Chapter V: Part 5

ANTHROPOM'ETRY, the systematic examination of the height, weight, and other physical characteristics of the human body. It was shown in the British Association Report of 1888 that variations in stature, weight, and complexion, existing in different districts of the British islands, are chiefly due to difference of racial origin.

The Scotch male adults stand first in height (68.71 inches), the Irish second (67.90 inches), the English third (67.66 inches), and the Welsh last (66.66 inches). In weight the Scotch take the first place (165.3 lb.), the Welsh the second (158.3 lb.), the English the third (155.0 lb.), and the Irish the last (154.1 lb.). The average height of adult females is 4.71 inches less than the male average, and their average weight 32.2 lb. under that of the males. The average height of the adult males of the principal races or nationalities of the world may be given as under; but it is acknowledged that more numerous measurements might alter some of the figures considerably: Polynesians 69.33 inches, Patagonians 69 inches, Negroes of the Congo 69 inches, Scotch 68.71 inches, Iroquois Indians 68.28 inches, Irish 67.90 inches, United States (whites) 67.67 inches, English 67.66 inches, Norwegians 67.66 inches, Zulus 67.19 inches, Welsh 66.66 inches, Danes 66.65 inches, Dutch 66.62 inches, American Negroes 66.62 inches, Hungarians 66.58 inches, Germans 66.54 inches, Swiss 66.43 inches, Belgians 66.38 inches, French 66.23 inches, Berbers 66.10 inches, Arabs 66.08 inches, Russians 66.04 inches, Italians 66 inches, Spaniards 65.66 inches, Esquimaux 65.10 inches, Papuans 64.78 inches, Hindus 64.76 inches, Chinese 64.17 inches, Poles 63.87 inches, Finns 63.60 inches, Japanese 63.11 inches, Peruvians 63 inches, Malays 62.34 inches, Lapps 59.2 inches, Bosjesmans 52.78 inches. General average, 65.25 inches.

ANTHROPOMOR'PHISM, the representation or conception of the Deity under a human form, or with human attributes and affections. _Anthropomorphism_ is based upon the natural inaptitude of the human mind for conceiving spiritual things except through sensuous images, and in its consequent tendency to accept such expressions as those of Scripture when it speaks of the eye, the ear, and the hand of God, of his seeing and hearing, of his remembering and forgetting, of his making man in his own image, &c., in a too literal sense. In a general sense anthropomorphism is the assumption of man that his own characteristics are present in beings or things widely different from himself, more particularly in forces of nature and gods. The term is, therefore, also applied to that doctrine which attributes to animals mental faculties of the same nature as those of man, though much lower in degree: strictly called _biological anthropomorphism_, to distinguish it from anthropomorphism proper, or _theological anthropomorphism_. Cf. E. Caird, _Evolution of Religion_; J. R. Illingworth, _Personality, Human and Divine_.

ANTHROPOPH'AGI, man-eaters, cannibals. Cannibalism was practised in very ancient times; and though some peoples, as the New Zealanders and Fijians, have given it up in recent times, it is still practised over a wide area in Central Africa, where human flesh is a common article of food. Superstitious ideas are often associated with cannibalism among those who practise it. The Caribs were cannibals at the time of the Spanish conquest, and the word 'cannibal' is derived from their name. See _Cannibalism_.

ANTHUS. See _Pipit_.

ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNS are guns so mounted that they may be pointed upward to fire directly against objects in the air. During the European War these guns, fitted with special appliances and ammunition, were used for defence against air-raids of the enemy, against Zeppelins and Gothas. The anti-aircraft guns are of various types, ranging from light machine-guns up to batteries of 3-inch and 6-inch guns. Some of them have brought down enemy machines flying at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet.

ANTIBES ([.a][n.]-t[=e]b) (ancient ANTIPOLIS), a fortified town and seaport of France, department Alpes-Maritimes, on the Mediterranean, 11 miles S.S.W. of Nice; founded about 340 B.C. Pop. 12,198.

ANTI-BURGHER SYNOD, a section of the Scottish Secession Church, which held its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam Gib on 10th April, 1747. It was formed in consequence of a breach resulting from a controversy respecting the religious clause of the oath taken by burgesses in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth. Those in favour of the oath were designated Burghers, whilst their opponents, who condemned the oath of the burgesses, became known as Anti-burghers. The union of the burgher and anti-burgher sections was brought about in 1820 through the exertions of John Jamieson, minister at the Anti-burgher Church in Nicholson Street, Edinburgh. See _United Free Church of Scotland_.

AN'TICHLOR, the name given to any chemical substance, such as hyposulphite of sodium, employed to remove the small quantity of chlorine which obstinately adheres to the fibres of the cloth when goods are bleached by means of chlorine.

AN'TICHRIST, a word occurring in the first and second _Epistles of St. John_, and nowhere else in Scripture, in passages having an evident reference to a personage real or symbolical mentioned or alluded to in various other passages both of the Old and New Testaments. The _idea itself_, however, of Antichrist can be traced back to the second century B.C., and appears first of all in the _Book of Daniel_. In every age the Church has held through all its sects some definite expectation of a formidable adversary of truth and righteousness prefigured under this name. Thus Roman Catholics have found Antichrist in heresy, and Protestants in Romanism. In one point the sects have generally been agreed, namely, in regarding the various intimations on this subject in the Old and New Testaments as a homogeneous declaration or warning, inspired by the spirit of prophecy, of danger to the true religion from some disaffection and revolt organized in the latter days by Satan. Most modern critics take a different view of the matter. They do not regard the various Scriptural writers who have dealt with this subject as having had any common inspiration or design. They believe that each writer from his own point of view, guided by mere human sagacity, gives expression in his predictions to his own individual apprehensions, or narrates as prediction what he already knows. Originally Antichrist is nothing else than the incarnate devil, and the idea of the battle of God with a human opponent, endowed with devilish wickedness, arose under the influence of historical conditions. It is the near political horizon which suggests the danger, or contemporary history the substance of the prophecy; thus the Antichrist of Daniel is Antiochus Epiphanes, that of St. John Nero, that of St. Paul some adversary of Christianity about to appear in the time of the Emperor Claudius.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Baring-Gould, _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_; W. Bousset, _Antichrist_.

