Chapter II: Short Vowels (6)

The past active participle expresses an action, which has taken place at any past time. =Ei ole vuoksen voittanutta, Yli käynyttä Imatran= (Kal. iii. 182), _there is no (waterfall) that has conquered the Vuoksa or surpassed Imatra_. =Äijä on tänne tullehia, Ei paljo palannehia= (Kal. xvi. 270), _there are many who have come down here, not many who have gone back_. =Alkää häiritkö nukkunutta=, _wake not the sleeper_.

The translative singular of this participle is used in connection with the verb =tulla= to denote an incidental or chance action. =Hän tuli sanoneeksi, kertoneeksi ...=, _he happened to say in the course of conversation ..._ =Mennessään kaupunkiin tuli nähneeksi ...=, _as he went to the town he happened to see ..._ =Puodissa käydessään tuli ostaneeksi uuden maton=, _in going round the shops he happened to buy a new carpet_. Cf. Kal. ii. 149, =Sai toki sanoneheksi=, _scarce had he said it_. =Olkoon menneeksi=, _it does not matter_, or _let that pass_.

_Participle I—Passive._

This participle has not a simple temporal signification, but has always an idea of desirability, or necessity. =Kunnioitettava Herra=, _a man to be honoured_. In combination with the verb =olla= it can be used either as a simple adjective, e.g. =se on korjattava=, _that should be corrected_, or as a part of the impersonal passive verb, =sitä on korjattava=. It is sometimes used with a genitive of the agent like the infinitive. =Sentähden oli etsittävä kahdenkeskistä yksinäisyyttä=, _on this account it was necessary to seek for a tête-à-tête interview_. =Sanokaa, mitä tietä minun on mentävä=, _tell me what road I should take_. =Tämä asia on meidän mielessämme pidettävä=, _we must keep that in mind_.

The translative singular of this participle is used exactly like the illative of the third infinitive, but with a passive signification. =Setä toi kirjoja lasten luettavaksi=, _the uncle brought books for the children to read_ (_for the reading of the children_). =Hän antoi veitsen hiottavaksi=, _he gave the knife to be sharpened_.

_Participle II—Passive._

This participle is really a substantive expressing the result of the verb’s action. From this it passes easily to an adjectival meaning. For instance, =työ on tehty=, _the work is a thing done_, is much the same as _the work is done_. In combination with =olla= it is used to form tenses of the passive impersonal verb, and as such, can take an object, otherwise it has the same signification as the past passive participle in other languages. =Puhuttu puhe ammuttu nuoli=, _a word once spoken is an arrow shot forth_. =Unhotettu maksettu velka=, _a debt paid is forgotten_ (proverbs). =Jos mun tuttuni tulisi=, _if one known by me were to come_.

It is noticeable that when used in this sense the past passive participle does not as a rule take the pronominal suffix. Thus one says, =ostettu kirja=, _the book that has been bought_, but by preference, =ostamani kirja=, _the book that has been bought by me_.

Part. II passive is also used substantively in the partitive singular to express an action antecedent to the action of the principal verb. As the original meaning of the partitive is motion from, this is very analogous to the use of the elative of infinitive III. Like other expressions of the same nature (e.g. the inessive of infinitive II) this use is rendered in English by a temporal sentence. The subject of that sentence is represented in Finnish by a genitive, or by a pronominal suffix, if the subjects of the principal and temporal sentence are the same.

=Jopa tuonne tultuansa, Matkan päähän päästyänsä= (Kal. xlii. 25), _after he had come thither and reached the end of his journey_. =Muutaman päivän kuluttua=, _after a few days_. =Luettuaan sanomalehtiä ja syötyään aamiaisen=, _after he had read his paper and eaten his breakfast_. =Kävelyltään palattuaan=, _after returning from his walk_. =Juotuaan kolme, neljä lasia teetä=, _after drinking three or four glasses of tea_. =Sotamiehen kotiin palattua=, _when the soldier had come home_. =Päivän laskettua=, _when the sun had set_.

As however this participle denotes a completed rather than a past action, it is sometimes used in cases where we have to translate it by a present participle. Kal. xvii. 593, =Hyvin laait tultuasi=, _thou hast done well in coming_. xlvi. 284, =Terve, terve tultuasi= (=terve tuloa= is a common expression), _hail to thee in thy coming_. These two examples show clearly the substantival character of the participle.

_Use of Participles in Oblique Oration._

The participles have another use in Finnish—viz. they correspond to the construction known in Latin grammar as the accusative and infinitive in subordinate sentences.

