Chapter III: Part 3

ANGELN ([.a]ng'eln), a district in Schleswig of about 300 sq. miles, bounded N. by the Bay of Flensburg, S. by the Schlei, E. by the Baltic, the only continental territory which has retained the name of the Angles.

ANGELO ([.a]n'je-l[=o]), Michael. See _Buonarotti_.

AN'GELUS, in the Roman Catholic Church, a short form of prayer in honour of the incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles and responses, the angelic salutation three times repeated, and a collect, so named from the word with which it commences, '_Angelus_ Domini' (Angel of the Lord). Hence, also, the bell tolled in the morning, at noon, and in the evening to indicate the time when the angelus is to be recited. The prayer is attributed to St. Bonaventura, and in Germany and Italy it is called 'Ave Maria'.

ANGERMANN (ong'er-m[.a]n), a Swedish river which falls into the Gulf of Bothnia, noted for its fine scenery. It is navigable for nearly 70 miles for vessels of 600 tons.

ANGERMUENDE ([.a]ng'er-muen-de), a town in Prussia, on Lake Muende, 42 miles north-east of Berlin. Pop. 8200.

ANGERS ([.a][n.]-zh[=a]), a town and river-port of France, capital of the department of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the province of Anjou, on the banks of the Maine, 5-1/2 miles from the Loire, 150 miles south-west of Paris. It has an old castle, built by Louis IX, once a place of great strength, now used as a prison, barrack, and powder-magazine; a fine cathedral of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with very fine old painted windows; is the seat of a bishop, and has a school of arts and manufactures; a public library, an art-gallery, a large modern hospital, the remains of a hospital founded by Henry II of England in 1155; courts of law, theatre, &c. It manufactures sail-cloth, hosiery, leather, and chemicals; foundries, &c. In the neighbourhood are immense slate-quarries. Pop. 83,786.

ANGEVINS (an'je-vins), natives of Anjou, often applied to the race of English sovereigns called Plantagenets (q.v.). Anjou became connected with England by the marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, with Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou. The Angevin kings of England were Henry II, Richard I, John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II.

ANGILBERT, ST., the most celebrated poet of his age, secretary and friend of Charlemagne, whose daughter, Bertha, he married. In the latter part of his life he retired to a monastery, of which he became abbot. Died 814.

ANGINA PECTORIS (an'ji-na pek'to-ris), or HEART-SPASM, a disease characterized by an extremely acute constriction, felt generally in the lower part of the sternum, and extending along the whole side of the chest and into the corresponding arm, a sense of suffocation, faintness, and apprehension of approaching death: seldom experienced by any but those with organic heart-disease. The disease rarely occurs before middle age, and is more frequent in men than in women. Those liable to attack must lead a quiet, temperate life, avoiding all scenes which would unduly rouse their emotions. The first attack is occasionally fatal, but usually death occurs as the result of repeated seizures. The paroxysm may be relieved by opiates, or the inhalation, under due precaution, of anaesthetic vapours.

ANGIOSPERM (an'ji-o-sp[.e]rm), a term for any plant which has its seeds enclosed in a seed-vessel. Exogens are divided into those whose seeds are enclosed in a seed-vessel, and those with seeds produced and ripened without the production of a seed-vessel. The former are _angiosperms_, and constitute the principal part of the species; the latter are _gymnosperms_, and chiefly consist of the Coniferae and Cycadaceae.

ANGLE, the point where two lines meet, or the meeting of two lines in a point. A _plane rectilineal angle_ is formed by two straight lines which meet one another, but are not in the same straight line; it may be considered the degree of opening or divergence of the two straight lines which thus meet one another. A _right angle_ is an angle formed by a straight line falling on another perpendicularly, or an angle which is measured by an arc of 90 degrees. When a straight line, as A B (fig. 1), standing on another straight line C D, makes the two angles A B C and A B D equal to one another, each of these angles is called a _right angle_. An _acute angle_ is that which is less than a right angle, as E B C. An _obtuse angle_ is that which is greater than a right angle, as E B D. Acute and obtuse angles are both called _oblique_, in opposition to right angles. _Exterior_ or _external angles_, the angles of any rectilineal figure without it, made by producing the sides; thus, if the sides A B, B C, C A of the triangle A B C (fig. 2) be produced to the points F D E, the angles C B F, A C D, B A E are called _exterior_ or _external angles_. A _solid angle_ is that which is made by more than two plane angles meeting in one point and not lying in the same plane, as the angle of a cube. A _spherical angle_ is an angle on the surface of a sphere, contained between the arcs of two great circles which intersect each other.

ANGLER (_Lophius piscatorius_), also from its habits and appearance called FISHING-FROG and SEA-DEVIL, a remarkable fish often found on the British coasts. It is from 3 to 5 feet long; the head is very wide, depressed, with protuberances, and bearing long separate movable tendrils; the mouth is capacious, and armed with formidable teeth. Its voracity is extreme, and it is said to lie concealed in the mud, and attract the smaller fishes within its reach by gently waving the filamentous appendages on its head.

ANGLES, a Low German tribe who in the earliest historical period had their seats in the district about Angeln, in the duchy of Schleswig, and who in the fifth century and subsequently crossed over to Britain along with bands of Saxons and Jutes (and probably Frisians also), and colonized a great part of what from them has received the name of England, as well as a portion of the Lowlands of Scotland. The Angles formed the largest body among the Germanic settlers in Britain, and founded the three kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.