ANTICLI'MAX, a sudden declension of a writer or speaker from lofty to mean thoughts or language, as in the well-known lines, quoted in Pope's _Martinus Scriblerus on the Art of Sinking in Poetry_ as from an anonymous author:

And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war,
Lieutenant-colonel to the Earl of Mar.

Pope, Addison, and Fielding were masters in this art of sudden descent.

ANTICLI'NAL LINE OR AXIS, in geology, the ridge of a wave-like curve made by a series of superimposed strata, the strata dipping from it on either side as from the ridge of a house: a _synclinal line_ runs along the trough of such a wave.

ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association formed in England in 1836 to procure the repeal of the laws regulating or forbidding the importation of corn. The object of the league was attained in 1846.

ANTICOS'TI, an island of Canada, in the mouth of the St. Lawrence, 125 miles long by 30 miles broad. The interior is mountainous and wooded, but there is much good land, and it is well adapted for agriculture.

ANTICY'CLONE, a phenomenon presenting some features opposite to those of a cyclone. It consists of a region of high barometric pressure, the pressure being greatest in the centre, with light winds flowing outwards from the centre, and not inwards as in the cyclone, accompanied with great cold in winter and with great heat in summer.

ANTICYRA (an-tis'i-ra), the name of two towns of Greece, the one in Thessaly, the other in Phocis, famous for hellebore, which in ancient times was regarded as a specific against insanity and melancholy. Hence various jocular allusions in ancient writers (_Naviga Anticyram_, sail to Anticyra).

AN'TIDOTE, a medicine to counteract the effects of poison.

ANTIETAM (an-t[=e]'tam), a small stream in the United States which falls into the Potomac about 50 miles N.W. of Washington; scene of an indecisive battle between the Federal and Confederate armies, 17th Sept., 1862.

ANTI-FEDERALISTS, the political party in the United States which after the formation of the Federal constitution in 1787 opposed its ratification. Whilst the Federalists were striving to turn the federation into a united nation, and stood for a strong Government and centralizing tendencies, their opponents, the Anti-Federalists, either more democratic, or pretending that a strong Government meant a 'disguised' monarchic power, endeavoured to preserve a loose disintegrated federation. The Anti-Federalist party was gradually transformed into the Democratic-Republican party, led by Jefferson.

ANTIFRICTION METAL, a name given to various alloys of tin, zinc, copper, antimony, lead, &c., which oppose little resistance to motion, with great resistance to the effects of friction, so far as concerns the wearing away of the surfaces of contact. Babbitt's metal (50 parts tin, 5 antimony, 1 copper) is one of them.

ANTIGONE (an-tig'o-n[=e]), in Greek mythology, the daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta, celebrated for her devotion to her brother Polynices, for burying whom against the decree of King Creon she suffered death. She is the heroine of Sophocles' _Oedipus at Colonus_ and his _Antigone_; also of Racine's tragedy _Les Freres Ennemis_.

ANTIG'ONISH, a town in the E. of Nova Scotia, in county of the same name; the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with a cathedral, a college, and a good harbour. Pop. 1787.

ANTIG'ONUS, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, born about 382 B.C. In the division of the empire, after the death of Alexander, Antigonus obtained Greater Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia as his dominion. But he soon managed to extend his power, being assisted by his warlike son, Demetrius Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s. Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus, who had also been generals of Alexander, alarmed by his ambition, united themselves against him; and a long series of contests ensued in Syria, Phoenicia, Asia Minor, and Greece, ending in 301 B.C. with the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in which Antigonus was defeated and slain, his dominions being divided among the conquerors.

ANTIGONUS GON'ATAS, son of Demetrius Poliorc[=e]t[=e]s, and grandson of the above, succeeded his father in the kingdom of Macedon and all his other European dominions, but did not obtain actual possession of them for some years. He died, after a reign of forty-four years, 239 B.C.

ANTIGUA (an-t[=e]'gwa), one of the British West Indies, the most important of the Leeward group; 28 miles long, 20 broad; area, 108 sq. miles. Its shores are high and rocky, and much indented by creeks and inlets furnishing several good harbours. The surface is diversified by hill and dale, but nowhere rises to a greater height than 1500 feet. A considerable portion of it is fertile, and the climate is healthy, but there is a scarcity of water, there being no streams and few springs, droughts are not infrequent, and hurricanes are apt to cause serious loss and damage. Chief products are sugar, cotton, and pineapples. The island has fairly good shipping connections with the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. Antigua is governed as a crown colony, the Islands of Barbuda and Redonda being attached to it. The capital, St. John, the residence of the governor of the Leeward Islands, stands on the shore of a well-sheltered harbour in the north-west part of the island. Falmouth (English Harbour) in the south has also an excellent harbour with a dockyard. The island was discovered by Columbus in 1493; the first settlement was made by the English in 1632. Since then, except for a short period of occupation by the French, it has been a British possession. Pop. 32,269 (1911).

ANTI-JAC'OBIN, a famous magazine (1797-1818), the original object of which was to satirize the Jacobin principles of the Fox section of Whigs; principal contributors: Gifford, Canning, Frere, and Ellis.

ANTI-LEBANON, the eastern of the two parallel ranges known as the Mountains of Lebanon in Palestine. See _Lebanon_.

ANTILEGOM'ENA (things spoken against or objected to), a term applied by early Christian writers to the _Epistle to the Hebrews_, 2 _Peter_, _James_, _Jude_, 2 and 3 _John_, and the _Apocalypse_, which, though read in the churches, were not for some time received into the canon of Scripture.

ANTILLES (an-til'[=e]z), another name for the West Indian Islands (excluding Bahamas). See _West Indies_.

ANTILOCHUS (an-til'o-kus), in Greek legend, a son of Nestor, distinguished among the younger heroes who took part in the Trojan War by beauty, bravery, and swiftness of foot. He was slain by Memnon, but Achilles avenged his death.

ANTIMACASS'AR, a covering for chairs, sofas, couches, &c., made of open cotton or worsted work, to preserve them from being soiled, as by the oil applied to the hair.

