One little yellow ant (_Myrm[=i]ca domestica_) is common in houses in Britain in some localities. Some ants live on animal food, very quickly picking quite clean the skeleton of any dead animal they may light on. Others live on saccharine matter, being very fond of the sweet substance, called honey-dew, which exudes from the bodies of aphides, or plant-lice. These they sometimes keep in their nests, and sometimes tend on the plants where they feed; sometimes they even superintend their breeding. By stroking the aphides with their antennae they cause them to emit the sweet fluid, which the ants then greedily sip up. Various other insects are looked after by ants in a similar manner, or are found in their nests. It has been observed that some species, like the European Red Ant (_Form[=i]ca sanguin[)e]a_), resort to violence to obtain working ants of other species for their own use, plundering the nests of suitable kinds of their larvae and pupae, which they carry off to their own nests to be carefully reared and kept as slaves. In temperate countries male and female ants survive, at most, till autumn, or to the commencement of cool weather, though a very large proportion of them cease to exist long previous to that time. The neuters pass the winter in a state of torpor, and of course require no food. The only time when they require food is during the season of activity, when they have a vast number of young to feed. Some ants of Southern Europe feed on grain, and store it up in their nests for use when required. Some species have stings as weapons, others only their powerful mandibles, or an acrid and pungent fluid (formic acid) which they can emit. The name ant is also given to the neuropterous insects otherwise called Termites (q.v.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), _Ants, Bees, and Wasps_; H. W. Bates, _A Naturalist on the Amazons_; _Cambridge Natural History_.

ANTAC'ID, an alkali, or any remedy for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia and diarrhoea are the diseases in which antacids are chiefly employed. The principal antacids in use are magnesia, lime, and their carbonates, and the carbonates of potash and soda.

ANTAE'US, the giant son of Poseidon (Neptune) and G[=e] (the Earth), who was invincible so long as he was in contact with the earth. Heracles (Hercules) grasped him in his arms and stifled him suspended in the air, thus preventing him from touching the earth.

ANTAKIEH, or ANTAKIA. See _Antioch_.

ANTAL'KALI, a substance which neutralizes an alkali, and is used medicinally to counteract an alkaline tendency in the system. All true acids have this power.

ANTANANARIVO (an-tan-an-a-r[=e]'v[=o]), the capital of Madagascar, situated in the central province of Imerina, on rocky eminences rising from a plain. Until 1869 all buildings within the city were of wood or rush, but since the introduction of brick and stone, the whole city has been rebuilt. It contains two former royal palaces, immense timber structures; a Protestant and a Roman Catholic cathedral, mission churches, schools, &c. Antananarivo is the residence of the French governor of Madagascar, and there is a strong French garrison. It has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk, &c. Pop. (exclusive of the troops) 63,115.

AN'TAR, an Arabian warrior and poet of the sixth century, author of one of the seven Moallakas (poems) hung up in the Kaaba at Mecca; hero of a romance analogous in Arabic literature to the Arthurian legend of the English. The romance of _Antar_ is composed in rhythmic prose interspersed with fragments of verse, many of which are attributed to Antar himself, and has been generally ascribed to Asmai (born A.D. 740, died about A.D. 830), preceptor to Harun-al-Rashid. It has been published in 32 vols. at Cairo (1889).

ANTARCTIC (ant-aerk'tik), a term signifying the opposite of _Arctic_, and therefore relating to the southern pole or to the regions near it. The _Antarctic Circle_, which of course corresponds to the _Arctic Circle_, is a circle parallel to the equator and distant from the south pole 23deg 28', marking the area within which the sun does not set when on the tropic of Capricorn. The Antarctic Circle has been arbitrarily fixed on as the limits of the Antarctic Ocean, it being the average limit of the pack-ice; but the name is often extended to embrace a much wider area. The lands within or near the Antarctic Circle are but imperfectly known, and a very large area around the south pole is altogether unknown. The work of exploration has been hitherto baffled at various points by what seems an unsurmountable ice-barrier, which in some places is connected with masses of land and may as a whole belong to a great Antarctic continent. Among land-masses that have long been known to exist in the Antarctic Ocean, though our knowledge of them is very imperfect, are those to which have been attached the names Graham Land, Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, Enderby Land, South Shetland Islands, &c. The Antarctic regions are even colder and more inhospitable than the Arctic, and partly on account of their remoteness from the maritime nations there have been far fewer efforts at their exploration, the south pole being far less a goal of discovery than the north. See _South Polar Expeditions_.