ANGLESEY (ang'gl-s[=e]), or ANGLESEA ('the Angles' Island'), an island and county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait; 20 miles long and 17 miles broad; area, 176,630 acres. The surface is comparatively flat, and the climate is milder than that of the adjoining coast. The chief agricultural products are oats and barley, wheat, rye, potatoes, and turnips. Numbers of cattle and sheep are raised. Anglesey yields a little copper, lead, silver, ochre, &c. The Menai Strait is crossed by a magnificent suspension-bridge, 580 feet between the piers and 100 feet above high-water mark, and also by the great Britannia Tubular Railway Bridge. The chief market-towns are Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni, and Amlweh. The county returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921), 51,695.

ANGLESEY, Henry William Paget, Marquess of, English soldier and statesman, was the eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, and was born in 1768. He was educated at Oxford, and in 1790 entered Parliament as member for the Carnarvon boroughs. In 1793 he entered the army, and in 1794 he took part in the campaign in Flanders under the Duke of York. In 1808 he was sent into Spain with two brigades of cavalry to join Sir John Moore, and in the retreat to Coruna commanded the rear-guard. In 1812 he became, by his father's death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon's escape from Elba he was appointed commander of the British cavalry, and at the battle of Waterloo, by the charge of the heavy brigade, overthrew the Imperial Guard. For his services he was created Marquess of Anglesey. In 1828 he became Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and made himself extremely popular, but was recalled in consequence of favouring Catholic Emancipation. He was again Lord-Lieutenant in 1830, but lost his popularity by his opposition to O'Connell and his instrumentality in the passing of the Irish Coercion Acts; and he quitted office in 1833. From 1846-52 he was Master-General of the Ordnance. He died in 1854.

ANGLICANISM, the term is capable of a wider use, but is usually employed as descriptive of the type of doctrine formulated by the Church of England in the period of the Protestant Reformation. The two most notable formularies of that period are the Confession of Faith, known as the Thirty-nine Articles, which assumed its present shape in 1571, and the Liturgy, known as the Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1559 in what was substantially its present shape. By the Clerical Subscription Act of 1865 assent is required to both Prayer Book and Articles. The Articles are not and never were binding upon laymen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mgr. Moyes, _Aspects of Anglicanism_; F. Y. Kinsman, _Principles of Anglicanism_.

ANGLING, the art of catching fish with a hook or _angle_ (A. Sax. _angel_) baited with worms, small fish, flies, &c. We find occasional allusions to this pursuit among the Greek and Latin classical writers; it is mentioned several times in the Old Testament, and it was practised by the ancient Egyptians. The first reference to angling in England is a passage in a tract, entitled _Piers Fulham_, supposed to have been written about the year 1420. The oldest work on the subject in English is the _Treatyse of Fysshinge with an Angle_, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with a treatise on hunting and hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana Berners or Barnes, prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. Walton's inimitable discourse on angling was first printed in 1653. The chief appliances required by an angler are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods are made of various materials, and of various sizes. The cane rods are lightest, and where fishing-tackle is sold they most commonly have the preference; but in country places the rod is often of the angler's own manufacture. Rods are commonly made in separate joints, so as to be easily taken to pieces and put up again. They are made to taper from the butt end to the top, and are usually possessed of a considerable amount of elasticity. In length they may vary from 10 feet to more than double that length, with a corresponding difference in strength--a rod for salmon being necessarily much stronger than one suited for ordinary burn trout. The _reel_, an apparatus for winding up the line, is attached to the rod near the lower end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. The best are usually made of brass, are of simple construction, and so made as to wind or unwind freely and rapidly. That part of the line which passes along the rod and is wound on the reel is called the _reel line_, and may vary from 20 to 100 yards in length, according to the size of the water and the habits of the fish angled for; it is usually made of twisted horse-hair and silk, or of oiled silk alone. The casting line, which is attached to this, is made of the same materials, but lighter and finer. To the end of this is tied a piece of fine gut, on which the hook, or hooks, are fixed. The casting or gut lines should decrease in thickness from the reel line to the hooks. The hook, of finely-tempered steel, should readily bend without breaking, and yet retain a sharp point. It should be long in the shank and deep in the bend; the point straight and true to the level of the shank; and the barb long. Their sizes and sorts must of course entirely depend on the kind of fish that is angled for. Floats formed of cork, goose and swan quills, &c., are often used to buoy up the hook so that it may float clear of the bottom. For heavy fish or strong streams a cork float is used; in slow water and for lighter fish quill floats. _Baits_ may consist of a great variety of materials, natural or artificial. The principal natural baits are worms: common garden worms, brandlings, and red worms, maggots, or gentles (the larvae of blow-flies such as are found on putrid meat), insects, small fish (as minnows), salmon roe, &c. The artificial flies so much used in angling for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, furs, and wools of every variety, mingled with pieces of feathers, and secured together by plaited wire, or gold and silver thread, marking-silk, wax, &c. The wings may be made of the feathers of domestic fowls, or any others of a showy colour. Some angling authorities recommend that the artificial flies should be made to resemble as closely as possible the insects on which the fish is wont to feed, but experience has shown that the most capricious and unnatural combinations of feather, fur, &c., have been often successful where the most realistic imitations have failed. Artificial minnows, or other small fish, are also used by way of bait, and are so contrived as to spin rapidly when drawn through the water in order to attract the notice of the fish angled for. Angling, especially with the fly, demands a great deal of skill and practice, the casting of the line properly being the initial difficulty. Nowhere is the art pursued with greater success and enthusiasm than in Britain and the United States.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Fishing_ (vol. i), _Salmon and Trout_ (vol. ii), _Pike and Coarse Fish_ (Badminton Library); H. G. Hutchinson, _Fishing_ (2 vols., Country Life series); Viscount Grey, _Fly Fishing_; Gathorne-Hardy, _The Salmon_; Marquess of Granby, _The Trout_; H. T. Sheringham, _Elements of Angling_; W. M. Gallichan, _The Complete Fisherman_.