ANTIMACHUS (an-tim'a-kus), a Greek poet who lived about 400 B.C., and wrote an epic called the _Thebais_ on the mythical history of Thebes, and a long elegy called _Lyd[=e]_, inspired by a mistress or wife of that name. Both works were full of mythological details. Only fragments of his writings remain, and from these it can be gathered that his style was rather laboured and artificial. Yet the Alexandrian grammarians ranked him next to Homer.

AN'TIMONY (chemical symbol, Sb, from Lat. _stibium_; sp. gr. 6.7, atomic wt. 120.2), a brittle metal of a bluish-white or silver-white colour and a crystalline or laminated structure. It melts at 630.6deg C., and burns with a bluish-white flame. The mineral called stibnite or antimony-glance, is a tri-sulphide (Sb_2S_3), and is the chief ore from which the metal is obtained. It is found in many places, including France, Spain, Hungary, Italy, Canada, Australia, and Borneo. The metal, or, as it was formerly called, the _regulus of antimony_, does not rust or tarnish when exposed to the air. When alloyed with other metals it hardens them, and is therefore used in the manufacture of alloys, such as Britannia-metal, type-metal, and pewter. In bells it renders the sound more clear; it renders tin more white and sonorous as well as harder, and gives to printing types more firmness and smoothness. The salts of antimony are very poisonous. The protoxide is the active base of tartar emetic and James's powder, and is justly regarded as a most valuable remedy in many diseases.--_Yellow antimony_ is a preparation of antimony of a deep yellow colour, used in enamel and porcelain painting. It is of various tints, and the brilliancy of the brighter hues is not affected by foul air.

ANTINO'MIANISM ('opposition to the law'), the name given by Luther to the inference drawn by John Agricola (1492-1566), from the doctrine of justification by faith, that the moral law is not binding on Christians as a rule of life. The term antinomian has since been applied to all doctrines and practices which seem to contemn or discountenance strict moral obligations. The Lutherans and Calvinists have both been charged with antinomianism, the former on account of their doctrine of justification by faith, the latter both on this ground and that of the doctrine of predestination. The charge is, of course, vigorously repelled by both.

ANTIN'OMY, the opposition of one law or rule to another law or rule; in the Kantian philosophy, that natural contradiction which results from the law of reason, when, passing the limits of experience, we seek to conceive the complex of external phenomena, or nature, as a world or cosmos.

ANTINOUS (an-tin'o-us), a young Bithynian whom the extravagant love of Hadrian has immortalized. He drowned himself in the Nile in A.D. 122. Hadrian set no bounds to his grief for his loss. He gave his name to a newly-discovered star, erected temples in his honour, called a city after him, and caused him to be adored as a god throughout the empire. Statues, busts, &c., of him are numerous.

ANTIOCH (an'ti-ok), a town in Syria, famous in ancient times as the capital of the Greek Kings of Syria, on the left bank of the Orontes, about 21 miles from the sea, in a beautiful and fertile plain. It was founded by Seleucus Nicator in 300 B.C., and named after his father Antiochus. In Roman times it was the seat of the Syrian governors, and the centre of a widely-extended commerce. It was called the 'Queen of the East' and 'The Beautiful'. Antioch is frequently mentioned in the New Testament, and it was here that the disciples of our Saviour were first called Christians (_Acts_, xi, 26). In the first half of the seventh century it was taken by the Saracens, and in 1098 by the Crusaders. They established the principality of Antioch, of which the first ruler was Bohemond, and which lasted till 1268, when it was taken by the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. In 1516 it passed into the hands of the Turks. The modern Antioch, or _Antakieh_, has recently grown from a small place to a flourishing town. Pop. estimated at 30,000.--There was another Antioch, in Pisidia, at which St. Paul preached on his first missionary journey.

ANTIOCHUS (an-t[=i]'o-kus), a name of several Graeco-Syrian kings of the dynasty of the Seleuc[)i]dae.--ANTIOCHUS I, called _S[=o]t[=e]r_ ('saviour'), was the son of Seleucus, general of Alexander the Great, and founder of the dynasty. He was born about 324 B.C., and succeeded his father in 280 B.C. During the greater part of his reign he was engaged in a protracted struggle with the Gauls who had crossed from Europe, and by whom he was killed in battle, 261 B.C.--ANTIOCHUS II, surnamed _Theos_ (god), succeeded his father, lost several provinces by revolt, and was murdered in 246 B.C. by Laodic[=e], his wife, whom he had put away to marry Beren[=i]c[=e], daughter of Ptolemy.--ANTIOCHUS III, surnamed the _Great_, grandson of the preceding, was born 242 B.C., succeeded in 223 B.C. The early part of his reign embraced a series of wars against revolted provinces and neighbouring kingdoms, his expeditions extending to India, over Asia Minor, and afterwards into Europe, where he took possession of the Thracian Chersonese. Here he encountered the Romans, who had conquered Philip V of Macedon, and were prepared to resist his further progress. Antiochus gained an important adviser in Hannibal, who had fled for refuge to his Court; but he lost the opportunity of an invasion of Italy while the Romans were engaged in war with the Gauls, of which the Carthaginian urged him to avail himself. The Romans defeated him by sea and land, and he was finally overthrown by Scipio at Mount Sip[)y]lus, in Asia Minor, 190 B.C., and very severe terms were imposed upon him. He was killed while plundering a temple in Elymais to procure money to pay the Romans.--ANTIOCHUS IV, called _Epiph[)a]nes,_ youngest son of the above, is chiefly remarkable for his attempt to extirpate the Jewish religion, and to establish in its place the polytheism of the Greeks. This led to the insurrection of the Maccabees, by which the Jews ultimately recovered their independence. He died 164 B.C.

ANTIOQUIA ([.a]n-t[=e]-[=o]-k[=e]'[.a]), a town of South America, in Colombia, on the River Cauca; founded in 1542. Pop. 8730. It gives name to a department of the republic; area, 22,752 sq. miles. Pop. 739,434. Capital, Medellin.

ANTIP'AROS (ancient, OLI[)A]ROS), one of the Cyclades Islands in the Grecian Archipelago, containing a famous stalactitic grotto or cave. It lies south-west of Paros, from which it is separated by a narrow strait, and has an area of 10 sq. miles, and about 700 inhabitants.