In other words, a subordinate sentence which in English begins with the word _that_ (and some others), and which might in Finnish be represented by a similar sentence beginning with =että=, can be put in a shorter and more idiomatic form by: (1) omitting the word =että=; (2) replacing the finite verb by the _genitive singular_ of the participle; (3) representing the subject by a genitive, partitive, or pronominal affix. Thus =se luulee että hän tekee Jumalalle palveluksen=, _he thinketh that he doeth God service_ becomes =se luulee tekevänsä Jumalalle palveluksen=.

The participle present is used in this construction when the action of the subordinate sentence is coincident with that of the principal sentence or future to it, and the past participle when the action of the subordinate sentence is anterior. _He thinks he will receive the book_, =luulee kirjan saavansa=. _He thinks he has received the book_, =luulee kirjan saaneensa=. Notice that a past tense does not require necessarily the past participle. =Hän luuli lintuja olevan metsässä=, _he thought there were birds in the wood_. Here the present participle is used because the action of the two verbs is contemporaneous.

The noun or pronoun which is the subject in the expanded sentence is put in the genitive when total, in the partitive when partial, and represented by the pronominal suffix when the subjects of the two sentences are the same. The participle remains in the genitive sing. whatever be the case or number of the subject.

This use is more frequent in affirmative than in negative sentences, but there is no objection to such sentences as =En luule voivani tulla=, _I do not think I can come_, where the _principal_ verb is negatived. It is however very rarely used when the verb of the _subordinate_ sentence is negatived (_vide_ p. 220 for some curious irregularities in this respect).

Examples:—=Kuin hän siis kuuli hänen sairastavan=, _when he heard he was ill_. =Luuletteko olevan mitä vaaraa?= _do you think there is any danger?_ =Minä päivänä toivotte saapuvanne perille?= _on what day do you expect to arrive?_ =En usko häntä näkeväni=, _I don’t believe I shall see him_. =Minä luulen sotamiesten jo saapuneen leiriin=, _I think the soldiers have already gone to the camp_. =En usko palvelijan varastaneen rahoja=, _I do not believe that the servant has stolen the money_. =Tiedän vieraita tulevan=, _I know that some strangers have come_. =Näin vettä satavan=, _I see that it is raining_. =Kuulin laivoja tulleen=, _I heard that some ships had arrived_. When the verb =olla= is used in this construction, its complement remains in the same case as it would be in an expanded sentence, _if it is in any case but the nominative singular_.

{ =vesi on hyvää=,
=Luulen että= { =poika on terveenä=,
{ =syytetyt ovat tuomitut kuolemaan=.

become

{ =veden olevan hyvää=
=Luulen= { =pojan olevan terveenä=
{ =syytettyjen olevan tuomitut kuolemaan=.

But if the complement is a nominative singular it appears as a genitive singular when the subject is put in that case.

=Luulen että poika on ahkera= becomes =Luulen pojan olevan ahkeran=.

It is possible to still more abridge the proposition by rejecting =olevan= and putting the complement in the translative. =Luulen pojan ahkeraksi=. =Tiesi hetkensä tulleeksi=, _he knew that his hour had come_. =Huomasin hänen menneeksi=, _I noticed he was gone_. =Kertoi veneen kaatuneeksi=, _he related that the boat had been upset_ (_v._ page 158).

If the predicate of the subordinate sentence in the expanded form is a passive verb, the passive participle can be used in the genitive singular. The subject of such a proposition is always in the partitive. As a rule only part. I passive is used in the genitive, part. II being generally in the translative according to the construction mentioned above.

=Tiedän häntä odotettavan=, _I know they are waiting for him_. =Näin karhua ammuttavan=, _I see the bear is being shot at_; but =Epäilen karhua tappetuksi=, _I doubt if the bear has been killed_. =Uskon metsää hakattavan=, _I think the forest is being cut down_; but =Uskon metsän hakatuksi=, _I think the forest has been cut down_.

These participal constructions are also employed when the verb introducing the subordinate sentence is in the passive form. Under such circumstances the subject of the subordinate sentence may either remain in the nominative or pass into the genitive.

=Siinä makasiinissa kuulutaan saatavan oikeata kiinalaista teetä=, _this shop is said to receive real Chinese tea_. =Sanotaan varustettavan sotaretkeä=, _it is said that an expedition is being armed_. =Luultiin ihmisiä kuolleen=, _it was thought the men were dead_.

The intransitive verbs =näkyä=, _to be seen_; =näyttää=, _to appear_; =tuntua=, _to feel_; =kuulua=, _to be heard_, also take the genitive of the participle.

=Hän kuuluu eronneen miehestään ja lähteneen Pietariin=, _she is said to be divorced from her husband and to have left for St. Petersburg_. =Et näy tuntevan vanhaa ystävääsi=, _you don’t seem to know your old friend_. =Ei kuulu saadun kaloja=, _it is said no fish have been caught_[16].

PREPOSITIONS, POSTPOSITIONS, AND ADVERBS.