ANGLO-CATHOLIC, a term sometimes used to designate those churches which hold the principles of the English Reformation, the Anglican or Established Church of England and the allied churches. The term is also applied to that party in the English Church which favours doctrines and religious forms closely approaching those of the Roman Catholic Church, objects to be called Protestant, and corresponds closely with the _Ritualistic_ section of the Church.

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. See _Sudan_.

ANGLO-SAXONS, the name commonly given to the nation or people formed by the amalgamation of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ, the Anglo-Saxons being simply the English people of the earlier period of English history. The tribes who were thus the ancestors of the bulk of the English-speaking nationalities came from North Germany, where they inhabited the parts about the mouths of the Elbe and Weser, and the first body of them who gained a footing in Britain are said to have landed in 449, and to have been led by Hengist and Horsa. From the preponderance of the Angles the whole country came to be called _Engla-land_, that is, the land of the Angles or English.

Many scholars object to the term 'Anglo-Saxon' as being inaccurate and open to misinterpretation. Correctly used, Anglo-Saxon means _English-Saxon_, as distinguished from the Old-Saxon of the Continent; incorrectly used, as it has been too frequently, it is taken as = Angle + Saxon, a union of Angle and Saxon. Camden (1551-1623) is responsible for the widespread use of the term; ignorance is responsible for the misuse. Many scholars prefer to apply the term 'Old English' to the language and people of England before A.D. 1100, partly because this term is more accurate and partly because its use helps to emphasize the essential continuity of the language.

The whole Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken of as consisting of the _eorls_ and the _ceorls_, or the nobles and common freemen. The former were the men of property and position, the latter were the small landholders, handicraftsmen, &c., who generally placed themselves under the protection of some nobleman, who was hence termed their _hlaford_ or lord. Besides these there was the class of the serfs or slaves (_theowas_), who might be either born slaves or freemen who had forfeited their liberty by their crimes, or whom poverty or the fortune of war had brought into this position. They served as agricultural labourers on their masters' estates, and were mere chattels, as absolutely the property of their master as his cattle.

The king (_cyning_, _cyng_) was at the head of the State; he was the highest of the nobles and the chief magistrate. He was not looked upon as ruling by any Divine Right, but by the will of the people, as represented by the _witan_ (wise men) or great council of the nation. The new king was not always the direct and nearest heir of the late king, but one of the royal family whose abilities and character recommended him for the office. He had the right of maintaining a standing army of household troops, the duty of calling together the _witan_, and of laying before them public measures, with certain distinctions of dress, dwelling, &c., all his privileges being possessed and exercised by the advice and consent of the _witena-gemot_ or parliament (literally, 'meeting of the wise'). Next in rank and dignity to the king were the _ealdormen_, who were the chief witan or counsellors, and without whose assent laws could not be made, altered, or abrogated. They were at the head of the administration of justice in the shires, possessing both judicial and executive authority, and had as their officers the _scir-gerefan_ or sheriffs. The ealdormen led the _fyrd_ or armed force of the county, and the ealdorman, as such, held possession of certain lands attached to the office, and was entitled to a share of fines and other moneys levied for the king's use and passing through his hands. The whole executive government may be considered as a great aristocratical association, of which the ealdormen were the members, and the king little more than the president. The ealdorman and the king were both surrounded by a number of followers called _thegnas_ or thanes, who were bound by close ties to their superior. The king's thanes were the higher in rank; they possessed a certain quantity of land, smaller in amount than that of an ealdorman, and they filled offices connected with the personal service of the king or with the administration of justice. The _scir-gerefa_ (shire-reeve or sheriff) was also an important functionary. He presided at the county court along with the ealdorman and bishop, or alone in their absence; and he had to carry out the decisions of the court, levy fines, collect taxes, &c. The shires were divided into hundreds and tithings, the latter consisting of ten heads of families, who were jointly responsible to the State for the good conduct of any member of their body. For the trial and settlement of minor causes there was a hundred court held once a month. The place of the modern Parliament was held by the _witena-gemot_. Its members, who were not elected, comprised the aethelings or princes of the blood royal, the bishops and abbots, the ealdormen, the thanes, the sheriffs, &c.

One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon society was the _wergyld_, which was established for the settling of feuds. A sum, paid either in kind or in money, was placed upon the life of every freeman, according to his rank in the State, his birth, or his office. A corresponding sum was settled for every wound that could be inflicted upon his person; for nearly every injury that could be done to his civil rights, his honour, or his domestic peace, &c. From the operation of this principle no one from king to peasant was exempt.

Agriculture, including especially the raising of cattle, sheep, and swine, was the chief occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Gardens and orchards are frequently mentioned, and vineyards were common in the southern counties. The forests were extensive, and valuable both from the mast they produced for the swine, and from the beasts of the chase which they harboured. Hunting was a favourite recreation among the higher ranks, both lay and clerical. Fishing was largely carried on, herrings and salmon being the principal fish caught; and the Anglo-Saxon whaling vessels used to go as far as Iceland. The manufactures were naturally of small moment. Iron was made to some extent, and some cloth, and saltworks were numerous. In embroidery and working of gold the English were famous over Europe. There was a considerable trade at London, which was frequented by Normans, French, Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse towns. Our Anglo-Saxon forefathers were notorious for their excess in eating and drinking, and in this respect formed a strong contrast to their Norman conquerors. Ale, mead, and cider were the common beverages, wine being limited to the higher classes. Pork and eels were favourite articles of food. The houses were rude structures, but were often richly furnished and hung with fine tapestry. The dress of the people was loose and flowing, composed chiefly of linen, and often adorned with embroidery. The men wore their hair long and flowing over their shoulders. Christianity was introduced among the Anglo-Saxons in the end of the sixth century by St. Augustine, who was sent by Pope Gregory the Great, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Kent, then under King Ethelred, was the first place where it took root, and thence it soon spread over the rest of the country. The Anglo-Saxon Church long remained independent of Rome, notwithstanding the continual efforts of the Popes to bring it under their power. It was not till the tenth century that this result was brought about by Dunstan. Many Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastics were distinguished for learning and ability, but the Venerable Bede holds the first place.