ANTIP'ATER, a general and friend of Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great. On the death of Alexander, in 323 B.C., the regency of Macedonia was assigned to Antipater, who succeeded in establishing the Macedonian rule in Greece on a firm footing. He died 317 B.C., at an advanced age.

ANTIP'ATHY, a special dislike exhibited by individuals to particular objects or persons, usually resulting from physical or nervous organization. An antipathy is often an unaccountable repugnance to what people in general regard with no particular dislike, as certain sounds, smells, articles of food, &c., and it may be manifested by fainting or extreme discomfort.

ANTIPHLOGIS'TIC, a term applied to medicines or methods of treatment that are intended to counteract inflammation, such as bloodletting, purgatives, diaphoretics, &c.

AN'TIPHON, a Greek orator, born near Athens; founder of political oratory in Greece. His orations are the oldest extant, and he is said to have been the first who wrote speeches for hire. He was put to death for taking part in the revolution of 411 B.C., which established the oligarchic government of the Four Hundred. Antiphon seems to have specialized in homicide cases; his most celebrated speech is _On the Murder of Herodas_. Cf. Sir R. C. Jebb, _Attic Orators_; J. F. Dobson, _The Greek Orators_.

ANTIPHON, or ANTIPH'ONY ('alternate song'), in the Christian Church a verse first sung by a single voice, and then repeated by the whole choir; or any piece to be sung by alternate voices.

ANTIPODES (an-tip'o-d[=e]z), the name given relatively to people or places on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from one to the other passes through the centre of the earth and forms a true diameter. The longitudes of two such places differ by 180deg. The difference in their time is about twelve hours, and their seasons are reversed.

ANTIPODES ISLANDS, a group of small uninhabited islands in the South Pacific Ocean, about 460 miles S.E. by E. of New Zealand; so called from being nearly antipodal to Greenwich. Antipodes Island rises to 1300 feet, and is largely covered with coarse grass; huts have been fitted up to shelter castaways.

AN'TIPOPE, the name applied to those who at different periods have produced a schism in the Roman Catholic Church by opposing the authority of the Pope, under the pretence that they were themselves Popes. The Roman Church cannot admit that there ever existed two Popes; but the fact is, that in several cases the competitors for the papal chair were equally Popes; that is to say, the claims of all were equally good. Each was frequently supported by whole nations, and the schism was nothing but the struggle of political interests. Twenty-nine antipopes are enumerated in Church history; the last of them is Felix V, 1439-49.

ANTIPYRET'ICS, medicines given for the purpose of reducing fever by lowering the patient's temperature, whether by causing perspiration or otherwise. Quinine, antipyrin, phenacetin, are common antipyretics. An aperient or purgative often serves the same purpose.

ANTIPY'RIN, a drug obtained from coal-tar products, valuable in reducing fever and in relieving pain, being much used in nervous headache and neuralgia.

AN'TIQUARIES, those devoted to the study of ancient times through their relics, as old places of burial, remains of ancient habitations, early monuments, implements or weapons, statues, coins, medals, paintings, inscriptions, books, and manuscripts, with the view of arriving at a knowledge of the relations, modes of living, habits, and general condition of the people who created or employed them. Societies or associations of antiquaries have been formed in all countries of European civilization. In Britain the Society of Antiquaries of London was founded in 1572, revived in 1717. and incorporated in 1751. The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland was founded in 1780, incorporated in 1783, and has the management of a large national antiquarian museum in Edinburgh. One of the best-known antiquarian societies in Europe is the _Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord_ at Copenhagen.

ANTIQUES (an-t[=e]ks'), a term specifically applied to the remains of ancient art, as statues, paintings, vases, cameos, and the like, and more especially to the works of Grecian and Roman antiquity.

ANTIRRHINUM (an-ti-r[=i]'num) (from _anti_, instead of, and _rhis_, snout), a genus of annual or perennial plants of the nat. ord. Scrophulariaceae, commonly known as _snapdragon_, on account of the peculiarity of the blossoms, which, by pressing between the finger and thumb, may be made to open and shut like a mouth. They all produce showy flowers, and are much cultivated in gardens. Many varieties of some of them, such as the great or common snapdragon (_Antirrhinum majus_), have been produced by gardeners. The lesser snapdragon grows in sandy soil, and is found in cornfields in the south of England and Ireland.

ANTISANA ([.a]n-t[=e]-s[:a]'n[.a]), a volcano in the Andes of Ecuador, 35 miles S.E. by E. of Quito. Whymper, who ascended it in 1880, makes its height 19,260 feet.

ANTIS'CIANS (Gr. _anti_, over against, _skia_, a shadow), those who live under the same meridian, at the same distance N. and S. of the equator, and whose shadows at noon consequently are thrown in contrary directions.

ANTISCORBU'TICS, remedies against scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe fruit, milk, salts of potash, green vegetables, potatoes, fresh meat, and raw or lightly-boiled eggs, are some of the principal foodstuffs containing antiscorbutic vitamines.

ANTI-SEM'ITISM, hostility to the Jews (Semites), actively exhibited in severities and attacks of various kinds. The movement assumed vast proportions about 1880 and manifested itself in various countries, especially Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Roumania, and France. It may be attributed to different motives in different countries, but on the whole owed its origin not only to the fact of the Jews being a 'peculiar people' by race and religion, but also to the comparatively high position won by them in modern times in the financial and political worlds. The religious element is quite prominent in the popular attacks on the Jew, although modern anti-Semitism is essentially social and economic. In Western Russia there was a great outburst against the Jews in 1881, in which men, women, and children were slaughtered. The Government of the Tsar, by its anti-Jewish policy, may be said to have sanctioned this murderous outbreak, which was followed by harsh laws and actual persecutions, though afterwards there was a mitigation of the severity shown towards the Jews. Yet in 1903 the world was startled by a terrible massacre of Jews at Kishinev, in Bessarabia, connived at by the authorities on the spot; and towards the end of 1905, in connection with the Russian revolutionary movement, there were dreadful massacres of Jews in Odessa, Kishinev, and other towns, the authorities being similarly involved. In Roumania, until 1919, the position of the Jews resembled what it was elsewhere in mediaeval times, and was less favourable than it was even under the Turks. In Germany the movement has been worked chiefly by politicians for their own ends, though the racial and religious question has also had some influence; and among the ignorant the belief that the Jews murder Christian children for ritual purposes has been revived, as also in Austria and in Hungary. In these countries the movement has been partly political, partly social and economic, partly religious. In France anti-Semitism has been employed chiefly as a weapon by monarchists and clericals as against republicanism, and by the Socialists as against capitalism, racial antipathy having also its influence on the movements. It reached its height in 1895 at the time of the Dreyfus affair. In Britain, too, anti-Semitism has of late made itself felt.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Leroy-Beaulieu, _Israel among the Nations_; Bernard Lazare, _L'anti-semitisme, son histoire et ses causes_.