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ANT-EATER, a name given to mammals of various genera that prey chiefly on ants, but usually confined to the genus Myrmecoph[)a]ga, ord. Edentata. In this genus the head is remarkably elongated, the jaws destitute of teeth, and the mouth furnished with a long, extensile tongue covered with glutinous saliva, by the aid of which the animals secure their insect prey. The eyes are particularly small, the ears short and round, and the legs, especially the fore-legs, very strong, and furnished with long, compressed, acute nails, admirably adapted for breaking into the ant-hills. The most remarkable species is the _Myrmecoph[)a]ga jub[=a]ta_, or ant-bear, a native of the warmer parts of South America. It is from 4 to 5 feet in length from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the black bushy tail, which is about 2 feet long. The body is covered with long hair, particularly along the neck and back. It is a harmless and solitary animal, and spends most of its time in sleep. Some are adapted for climbing trees in quest of the insects on which they feed, having prehensile tails. All are natives of South America. The name ant-eater is also given to the pangolins and to the aardvark. The echidna of Australia is sometimes called _porcupine ant-eater_.

ANTECE'DENT, in grammar, the noun to which a relative or other pronoun refers; as, Solomon was the _prince who_ built the temple, where the word _prince_ is the antecedent of _who_.--In logic, that member of a hypothetical or conditional proposition which contains the condition, and which is introduced by _if_ or some equivalent word or words; as, if the sun is fixed, the earth must move. Here the first and conditional proposition is the _antecedent_, the second the _consequent_.

ANTEDILU'VIAN, before the flood or deluge of Noah's time; relating to what happened before the deluge. In geology the term has been applied to organisms, traces of which are found in a fossil state in formations preceding the Diluvial (Glacial epoch), particularly to extinct animals such as the palaeotherium, the mastodon, &c.

AN'TELOPE, the name given to the members of a large family of Ruminant Ungulata or Hoofed Mammalia, closely resembling the Deer in general appearance, but essentially different in nature from the latter animals. They are included with the Sheep and Oxen in the family of the Cavicornia or 'Hollow-horned' Ruminants. Their horns, unlike those of the Deer, are not deciduous, but are permanent; are never branched, but are often twisted spirally, and may be borne by both sexes. They are found in greatest number and variety in Africa. Well-known species are the chamois (European), the gazelle, the addax, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the springbok, the sasin or Indian antelope, and the prongbuck of America.

1,1. Filiform Antennae of Cucujo Firefly of Brazil (_Pyroph[)o]rus lumin[=o]sus_). 2. Denticulate Antenna; 3. Bipinnate; 4. Lamellicorn; 5. Clavate; 6. Geniculate; 7. Antenna and Antennule of Crustacean.]

ANTEN'NAE, the name given to the movable jointed organs of touch and hearing attached to the heads of insects, myriapods, &c., and commonly called horns or feelers. They present a very great variety of forms.

ANTEQUERA ([.a]n-te-k[=a]'r[.a]), a city of Andalusia, in Spain, in the province of Malaga, a place of some importance under the Romans, with a ruined Moorish castle. It manufactures woollens, leather, soap, &c. Pop. 32,360.

ANT'EROS, in Greek mythology, the god of mutual love. According to some, however, Anteros is the enemy of love, or the god of antipathy; he was also said to punish those who did not return the love of others.

ANTHE'LION, pl. ANTHELIA, a luminous ring, or rings, seen by an observer, especially in alpine and polar regions, around the shadow of his head projected on a cloud or fog-bank, or on grass covered with dew, 50 or 60 yards distant, and opposite the sun when rising or setting. It is due to the diffraction of light.