_Anglo-Saxon Language._--The Anglo-Saxon language, which is simply the earliest form of English, claims kinship with Dutch, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and German, especially with the Low German dialects (spoken in North Germany). It was called by those who spoke it _Englisc_ (English). The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature show different dialects, of which the northern and the southern were the principal. The former was the first to be cultivated as a literary language, but afterwards it was supplanted in this respect by the southern or that of Wessex. It is in the latter that the principal Anglo-Saxon works are written. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet was substantially the same as that which we still use, except that some of the letters were different in form, while it had two characters either of which represented the sounds of _th_ in _thy_ and in _thing_. Nouns and adjectives are declined much as in German or in Latin. The pronouns of the first and second person had a dual number, 'we two' or 'us two' and 'you two', besides the plural for more than two. The infinitive of the verb is in _-an_, the participle in _-ende_, and there is a gerund somewhat similar in its usage to the Latin gerund. The verb had four moods--indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, but only two tenses, the present (often used as a future) and the past. Other tenses and the passive voice were formed by auxiliary verbs. Anglo-Saxon words terminated in a vowel much more frequently than the modern English, and altogether the language is so different that it has to be learned quite like a foreign tongue. Yet, notwithstanding the large number of words of Latin or French origin that our language now contains, and the changes it has undergone, its framework, so to speak, is still Anglo-Saxon. Many chapters of the New Testament do not contain more than 4 per cent of non-Teutonic words, and as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7.

The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period, one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to England. The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is the ancient epic of _Beowulf_, extending to more than 6000 lines. Beowulf is a Scandinavian prince, who slays a monster named Grendel, after encountering supernatural perils, and is at last slain in a contest with a frightful dragon. Its scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia. Its date is uncertain; parts of it may have been brought over at the emigration from Germany, though in its present form it is much later than this. The poetical remains include a number of religious poems, or poems on sacred themes; ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of saints and versified chronicles; psalms and hymns; secular lyrics; allegories, gnomic poems, riddles, &c. The religious class of poems was the largest, and of these Caedmon's (flourished about 660) are the most remarkable. His poems consist of paraphrases of considerable portions of the Bible history, and treat of the creation, the temptation, the fall, the exodus of the Israelites, the story of Daniel, the incarnation, and the harrowing of hell, or release of the ransomed souls by Christ. Other most interesting poems are those ascribed to Cynewulf, the _Christ_, _Elene_, and _Juliana_, the subjects respectively being Christ, the finding of the cross by the Empress Helena, and the life of Juliana. Rhyme was not used in Anglo-Saxon poetry, alliteration being employed instead, as in the older northern poetry generally. The style of the poetry is highly elliptical, and it is full of harsh inversions and obscure metaphors.

Ornament on front (left) is formed by means of plates of thin gold and wire, with bosses of ivory and red glass.]

The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of translations of portions of the Bible, homilies, philosophical writings, history, biography, laws, leases, charters, popular treatises on science and medicine, grammars, &c. Many of these were translations from the Latin. The Anglo-Saxon versions of the Gospels, next to the Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest scriptural translations in any modern language. The Psalms are said to have been translated by Bishop Aldhelm (died 709), and also under Alfred's direction; and the _Gospel of St. John_ by Bede; but it is not known who were the authors of the extant versions. A translation of the first seven books of the Bible is believed to have been the work of Aelfric, who was Abbot of Ensham and lived about the beginning of the eleventh century. We have also eighty homilies from his pen, several theological treatises, a Latin grammar, &c. King Alfred was a diligent author, besides being a translator of Latin works. We have under his name translations of Boethius' _De Consolatione Philosophiae_, the _Universal History_ of Orosius, Bede's _Ecclesiastical History_, the _Pastoral Care_ of Gregory the Great, &c. The most valuable to us of the Anglo-Saxon prose writings is the _Saxon Chronicle_, as it is called, a collection of annals recording important events in the history of the country, and compiled in different religious houses. Of this _Chronicle_ there are seven MSS. in existence, and the latest text comes down to 1154. A considerable body of laws remains, as well as a large number of charters. The whole of the literature has never yet been printed. For Anglo-Saxon history, see _England_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: (History) H. M. Chadwick, _The Origin of the English Nation_ (Cambridge); (Language) Sweet, _Anglo-Saxon Primer_ and _Reader_; (Literature) B. ten Brink, _Geschichte der Englischen Litteratur_; Stopford A. Brooke, _English Literature, from the beginning to the Norman Conquest_; Henry Morley, _English Writers_ (vols. i and ii).

ANGLO-SAXON LAW. Series of laws written in the vernacular, and unique among Teutonic peoples, were issued from the seventh century onwards by Aethelberht, Hlothhere, Eadric, and Withraed, Kings of Kent, by Ine, King of Wessex, by Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund, Edgar, Aethelred, and Canute, in addition to a number of important by-laws and regulations of various kinds, which bear no king's name. We hear, also, of laws issued by other kings which have been lost, and there must have been a considerable body of traditional law which was never committed to writing. What laws are extant, show us a society mainly agricultural, divided by birth into a noble, a free peasant, and a servile class. There was also a dependent class in Kent, intermediate between the freeman and the slave. The strongest social ties were those of the kindred, and the relationship between lord and man.