ANTISEP'TIC (Gr. _anti_, against, and _s[=e]pein_, to rot), an agent which destroys the germs of putrefaction or suppuration is called an antiseptic. Many substances act thus, e.g. chlorine, iodine, hypochlorous acid, sulphurous acid, camphor, creosote, iodoform, nascent oxygen ('Sanitas'), corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde ('Formalin'), potassium permanganate ('Condy's Fluid'), carbolic acid (Lysol, Izal, Cyllin); lately aniline dyes have become prominent: of these flavine has proved the most useful addition to surgery of recent years. It was much used in the European War (1914-8).--_Antiseptics_ are also used for purifying surgical instruments, &c., and commercially as disinfectants. When introduced by Lister into surgical practice they led to revolutionary advances in surgery. The tendency of late years has been to abandon antiseptic for aseptic (sterile) mode of technique, but during the war (1914-8) there was a general return to antiseptic methods in surgery.

ANTISPASMOD'IC, a medicine for the cure of spasms and convulsions; such belong largely to the class of ethers, as sulphuric ether, chloric ether, nitric ether, &c.

ANTISTHENES (an-tis'the-n[=e]z), a Greek philosopher and the founder of the school of Cynics, born at Athens about 444 B.C. He was first a disciple of Gorgias and then of Socrates, at whose death he was present. His philosophy was a one-sided development of the Socratic teaching. He held virtue to consist in complete self-denial and in disregard of riches, honour, or pleasure of every kind. He himself lived as a beggar. He died in Athens at an advanced age.

ANTIS'TROPHE. See _Strophe_.

ANTI-SUBMARINE. See _Submarine_.

ANTI-TAURUS, a mountain range of Anatolia, Asia Minor, extending from the Cicilian Taurus towards the north-east, and connecting the Taurus mountain system with Mount Ararat, Mount Elbruz, and the Caucasus. See _Taurus_.

ANTITH'ESIS (opposition), a figure of speech consisting in a contrast or opposition of words or sentiments; as, 'When our vices _leave us_, we flatter ourselves we _leave them_'; 'The prodigal _robs his heir_, the miser _robs himself_'.

ANTITOXIN, the name given to a class of bodies of unknown nature having the capacity of neutralizing the poisonous substances (toxins) by which certain bacteria produce disease. If such a toxin be introduced every few days in increasing doses, into, e.g., the horse, and if, after some months of this treatment, the animal be bled, its serum contains the antitoxin to the toxins used. The use of the antitoxin to the toxin of diphtheria is most efficacious in curing that disease, and the treatment has caused a great fall in the death-rate. It ought to be applied as soon as possible after signs appear in the throat. An antitoxic treatment is also applicable in cases of tetanus (lock-jaw), a disease liable to follow any wound contaminated with dirt, especially with manured soil. Less success has been achieved when the disease is fully established, but if the antitoxin be injected immediately after the wound has been incurred, then the subsequent development of the disease is prevented. This preventive treatment has been attended with marked effect in the case of wounds received in war, which it is almost impossible to keep free from contamination. Antitoxins were extensively used during the European War. (1914-8). In bacterial diseases other than those mentioned, sera have been produced by injecting into large animals dead and living bacteria, e.g. the organisms of epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis (spotted fever), pneumonia, blood-poisoning, &c., and these sera probably depend for their action on the presence of bodies similar to antitoxins. See _Bacteria_, _Diphtheria_.

ANTI-TRADE WINDS, a name given to any of the upper tropical winds which move northward or southward in the same manner as the trade-winds which blow beneath them in the opposite direction. These great aerial currents descend to the surface after they have passed the limits of the trade-winds, and form the south-west or west-south-west winds of the north temperate, and the north-west or west-north-west winds of the south temperate zones.

ANTITRINITA'RIANS, all who do not receive the doctrine of the divine Trinity, or the existence of three persons in the Godhead; especially applied to those who oppose such a doctrine on philosophical grounds, as contrasted with Unitarians, who reject the doctrine as not warranted by Scripture.

AN'TITYPE, that which is correlative to a type; by theological writers the term is employed to denote the reality of which a _type_ is the prophetic symbol.

AN'TIUM, in ancient Italy, one of the most ancient and powerful cities of Latium, the chief city of the Volsci, and often at war with the Romans, by whom it was finally taken in 338 B.C. It was 38 miles distant from Rome, a flourishing seaport, and became a favourite residence of the wealthy Romans. It was destroyed by the Saracens, but vestiges of it remain at Porto d'Anzo, near which many valuable works of art have been found.

ANTIVARI ([.a]n-t[=e]'v[.a]-r[=e]), a seaport town on the eastern shore of the Adriatic, ceded to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). Antivari was opened as a free port on 23rd Oct., 1909. It was occupied by the Austrians in 1916, and by the Italians in Nov., 1918. Pop. 2500.

ANTLERS, the horns of the deer tribe, or the snags or branches of the horns.

ANT-LION, the larva of a Neuropterous insect (_Myrmel[)e]on formic[=a]rius_), which in its perfect state greatly resembles a dragon-fly; curious on account of its ingenious method of catching the insects--chiefly ants--on which it feeds. It digs a funnel-shaped hole in the driest and finest sand it can find, and when the pit is deep enough, and the sides are quite smooth and sloping, it buries itself at the bottom with only its formidable mandibles projecting, and waits till some luckless insect stumbles over the edge, when it is immediately seized, its juices sucked, and the dead body jerked out. It inhabits Southern Europe.