ANTHELMIN'THICS, or ANTHELMIN'TICS, a class of remedies used to destroy worms when lodged in the alimentary canal; classed as vermicides or vermifuges, according as the object is to kill the worms, or to expel them by purgation.

AN'THEM, originally a hymn sung in alternate parts; in modern usage, a sacred tune or piece of music set to words taken from the Psalms or other parts of the Scriptures, first introduced into church service in Elizabeth's reign; a developed motet. The anthem may be for one, two, or any number of voices, but seldom exceeds five parts, and may or may not have an organ accompaniment written for it.

ANTHE'MION, an ornament or ornamental series used in Greek and Roman decoration, which is derived from floral forms, more especially the honeysuckle. It was much used for the ornamentation of friezes and interiors, for the decoration of fictile vases, the borders of dresses, &c.

AN'THEMIS, a genus of composite plants, comprising the camomile or chamomile.

ANTHE'MIUS, a Greek mathematician and architect of Lydia; designed the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and is credited with the invention of the dome; died A.D. 534.

AN'THER, the male organ of the flower; that part of the stamen which is filled with pollen.

ANTHESTE'RIA, an annual Greek festival held in honour of all the gods, but especially in honour of Dionysus. It celebrated the beginning of spring, and the season when the wine of the previous vintage was considered fit for use.

ANTHOCY'ANIN, the blue colour of flowers, a pigment obtained from those petals of flowers which are blue, by digesting them in spirits of wine.

ANTHOL'OGY (Gr. _anthos_, a flower, and _legein_, to gather), the name given to several collections of short poems which have come down from antiquity. The first to compile a Greek anthology was Meleager, a Syrian, about 60 B.C. He entitled his collection, which contained selections from forty-six poets besides many pieces of his own, the _Garland_; a continuation of this work by Philip of Thessalonica in the age of Tiberius was the first entitled _Anthology_. Later collections are that of Constantine Cephalas, in the tenth century, who made much use of the earlier ones, and that of Maximus Planudes, in the fourteenth century, a monk of Constantinople, whose anthology is a tasteless series of extracts from the _Anthology_ of Cephalas, with some additions. The treasures contained in both, increased with fragments of the older poets, idylls of the bucolic poets, the hymns of Callimachus, epigrams from monuments and other works, have been published in modern times as the _Greek Anthology_. There is no ancient Latin anthology, the oldest being that of Scaliger (1573).

AN'THON, Charles, LL.D., an American editor of classical school-books, and of works intended to facilitate the study of Greek and Latin literature; born 1797, died 1867. He was long a professor in Columbia College, New York.

AN'THONY, St. the founder of monastic institutions, born near Heraclea, in Upper Egypt, A.D. 251. Giving up all his property he retired to the desert, where he was followed by a number of disciples, who thus formed the first community of monks. He died at the age of 105.--_St. Anthony's Fire_, a name given to erysipelas.

AN'THRACENE (C_{14}H_{10}) occurs in coal-tar in small quantity, about 0.25-0.45 per cent. During the distillation of tar a high-boiling fraction, boiling above 270deg C., is obtained; this is crude anthracene oil, a greenish oily substance which, on further distillation, yields a crystalline mass, 50 per cent anthracene. This is carefully purified by distillation and chemical treatment to separate the anthracene from the other substances occurring with it, and the product obtained is finally purified by crystallization. When pure it forms colourless crystalline scales melting at 216deg C., and having a violet fluorescence. It forms a series of derivatives, the most important being anthraquinone and alizarine and the numerous derivatives of these. Anthracene was originally a useless product in coal-tar distillation, but it became valuable as soon as it was discovered that alizarine--from which many dyes are manufactured directly or indirectly--could be prepared from it.

AN'THRACITE, glance or blind coal, a non-bituminous coal of a shining lustre, approaching to metallic, and which burns without smoke, with a weak or no flame, and with intense heat. It consists of, on an average, 90 per cent carbon, 2 oxygen, 3 hydrogen, and 5 ashes. It has some of the properties of coal or charcoal, and, like that substance, represents an extreme alteration of vegetable substances by loss of gases, either during conditions of decay or after entombment among stratified rocks. It is found in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in large quantities in the United States (Pennsylvania), and near Swansea (South Wales). See _Coal_.