The laws were issued by the king and his councillors. Cases were decided by the production of oaths which varied in value according to the rank of the swearer, or by the several forms of the ordeal. No distinction was made between civil and criminal law, and even homicide could be atoned for by payment of a sum varying according to the social status of the dead man. The object of the laws was to restrict private vengeance, to prevent and punish theft (primarily of cattle), to stop dishonest trading, to secure the persons and residences of the people, to enforce the mutual obligations of relatives, and masters and men, to provide adequate defence for the kingdom by means of garrisoned boroughs and a well-armed mounted infantry, to protect the helpless, and to safeguard the rights of the Church and its servants.

The early laws present considerable difficulty owing to their antiquity. The laws of Aethelberht are the earliest records in the English language, though, like many of the other laws, they are only preserved in a MS. of the twelfth century. The standard edition is Liebermann's _Gesetze der Angelsachsen_ (Halle, A. S. Max Niemeyer).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_; H. M. Chadwick, _Studies in Anglo-Saxon Institutions_.

ANGO'LA, a Portuguese territory in Western Africa, south of the Congo, extending from the sea to Rhodesia, and from about lat. 6deg S. to lat. 17deg S. (area, 484,800 sq. miles; pop. 4,119,000). It is a country of varied features, and its resources, as yet hardly known, are probably very great. The province is rich in malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, and salt; rubber supplies are becoming exhausted. The Coanza (Kwanza) is the largest river. The capital is the seaport of Loanda; other ports are Benguella (or Benguela) and Mossamedes. Three railways now run inland from these places. It exports coffee, hides, gum, rubber, wax, &c.

ANGOLA PEA (_Caj[=a]nus indicus_). See _Pigeon Pea_.

ANGO'NILAND, a district of South Africa, lying to the west of the southern half of Lake Nyassa, and partly in British Central Africa, partly in Rhodesia. It is a plateau with an average height of 4000 feet, the name being derived from the Angoni, a race of mixed Zulu blood, who used to make murderous raids on their neighbours, and have given much trouble to the missionaries and others.

ANGO'RA (ancient, ANCY'RA), a town in Asia Minor, 215 miles E.S.E. of Constantinople, with considerable remains of Byzantine architecture, and relics of earlier times, both Greek and Roman, such as the remnants of the Monumentum Ancyranum, raised in honour of the Emperor Augustus, and giving us much valuable information about his public life and work. All the animals of this region are long haired, especially the goats (see _Goat_), sheep, and cats. This hair forms an important export as well as the fabric called camlet here manufactured from it; other exports being goats' skins, dye-stuffs, gums, honey and wax, &c. A railway connects it with Skutari. Pop. 32,000. In 1920 Kemal Pasha set up a National Government at Angora, and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sevres. A treaty concluded with France was ratified by the Angora Government on 23rd Oct., 1921.

ANGOSTU'RA, or CIUDAD BOLIVAR, a city of Venezuela, capital of the province of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, about 240 miles from the sea, with governor's residence, a college, a handsome cathedral, and a considerable trade, steamers and sailing-vessels ascending to the town. Exports: gold, cotton, indigo, tobacco, coffee, cattle, &c.; imports: manufactured goods, wines, flour, &c. Pop. 17,535.

ANGOSTURA BARK, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly from _Galip[=e]a officin[=a]lis_, a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, growing in the northern regions of South America; nat. ord. Rutaceae. The bark is valuable as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used for a kind of bitters. From this bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes entirely replaced, by the poisonous bark of _Strychnos Nux-Vomica_, its use as a medicine has been almost given up.

ANGOULEME ([.a][n.]-goe-l[=a]m), an ancient town of Western France, capital of department Charente, on the Charente, 60 miles N.N.E. of Bordeaux, on the summit of a rocky hill. It has a fine old cathedral, built in the twelfth century and restored in 1875, a beautiful modern town hall, built in 1858, a lyceum, public library, natural history museum, &c. There are manufactures of paper, woollens, and linens; distilleries, sugar-works, tanneries, &c. Calvin lived here for three years (1527-30). Pop. 38,211.

ANGRA DO HEROISMO, the chief seaport of Terceira, one of the Azores, with the only convenient harbour in the whole group. It has a cathedral, a military college and arsenal, &c., and is the residence of the Governor-General of the Azores, and of the foreign consuls. Pop. 10,057.

ANGRA PEQUENA ([.a]n'gr[.a] pe-k[=a]'n[.a]; Port. 'little bay'), a bay on the coast of former German S.W. Africa, where the Bremen commercial firm Luederitz in 1883 acquired a strip of territory and established a trading station. In 1884, notwithstanding some weak protests of the British, Germany took under her protection the whole coast territory from the Orange River to 26deg S. lat., and soon after extended the protectorate to the Portuguese frontier, but not including the British settlement of Walvis Bay. Angra Pequena, called by the Germans Luederitzbucht, was captured by the South African forces in Sept., 1915. See _South-West Africa_.

ANGRI ([.a]n'gr[=e]), a town of Southern Italy, 12 miles N.W. of Salerno, in the centre of a region which produces grapes, cotton, and tobacco in great quantities. In the vicinity of Angri, Teias, King of the Ostrogoths, was defeated by Narses. Pop. 11,574.

ANGUILLA (an-gwil'la). See _Eel_.

ANGUILLA (ang-gil'a), or SNAKE ISLAND, one of the British West India Islands, 60 miles N.E. of St. Kitts; about 20 miles long, with a breadth varying from 3 to 1 1/4 miles; area, 35 sq. miles. A little sugar, cotton, tobacco, and maize is grown. There is a saline lake in the centre, which yields salt. Pop. 4075, of whom 100 are white.

ANGUIS (ang'gwis). See _Blind-worm_.

ANGUS (ang'gus), a name of Forfarshire.