ANTOFAGAS'TA, a Chilian seaport on the Bay of Morena, and a territory of the same name taken from Bolivia in the war of 1879-82, and definitely ceded to Chile in 1885. The territory has an area of 46,408 sq. miles; pop. (1919), 235,506. The port is connected by railway with the silver and other mines lying inland, and exports silver, copper, cubic nitre, &c., partly from Bolivia. Pop. (1919), 69,175.

ANTOINETTE ([.a][n.]-tw[.a]-net), Marie. See _Marie Antoinette_.

ANTOKOLSKI, Mark, Russian sculptor of Jewish extraction, born at Vilna in 1843. He studied at the Petrograd Academy of Fine Arts, and his earliest success was a wooden statue _The Jewish Tailor_ (1864). In 1868 he received a grant for travelling, and whilst in Italy he finished his famous statue, _Ivan the Terrible_. He was made an academician, and in 1878 was awarded the first prize for sculpture at the Paris International Exhibition. In 1888 he settled permanently in Paris, where he died in 1902. His works include: _Peter the Great_ (1872), _Christ before the People_ (1874), _The Death of Socrates_ (1876), _Spinoza_ (1882), _Yermak_ and _The Sleeping Beauty_ (1900).

ANTOMMARCHI (-m[:a]r'k[=e]), Carlo Francesco, Italian physician, born in Corsica in 1780, died in Cuba 1838. He was professor of anatomy at Florence when he offered himself as physician to Napoleon at St. Helena. Napoleon at first received him with reserve, but soon admitted him to his confidence, and testified his satisfaction with him by leaving him a legacy of 100,000 francs. On his return to Europe he published _Les Derniers Moments de Napoleon_ (2 vols., 8vo, 1823).

ANTONELL'I, Giacomo, cardinal, born 1806, died 1876. He was educated at the Grand Seminary of Rome, where he attracted the attention of Pope Gregory XVI, who appointed him to several important offices. On the accession of Pius IX in 1846 Antonelli was raised to the dignity of cardinal-deacon; two years later he became president and Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in 1850 was appointed Secretary of State. During the sitting of the Oecumenical Council (1869-70) he was a prominent champion of the papal interest. He strongly opposed the assumption of the united Italian crown by Victor Emanuel.

ANTONELL'O (of Messina), an Italian painter who died at Venice, probably in 1493, and is said to have introduced oil-painting into Italy, having been instructed in it by Jan Van Eyck. Three works by him are in the National Gallery, London.

ANTONI'NUS, ITINERARY OF. See _Itinerary_.

ANTONI'NUS, Marcus Aurelius. See _Aurelius_.

ANTONI'NUS, WALL OF, a barrier erected by the Romans across the isthmus between the Forth and the Clyde, in the reign of Antoninus Pius. Its western extremity was at or near Dunglass Castle, its eastern at Carriden, and the whole length of it exceeded 27 miles. It was constructed A.D. 140 by Lollius Urbicus, the imperial legate, and consisted of a ditch 40 feet wide and 20 feet deep, and a rampart of stone and earth on the south side 24 feet thick and 20 feet in height. It was strengthened at either end and along its course by a series of forts and watch-towers. It may still be traced at various points, and is commonly known as _Graham's Dyke_.

ANTONI'NUS PIUS, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, Roman emperor, was born at Lavinium, near Rome, A.D. 86, died A.D. 161. In 120 A.D. he became consul, and he was one of the four persons of consular rank among whom Hadrian divided the supreme administration of Italy. He then went as proconsul to Asia, and after his return to Rome became more and more the object of Hadrian's confidence. In A.D. 138 he was selected by that emperor as his successor, and the same year he ascended the throne. He speedily put down the persecutions of the Christians, and carried on but a few wars. In Britain he extended the Roman dominion, and, by raising a new wall (see preceding article), put a stop to the invasions of the Picts and Scots. The senate gave him the surname _Pius_, that is, dutiful or showing filial affection, because to keep alive the memory of Hadrian he had built a temple in his honour. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius, his adopted son.

ANTO'NIUS, Marcus (Mark Antony), Roman triumvir, born 83 B.C., was connected with the family of Caesar by his mother. Debauchery and prodigality marked his youth. To escape his creditors he went to Greece in 58, and from thence followed the consul Gabinius on a campaign in Syria as commander of the cavalry. He served in Gaul under Caesar in 52 and 51. In 50 he returned to Rome to support the interests of Caesar against the aristocratical party headed by Pompey, and was appointed tribune. When war broke out between Caesar and Pompey, Antony led reinforcements to Caesar in Greece, and in the battle of Pharsalia he commanded the left wing. He afterwards returned to Rome with the appointment of Master of the Horse and Governor of Italy (47). In 44 B.C. he became Caesar's colleague in the consulship. Soon after Caesar was assassinated, Antony, by the reading of Caesar's will, and by the oration which he delivered over his body, excited the people to anger and revenge, and the murderers were obliged to flee. After several quarrels and reconciliations with Octavianus, Caesar's heir (see _Augustus_), Antony departed to Cisalpine Gaul, which province had been conferred upon him against the will of the Senate. But Cicero thundered against him in his famous _Philippics_; the Senate declared him a public enemy, and entrusted the conduct of the war against him to Octavianus and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. After a campaign of varied fortunes Antony fled with his troops over the Alps. Here he was joined by Lepidus, who commanded in Gaul, and through whose mediation Antony and Octavianus were again reconciled. It was agreed that the Roman world should be divided among the three conspirators, who were called _triumviri_. Antony was to take Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and Octavianus, Africa and Sicily. They decided upon the proscription of their mutual enemies, each giving up his friends to the others, the most celebrated of the victims being Cicero the orator. Antony and Octavianus departed in 42 for Macedonia, where the united forces of their enemies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army, which was, however, speedily defeated at Philippi. Antony next visited Athens, and thence proceeded to Asia. In Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behaviour to the _triumviri_. She appeared in person, and her charms fettered him for ever. He followed her to Alexandria, where he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of the world, till he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced in Italy between his own relatives and Octavianus. A short war, followed, which was decided in favour of Octavianus before the arrival of Antony in Italy. A reconciliation was effected, which was sealed by the marriage of Antony with Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. A new division of the Roman dominions was now made (in 40), by which Antony obtained the East, Octavianus the West. After his return to Asia Antony gave himself up entirely to Cleopatra, assuming the style of an Eastern despot, and so alienating many of his adherents and embittering public opinion against him at Rome. At length war was declared at Rome against the Queen of Egypt, and Antony was deprived of his consulship and government. Each party assembled its forces, and Antony lost, in the naval battle at Actium, 31 B.C., the dominion of the world. He followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and on the arrival of Octavianus his fleet and cavalry deserted, and his infantry was defeated. Deceived by a false report of her death which Cleopatra had disseminated, he fell upon his own sword (30 B.C.).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mommsen, _Roman History_; Plutarch, _Lives_ (translated by Langhorne); De Quincey, _Essay on the Caesars_.