AN'THRAX, a fatal disease to which animals are subject, always associated with the presence of an extremely minute micro-organism (_Bacillus anthr[)a]cis_) in the blood. It attacks cattle more frequently than other animals; sheep, horses, pigs, dogs, and fowls are liable to anthrax, but not cats. The mode of infection in animals is chiefly by ingestion. It may also be contracted through a wound or scratch in the skin, but this mode of infection is commoner in human beings than in animals. It frequently assumes an epizootic form, and extends over large districts, affecting all classes of animals which are exposed to the exciting causes. It is also called splenic fever, and is communicable to man, appearing as carbuncle, malignant pustule, or wool-sorter's disease.

ANTHROPOL'ATRY, the worship of man, a word always employed in reproach; applied by the Apollinarians, who denied Christ's perfect humanity, towards the orthodox Christians.

ANTHRO'POLITE, a petrifaction of the human body or skeleton, or of parts of the body, by the encrusting action of calcareous waters, and hence hardly to be considered fossil or sub-fossil.

ANTHROPOL'OGY, the science of man, including the study of man's place in nature, that is, of the measurement of his agreement with and divergence from other animals and the history of the emergence of human characteristics; of the distinctive features and geographical distribution of the races of mankind, their customs and beliefs; of the remains of extinct types of the human family and the evidence relating to their modes of life. It puts under contribution all sciences which have man for their object, as anatomy, palaeontology, psychology, archaeology, history, and comparative religion. All the races of mankind that are now living, much as they differ in external appearance, such as colour of skin, character of hair, form of skull, face, and body, and stature, belong to one species, _Homo Sapiens_; but an earlier species of more brutal type, _H. neanderthalensis_, now completely extinct, is known from fossil remains found in Germany, Belgium, France, Gibraltar, and Croatia. Three more ancient and primitive types, probably representing distinct genera of the human family, have been discovered respectively at Piltdown, in Sussex (Eoanthropus), at Mauer, near Heidelberg (Palaeanthropus), and in Java, the Ape-man (Pithecanthropus). The Piltdown man may represent the very remote, but direct, ancestor of modern man; but the Heidelberg man and the Ape-man were probably divergent 'sports' whose descendants never became men of the modern type.

In structure the gorilla reveals a close kinship with the human family, and was probably derived from a common ancestry which probably differentiated into man's forerunner and the gorilla's in Miocene times. Of existing races the aboriginal Australian is much the most primitive, and represents the survival of the earliest type of _Homo Sapiens_ soon after this species became differentiated from men of the Neanderthal species. The negro, whose home is tropical Africa, is primitive in some respects, but in others is highly specialized. He is distinguished by his black skin, flat nose, prominent jaws and thick everted lips, and so-called 'woolly' or 'pepper-corn' hair. In stature he shows a wider range of variation than any other race, including, as he does, the tallest and the shortest varieties of mankind. The Bushman is a peculiarly distinct racial type now restricted to the deserts of South Africa. Though his skin is yellowish rather than black, he is akin to the negro. The Mongolian race probably assumed its distinctive features, yellowish skin, coarse black hair, and characteristic facial and bodily traits, in Eastern Asia; and the aboriginal population of America was sprung mainly from the less-specialized branch of this race. The so-called white races include three main stocks, a people of short stature, olive complexion, and long heads, the Mediterranean race; a taller people with fair hair and long heads, the Nordic race; and a short, thick-set, black-haired, broad-headed Alpine race, which made its way from Asia into Europe many centuries after the other two chief components of Europe's population. For long ages in every part of the world intermixture has been taking place in varying degrees between the different races of mankind, so that to-day probably no pure race exists. See _Ethnography_, _Ethnology_, _Man_, &c.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Anthropology_; D. G. Brinton, _Races and Peoples_; W. Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_; E. Carpenter, _Anthropology_; G. Elliott Smith, _The Migrations of Early Culture_; H. G. F. Spurrell, _Modern Man and his Forerunners_; _Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques_; _The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain_.