AN'HALT, formerly a duchy of North Germany, lying partly in the plains of the Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys and uplands of the Lower Harz, and almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; area, 888 sq. miles. All sorts of grain, wheat especially, are grown in abundance; also flax, rape, potatoes, tobacco, hops, and fruit. Excellent cattle are bred. The inhabitants are principally occupied in agriculture, though there are some iron-works and manufactures of woollens, linens, beet-sugar, tobacco, &c. The dukes of Anhalt traced their origin to Bernard (1170-1212), son of Albert the Bear. In time the family split up into numerous branches, and the territory was afterwards held by three dukes (Anhalt-Koethen, Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau). In 1863 the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau became sole heir to the three duchies. The united principality, incorporated in the German Empire, had one vote in the Bundesrath and two in the Reichstag. The executive power, previous to the changes resulting from the European War, was vested in the duke, and the legislative in a Diet of thirty-six members. The reigning duke in 1918 was Eduard, who succeeded his brother on 21st April, 1918. With the outbreak of the revolution in Germany in 1918 Anhalt became a republic, but its status in the German Republic still remains to be determined. Pop. (1919), 331,258, almost all Protestants. The chief towns are Dessau, Bernburg, Koethen, and Zerbst.

AN'HOLT, an island belonging to Denmark, in the Cattegat, midway between Jutland and Sweden, 7 miles long, 4 1/2 broad, largely covered with drift-sand, and surrounded by dangerous banks and reefs. Pop. 300.

ANHY'DRIDE, a chemical term synonymous with acidic oxide (see _Chemistry_) and applied to those oxides which unite with water to form acids. They were formerly called _anhydrous acids_.

ANHY'DRITE, anhydrous sulphate of calcium, a mineral presenting several varieties of structure and colour. The _vulpinite_ of Italy possesses a granular structure, resembling a coarse-grained marble, and is used in sculpture. Its colour is greyish-white, intermingled with blue.

ANI (ae'n[=e]), a ruined city in Armenia, formerly the residence of the Armenian dynasty of the Bagratidae, having in the eleventh century a population of 100,000 and 1000 churches. In the thirteenth century it was taken by the Tartars, and was destroyed by an earthquake in 1319.

ANICHE ([.a]-n[=e]sh), a town or village in the French department Nord, arrondissement Douai, with coal-mines, glass-works, chemical-works, &c. Pop. 6927.

ANIENE ([.a]-n[=e]-[=a]'n[=a]). See _Anio_.

AN'ILINE, C_6H_5NH_2, is an extremely important substance as it forms the starting-point in the preparation of a large number of substances. It was first prepared by Unverdorben, in 1826, by distillation of indigo. Aniline is present in small quantity in coal-tar, and is prepared commercially from benzene by transforming it by means of nitric acid into nitro-benzene and reducing this with scrap-iron and hydrochloric acid. The substance can also be prepared by reducing nitro-benzene electrolytically. It is a liquid of peculiar odour, boiling at 182deg C., colourless when quite pure, but rapidly darkening in colour on standing, so that commercial aniline is usually dark-brown. It is a basic substance, and forms crystalline salts with acids. The salts, like aniline itself, become coloured on exposure to air. Aniline contains the characteristic chemical group NH_2, the amino group, and substances containing this group react with nitrous acid at 0deg C., forming diazonium compounds; these combine readily with phenols, naphthols, and other amino compounds to form azo compounds, highly-coloured compounds many of which are dyes. Many dyes are prepared from aniline, e.g. rosaniline, magenta, methylene blue, aniline blue, &c., also some explosives, e.g. tetranitraniline, which is a powerful explosive prepared by nitrating aniline and the substance tetranitromethylaniline, "tetryl", used in detonators. Several medicinal substances are also prepared from aniline, for instance, antifebrin and atoxyl.

AN'ILISM, aniline poisoning, a name given to the aggregate of symptoms which often show themselves in those employed in aniline works, resulting from the inhalation of aniline vapours. It may be either acute or chronic. In a slight attack of the former kind, the lips, cheeks, and ears become of a bluish colour, and the person's walk may be unsteady; in severe cases there is loss of consciousness. Chronic anilism is accompanied by derangement of the digestive organs and of the nervous system, headaches, eruptions on the skin, muscular weakness, &c.