ANTONOMA'SIA, in rhetoric, the use of the name of some office, dignity, profession, science, or trade instead of the true name of the person, as when _his majesty_ is used for a king, _his lordship_ for a nobleman; or when, instead of Aristotle, we say, _the philosopher_; or, conversely, the use of a proper noun instead of a common noun; as, a _Solomon_ for a wise man.

ANTONY, Mark. See _Antonius_ (_Marcus_).

ANTONY, ST. See _Anthony_.

AN'TRIM, a county of Ireland, province of Ulster, in the north-east of the island; area, 702,654 acres, of which about a third are arable. The eastern and northern districts are comparatively mountainous, with tracts of heath and bog, but no part rises to a great height. The principal rivers are the Lagan and the Bann, which separate Antrim from Down and Londonderry respectively. The general soil of the plains and valleys is strong loam. Flax, oats, and potatoes are the principal agricultural produce. Cattle, sheep, swine, and goats are extensively reared. There are salt-mines and beds of iron-ore, which is worked and exported. A range of basaltic strata stretches along the northern coast, of which the celebrated Giant's Causeway is the most remarkable portion, the vast aggregates of natural rock pillars there being very striking. The interior also contains some scenes of picturesque beauty, particularly the fertile valley of the Lagan, between Belfast and Lisburn. Much of the scenery of the county, however, is dreary and monotonous. Lough Neagh, the largest lake of the United Kingdom, is principally in Antrim. Its waters are carried to the sea by the Bann, which is of no use for navigation, being obstructed by weirs and rocks. The spinning of linen and cotton yarn, and the weaving of linen and cotton, are the staple manufactures, but the cotton manufacture is small compared with that of linen. The principal towns are Belfast, Lisburn, Ballymena, Larne, and Carrickfergus. In 1898 Belfast, the former capital, was constituted into a county borough. About fifty per cent of the inhabitants are Presbyterians, being the descendants of Scottish immigrants of the seventeenth century. The county sends four members to Parliament; Belfast returns nine. Pop. (excluding Belfast) 193,864 (1911).--The town of Antrim, at the north end of Lough Neagh, is a small place with a pop. of 1826.

ANT-THRUSH, a name given to certain passerine or perching birds having resemblances to the thrushes and supposed to feed largely on ants. They all have longish legs, short wings, and a short tail. The true ant-thrushes of the Old World belong to the genus Pitta. They chiefly inhabit southern and south-eastern Asia and the Eastern Archipelago, but are also found in Africa and Australia, and are birds of brilliant plumage, exhibiting black, white, scarlet, blue, and green in vivid contrast, there being generally no blending of colours by means of intermediate hues. These birds are not now regarded as allied to the thrushes, nor are they allied to the ant-birds, or ant-thrushes of the New World, which live among close foliage and bushes. Some of these are called ant-shrikes and ant-wrens. They belong to several genera.

ANT'WERP (Du. and Ger. _Antwerpen_, Fr. _Anvers_), the chief port of Belgium, and one of the first on the Continent, the capital of a province of the same name, on the Scheldt, about 50 miles from the open sea. It lies in a fertile plain at an abrupt turn of the river, which is here from 160 to 280 yards wide, and has a depth varying from 25 to 50 feet. It is strongly fortified, being completely surrounded on the land side by a semicircular inner line of fortifications, the defences being completed by an outer line of forts and outworks. Fine quays have been constructed along the river banks. The general appearance of the city is exceedingly picturesque, an effect produced by the numerous churches, convents, and magnificent public buildings, the stately antique houses that line its older thoroughfares, and the profusion of beautiful trees with which it is adorned. The older streets are tortuous and irregular, but those in the newer quarters are wide and regular. Some of the squares are very handsome. The cathedral, with a spire 400 feet high, one of the largest and most beautiful specimens of Gothic architecture in Belgium, contains Rubens' celebrated masterpieces, _The Descent from the Cross_, _The Elevation of the Cross_, and _The Assumption_. The other churches of note are St. James's, St. Andrew's, and St. Paul's, all enriched with paintings by Rubens, Vandyck, and other masters. Among the other buildings of note are the exchange, the town hall, the palace, the theatre, academy of the fine arts, picture and sculpture galleries, &c. The harbour accommodation is extensive and excellent, large new docks and quays having been recently built, and other works being under construction or contemplated. The shipping trade is now very large, Antwerp being a great centre of the world's commerce, and the goods being largely in transit. The entries of vessels in a year aggregate over 13,000,000 tons. Much of the trade is with Britain. There are numerous but not very important industries. Antwerp is mentioned as early as the eighth century, and in the eleventh and twelfth it had attained a high degree of prosperity. In the sixteenth century it is said to have had a pop. of 200,000, and it had then an extensive foreign trade. The wars between the Netherlands and Spain greatly injured its commerce, which was almost ruined by the closing of the navigation of the Scheldt in accordance with the peace of Westphalia (1648). It was only in the nineteenth century that its prosperity revived. In the European War (1914-8), the Germans, under General von Beseler, entered Antwerp on 7th Oct., 1914, and remained there until Nov., 1918. Pop. (1919), 322,857.--The province consists of a fertile plain 1093 sq. miles in area, and has a pop. of over 1,000,000.

ANU'BIS (_Anepo_ on the monuments), one of the deities of the ancient Egyptians, the son of Osiris by Isis. The Egyptian sculptures represent him with the head, or under the form, of a jackal, with long pointed ears. His office was to conduct the souls of the dead from this world to the next, and in the lower world he weighed the actions of the deceased previous to their admission to the presence of Osiris.

ANUPSHAHR (_a_-noep'shaer), a town of Hindustan, United Provinces, on the Ganges, 75 miles S.E. of Delhi, a resort of Hindu pilgrims who bathe in the Ganges. Pop. 15,000.

ANU'RA, or ANOU'RA (Gr. _an_, negative, _oura_, a tail), an ord. of Batrachians which lose the tail when they reach maturity, such as the frogs and toads.

ANURADHAPURA. See _Anarajapura_.

A'NUS, the opening at the lower or posterior extremity of the alimentary canal through which the excrement or waste products of digestion are expelled.

AN'VIL, an instrument on which pieces of metal are laid for the purpose of being hammered. The common smith's anvil is generally made of seven pieces, namely, the core or body; the four corners for the purpose of enlarging its base; the projecting end, which contains a square hole for the reception of a set or chisel to cut off pieces of iron; and the beak or conical end, used for turning pieces of iron into a circular form, &c. These pieces are each separately welded to the core and hammered so as to form a regular surface with the whole. When the anvil has received its due form, it is faced with steel, and is then tempered in cold water. The smith's anvil is generally placed loose upon a wooden block. The anvil for heavy operations, such as the forging of ordnance and shafting, consists of a huge iron block deeply embedded, and resting on piles of masonry.

ANVILLE, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' (jae[n.] b[.a]p-t[=e]st b[=o]r-g[=e]-nyoe[n.] dae[n.]-v[=e]l), a celebrated French geographer, born 1697, died 1782; published a great number of maps and writings illustrative of ancient and modern geography.

ANYNAKS, a negro tribe inhabiting the banks of the Upper Sobat (a tributary of the White Nile), between the Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia. They rebelled against British authority in 1912.

ANZACS, a composite word used as the name of the British colonial troops in the Gallipoli undertaking. The men being from Australia and New Zealand, their organization was officially known as the Australian-New Zealand Army Corps. The full title, however, was much too cumbersome, and a clerk in one of the head-quarters offices at Zeitoun, where the troops were in training, hit upon the word _Anzacs_, formed from the initial letters of the long title. The Anzacs landed near Gaba Tepe, Gallipoli, on the morning of 25th April, 1915, and had their first encounter with the Germans on the Western Front on 6th May, 1916. In 1916 the word Anzac was officially adopted by the War Office.

ANZIN ([.a][n.]-za[n.]), a town of France, department of Nord, about 1 mile north-west of Valenciennes, in the centre of an extensive coal-field, with blast-furnaces, forges, rolling-mills, foundries, &c. Pop. 14,325.

AONIA, in ancient geography a name for part of Boeotia in Greece, containing Mount Helicon and the fountain Aganippe, both haunts of the muses.

A'ORIST, the name given to one of the tenses of the verb in some languages (as the Greek), which expresses indefinite past time.

AOR'TA, in anatomy, the great artery or trunk of the arterial system, proceeding from the left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin to all the arteries except the pulmonary. It first rises towards the top of the breast-bone, when it is called the _ascending aorta_; then makes a great curve, called the transverse or _great arch of the aorta_, whence it branches off to the head and upper extremities; thence proceeding towards the lower extremities, under the name of the _descending aorta_, it branches off to the trunk; and finally divides into the two iliacs, which supply the pelvis and lower extremities.

AOSTA ([.a]-os't[.a]; ancient AUGUSTA PRAETORIA), a town of north Italy, 50 miles N.N.W. of Turin, on the Dora-Baltea, with an ancient triumphal arch, remains of an amphitheatre, &c. Pop. 7000.

AOUDAD (a-oe'dad), the _Ammotr[)a]gus tragel[)a]phus_, a quadruped allied to the sheep, most closely to the mouflon, from which, however, it may be easily distinguished by the heavy mane, commencing at the throat and falling as far as the knees. It is a native of North Africa, inhabiting the loftiest and most inaccessible rocks.

APACHES ([.a]-pae'chez), a warlike race of North-American Indians, numbering between 5000 and 6000, and inhabiting Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma. The final surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, but a few in Mexico still maintain their independence and hostility to the whites. The name _Apache_ was assumed by Parisian hooligans, notorious for their criminal outrages.

AP'ANAGE, an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning house in some European countries receive from the revenues of the country, generally together with a grant of public domains, that they may be enabled to live in a manner becoming their rank.

AP'ATITE, a translucent but seldom transparent mineral, which crystallizes in a regular six-sided prism, usually terminated by a truncated six-sided pyramid. It passes through various shades of colour, from white to yellow, green, blue, and occasionally red, scratches fluor-spar but is scratched by felspar, and has a specific gravity of about 3.5. It is a compound of calcium phosphate with calcium fluoride or chloride. It occurs principally in igneous rocks, particularly diorites. The very coarse-grained granites of Ontario contain apatite crystals of corresponding size, which have been picked out as a source of artificial phosphate manures. Apatite supplies to soils almost all the phosphorus available for plants in a state of nature.

APE, a common name of a number of quadrumanous animals inhabiting the Old World (Asia and the Asiatic Islands, and Africa), and including a variety of species. The word _ape_ was formerly applied indiscriminately to all quadrumanous mammals; but it is now limited to the anthropoid or man-like monkeys. The family includes the chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-outang, &c., and has been divided into three genera, Troglod[)y]tes, Simia, and Hylob[)a]tes. See _Chimpanzee_, _Gibbon_, _Gorilla_, _Monkey_, _Orang_, &c.

APELDOORN (ae'pel-d[=o]rn), a town of Holland, province of Guelderland, 17 miles north of Arnhem, with manufactures of paper. The royal palace Loo is here. Pop. 44,474.