ANIMAL, an organized and sentient living being. Life in the earlier periods of natural history was attributed almost exclusively to animals. With the progress of science, however, it was extended to plants. In the case of the higher animals and plants there is no difficulty in assigning the individual to one of the two great kingdoms of organic nature, but in their lowest manifestations the vegetable and animal kingdoms are brought into such immediate contact that it becomes almost impossible to assign them precise limits, and to say with certainty where the one begins and the other ends. From _form_ no absolute distinction can be fixed between animals and plants. Many animals, such as the sea-shrubs, sea-mats, &c., so resemble plants in external appearance that they were, and even yet popularly are, looked upon as such. With regard to _internal structure_ no line of demarcation can be laid down, all plants and animals being, in this respect, fundamentally similar; that is, alike composed of molecular, cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither are the chemical characters of animal and vegetable substances more distinct. Animals contain in their tissues and fluids a larger proportion of nitrogen than plants, whilst plants are richer in carbonaceous compounds than the former. In some animals, moreover, substances almost exclusively confined to plants are found. Thus the outer wall of the Sea-squirts contains _cellulose_, a substance largely found in plant-tissues; whilst _chlorophyll_, the colouring-matter of plants, occurs in Hydra and many other lower animals. _Power of motion_, again, though broadly distinctive of animals, cannot be said to be absolutely characteristic of them. Thus many animals, as oysters, sponges, corals, &c., in their mature condition are rooted or fixed, while the embryos of many plants, together with numerous fully-developed forms, are endowed with locomotive power by means of vibratile, hair-like processes called cilia. The distinctive points between animals and plants which are most to be relied on are those derived from the _nature and mode of assimilation of the food_. Plants feed on _inorganic matters_, consisting of water, ammonia, carbonic acid, and mineral matters. They can only take in food which is presented to them in a _liquid_ or _gaseous_ state. The exceptions to these rules are found chiefly in the case of plants which live _parasitically_ on other plants or animals, in which cases the plant may be said to feed on organic matters, represented by the juices of their hosts. Animals, on the contrary, require _organized_ matters for food. They feed either upon plants or upon other animals. But even carnivorous animals can be shown to be dependent upon plants for subsistence; since the animals upon which Carnivora prey are in their turn supported by plants. Animals, further, can subsist on _solid_ food in addition to liquids and gases; but many animals (such as the Tapeworms) live by the mere imbibition of fluids which are absorbed by their tissues, such forms possessing no distinct digestive system. Animals require a due supply of _oxygen gas_ for their sustenance, this gas being used in respiration. Plants, on the contrary, require _carbonic acid_. The animal exhales or gives out carbonic acid as the part result of its tissue-waste, whilst the plant, taking in this gas, is enabled to decompose it into its constituent carbon and oxygen. The plant retains the former for the uses of its economy, and liberates the oxygen, which is thus restored to the atmosphere for the use of the animal. Animals receive their food into the interior of their bodies, and assimilation takes place in their internal surfaces. Plants, on the other hand, receive their food into their external surfaces, and assimilation is effected in the external parts, as is exemplified in the leaf-surfaces under the influence of sunlight. Cf. T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, _Text-Book of Zoology_; _Cambridge Natural History_.

ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. See _Chemistry_.

ANIMALCULE (an-i-mal'k[=u]l), a general name given to many forms of animal life from their minute size. The larger examples are just visible to the naked eye, but most of them are strictly microscopic. Some are pigmented, but the majority are colourless. The term is not applicable to a particular zoological type, but it is customary to confine it to the 'Protozoa', 'Rotifera', or 'Wheel Animalcules'.

ANIMAL HEAT. All animals possess a certain amount of heat or temperature which is necessary for the performance of vital action. The only classes of animals in which a constantly-elevated temperature is kept up are birds and mammals. The bodily heat of the former varies from 39.4deg to 43.9deg C., and of the latter from 35.5deg to 40.5deg C. The mean or average heat of the human body is about 99deg F., and it never falls much below this in health. Below birds, animals are named 'cold-blooded', this term meaning in its strictly-physiological sense that their temperature is usually that of the medium in which they live, and that it varies with that of the surrounding medium. The temperature of 'warm-blooded' animals is remarkably constant, although there are individual variations. In man this variation is slight, amounting only to fractions of a degree. The cause of the evolution of heat in the animal body is referred to the union (by a process resembling ordinary combustion) of the carbon and hydrogen of the system with the oxygen taken in from the air in the process of respiration.

ANIMAL MAGNETISM. See _Hypnotism_, _Mesmer_.

ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO, an offence against which societies have been formed and laws passed in England and other countries. According to English law, if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, overdrive, abuse, or torture any domestic animal, he shall forfeit a sum not exceeding L5 for every such offence. Bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the like are also prohibited. Provision is also made for the punishment of persons unlawfully and maliciously killing, maiming, or wounding cattle, dogs, birds, beasts, and other animals.

ANIMAL WORSHIP, a practice found to prevail, or to have prevailed, in the most widely-distant parts of the world, both the Old and the New, but nowhere to such an amazing extent as in ancient Egypt, notwithstanding its high civilization. Nearly all the more important animals found in the country were regarded as sacred in some part of Egypt, and the degree of reverence paid to them was such that throughout Egypt the killing of a hawk or an ibis, whether voluntary or not, was punished with death. The worship, however, was not, except in a few instances, paid to them as actual deities. The animals were merely regarded as sacred to the deities, and the worship paid to them was symbolical.

AN'IMA MUN'DI. See _Pantheism_.

ANIME (an'i-me), a resin obtained from the trunk of an American tree (_Hymenaea Courbaril_). It is of a transparent amber colour, has a light, agreeable smell, and is soluble in alcohol. It strongly resembles copal, and, like it, is used in making varnishes. See _Copal_.

AN'IMISM, the system of medicine propounded by Stahl, and based on the idea that the soul (_anima_) is the seat of life. In modern usage the term is applied to express the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings, and especially to the tendency, common among savage races, to attribute souls or spirits to inanimate things, and to explain phenomena not due to obvious natural causes by attributing them to spiritual agency. Amongst the beliefs of animism is that of a human apparitional soul, bearing the form and appearance of the body, and living after death a sort of semi-human life.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_; Andrew Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_.

ANIO (now ANI[=E]NE or TEVER[=O]NE), a river in Italy, a tributary of the Tiber, which it enters from the east a short distance above Rome, renowned for the natural beauties of the valley through which it flows, and for the remains of ancient buildings there situated, as the villas of Maecenas and the Emperor Hadrian.

ANISE (an'is; _Pimpinella An[=i]sum_), an annual plant of the nat. ord. Umbelliferae, a native of Eastern Asia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean coasts, and cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, Malta, &c., whence the fruit, popularly called _aniseed_, is imported. This fruit is ovate, with ten narrow ribs, between which are oil-vessels. It has an aromatic smell, and is largely employed to flavour liqueurs (aniseed or anisette), sweetmeats, &c. _Star-anise_ is the fruit of an evergreen Asiatic tree (_Illicium anis[=a]tum_), nat. ord. Magnoliaceae, and is brought chiefly from China. Its flavour is similar to that of anise, and it is used for the same purposes. An essential oil is obtained from both kinds of anise, and is used for scenting soaps and in the preparation of cordials.

ANJOU ([.a][n.]-zhoe), an ancient province of France, now forming the department of Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the departments of Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe; area, about 3000 sq. miles. In 1060 the province passed into the hands of the House of Gatinais, of which sprang Count Godfrey V, who, in 1127, married Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, and so became the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings. Anjou remained in the possession of the English kings up to 1204, when John lost it to the French king Philip Augustus. In 1226 Louis VIII bestowed this province on his brother Charles; but in 1328 it was reunited to the French Crown. John I raised it to the rank of a duchy, and gave it to his son Louis. Henceforth it remained separate from the French Crown till 1480, when it fell to Louis XI.

ANKARSTROEM ([.a]n'k[.a]r-streum), Jan Jakob, the murderer of Gustavus III of Sweden, was born about 1762, and was at first a page in the Swedish Court, afterwards an officer in the royal bodyguard. He was a strenuous opponent of the sovereign's measures to restrict the privileges of the nobility, and joined Counts Horn and Ribbing in a plot to assassinate Gustavus. The assassination took place on 15th March, 1792. Ankarstroem was tried, tortured, and executed in April, dying boasting of his deed.

ANKER, an obsolete measure used in Britain for spirits, beer, &c., containing 8-1/2 imperial gallons. A measure of similar capacity was used in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.

AN'KLAM, a town in Prussia, province of Pomerania, 47 miles north-west of Stettin, on the River Peene, which is here navigable. Shipbuilding, woollen and cotton manufactures, soap-boiling, tanning, &c., are carried on. Pop. 15,280.

ANKO'BAR, or ANKO'BER, a town in Abyssinia, former capital of Shoa, on a steep conical hill 8200 feet high. Pop. 2000.

ANKYLO'SIS, or ANCHYLO'SIS, stiffness of the joints caused by a more or less complete coalescence of the bones through ossification, often the result of inflammation or injury. False ankylosis is stiffness of a joint when the disease is not in the joint itself, but in the tendinous and muscular parts by which it is surrounded.

ANKYLOSTOMI'ASIS, a 'worm disease' to which miners are subject in some localities, is caused by vast numbers of small parasitic worms (_Ankylostoma_ or _Anchylostoma duodenale_) in the duodenum or upper portions of the intestinal canal. Deriving their sustenance from the system, these worms produce anaemia or bloodlessness (that is, deficiency of the red corpuscles of the blood), the sufferers being pallid, feeble, short-breathed, liable to faint, and unequal to any laborious work, and death may result if a cure is not effected. Fortunately the disease is not difficult to cure if the remedies are applied--remedies such as will expel the worms from the intestine. The disease is said to be common in tropical and sub-tropical countries all over the world. In Europe it was perhaps first observed in 1879 in the case of workmen engaged in excavating the St. Gothard tunnel. Since 1896 it has been well known in some of the German mines; and in 1903 it was detected among the miners engaged in the Dolcoath mine in Cornwall. The eggs of the worms are carried from the body with the faeces; under favourable circumstances they develop into larvae, which may gain entrance again into the human body by the mouth (perhaps in drinking-water), to attain full development in the intestine. Careful sanitary arrangements are a preventive of the disease, which is also known as 'miner's worm', 'miner's anaemia', &c.

ANN, or ANNAT, in Scottish law, the half-year's stipend of a living, after the death of the clergyman, payable to his family or next of kin. The right to the ann is not vested in the clergyman himself, but in his representatives; and, accordingly, it can neither be disposed of by him nor attached for his debts.

ANNA, an Anglo-Indian money of account, the sixteenth part of a rupee, and of the value of one penny; it is divided into four pice.

AN'NABERG, a town in Saxony, 47 miles south-west of Dresden. Mining (for silver, cobalt, iron, &c.) is carried on, and there are manufactures of lace, ribbons, fringes, buttons, &c. Pop. 17,025.

ANNA COMNE'NA, daughter of Alexius I, Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. She was born 1083, and died 1148. After her father's death she endeavoured to secure the succession for her husband, Nicephorus Briennius, but was baffled by his want of energy and ambition. She wrote (in Greek) a life of her father Alexius (_The Alexiad_, a work in fifteen books). She is a character in Sir Walter Scott's _Count Robert of Paris_.

ANNA IVANOV'NA, Empress of Russia, born in 1693, the daughter of Ivan, the elder half-brother of Peter the Great. She was married in 1710 to the Duke of Courland, in the following year was left a widow, and in 1730 ascended the throne of the tsars on the condition proposed by the senate, that she would limit the absolute power of the tsars, and do nothing without the advice of the council composed of the leading members of the Russian aristocracy. But no sooner had she ascended the throne than she declared her promise null, and proclaimed herself autocrat of all the Russias. She chose as her favourite Ernest John von Biren or Biron, who was soon all-powerful in Russia, and ruled with great severity. Several of the leading nobles were executed, and many thousand men exiled to Siberia. In 1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose Biren as their duke, and nominated him at her death regent of the empire during the minority of Prince Ivan (of Brunswick). Anna died in 1740. See _Biren_.

AN'NALS, a history of events in chronological order, each event being recorded under the year in which it occurred. The name is derived from the first annual records of the Romans, which were called _ann[=a]les pontificum_ or _ann[=a]les max[)i]mi_, drawn up by the _pontifex maximus_ (chief pontiff). The practice of keeping such annals was afterwards adopted also by various private individuals, as by Fabius Pictor, Calpurnius Piso, and others. The name hence came to be applied in later times to historical works in which the matter was treated with special reference to chronological arrangement, as to the _Annals_ of Tacitus.