As has been already explained in the Accidence the greater number of these words in Finnish are declinable substantives, and take the various cases under just the same rules as an ordinary noun. With the exception of a certain number of petrified and isolated forms, they may be compared to the word _midst_ in English. We say _he came from the midst_, _went into the midst_, or _stood in the midst_. In the language of Finnish grammarians such forms would be considered as adverbs. Whereas in such expressions as _in the midst_, or _from the midst of the crowd_, they would be called postpositions or prepositions. This practice of declining adverbs and postpositions is, however, carried to lengths for which no analogy can be found in English. Thus =myöhä=, is _late_ (an adjective), but _to come late_ is rendered by =tulla myöhään=; on account of the idea of motion in the verb. _To watch late into the night_ is =valvoa myöhälle yötä=, and such an expression as _later on_ (of a date) is rendered by the essive =myöhempänä=.

Most, but not all, postpositions, are capable of taking the pronominal affixes, with or without a genitive of the personal pronoun before them.

The subjoined list of prepositions and postpositions gives all the words considered as falling under these categories by ordinary grammars. As a matter of fact, it might very well be either enlarged or curtailed, which last would be better, as some of the words are substantives in ordinary use. But I have thought it better to adhere to the conventional list.

I. Postpositions and Prepositions used in only one case.

(1) =Ennen= (instrumental of =ensi=). Preposition followed by partitive. _Before._ =Ennen Kristuksen syntymää=, _before the birth of Christ_. =Ennen aikojansa=, _before one’s time_; _too soon_. =Ennen tuloani=, _before I came_.

(2) =Halki=, _across_. Preposition followed by genitive. =Halki metsän=, _through the wood_. =Lenti kokko halki taivon=. (Kal. ii. 265).

(3) =Ilman= (instrumental of =ilma=), _without_, preposition with partitive. =Ilman apua=, _without help_. =Ilman rahaa=, _without money_. =Ilman sitä=, _besides_. Also used with the abessive. =Ilman muiden avutta=, _without the help of others_. =Hän otti rahat vastaan ilman lukematta=, _he received the money without counting it_. =Ilman maan alistamatta, Ilman kasken kaatamatta= (Kal. ii. 254).

(4) =Kanssa=, _with_. Postposition with the genitive. =Pojan kanssa=, _with the boy_. =Isänsä kanssa=, _with his father_. =Kanssa= takes the pronominal suffixes. =Minun kanssani=, =sinun kansassi=, =hänen kanssansa=, etc. =Hän kulki kanssani koko matkan=, _he went all the way with me_. =Puhuiko hän kanssasi?= _did he speak to you?_

(5) =Kautta= (partitive of =kausi=). Postposition after the genitive, _through_, or _by the help of_; like =kanssa= it takes the pronominal suffixes. =Minun kauttani=, _by my help_. =Hän on tunnetu isänsä kautta=, _he is known on account of his father_. Also used as a preposition in the sense of _all over_. =Huhu leviää kautta kaiken kaupungin=, _the rumour spreading over the whole city_. =Kävelimme kylien kautta=, _we went through the villages_.

(6) =Paitsi=, _besides_. Preposition with the partitive. =Paitsi sinua ei ole minulla yhtään ystävää=, _I have no friend but you_. =Paitsi sitä=, _besides this_. =Paitsi veljensä apua olisi hän joutunut hukkaan=, _he would have been ruined without his brother’s help_.

(7) =Pitkin=, _along_. Preposition with the partitive. =Käydä pitkin tietä=, _to go along a road_. =Lapset juoksentelevat pitkin pihoja=, _the children run about in the courts_.

(8) =Poikki=. Postposition or preposition with genitive, _across_: =Kulkea joen poikki=, _to cross the river_. =Jänis juoksi poikki tien=, _the hare ran across the road_.

(9) =Puhki=. Preposition or postposition, _across_. =Luoti meni puhki lasin=, _the bullet came through the glass_.

(10) =Suhteen= (illative of =suhde=), postposition with genitive, _in relation to, compared with_. =Wähä tarpeen suhteen=, _small for one’s wants_. =Palkan suhteen oli tyytyväinen=, _he was satisfied with the remuneration_.

(11) =Takia=, =Tautta=, =Tähden=, postposition with genitive, _for the sake of_, _for_, _in consequence of_.

=Älä minun tähdeni vaivaa näe=, _do not trouble on my account_. =Kipeän jalkani tautta en voi astua=, _I can’t stand on account of my bad leg_. =Nälän tähden=, _from hunger_. =Kauppamies viipyi pari päivää asiansa takia=, _the merchant waited a couple of days for affairs_.

(12) =Varten=. Preposition with partitive, _for_, _for the use of_. =Isä osti vaatteita lapsiansa varten=, _the father bought clothes for his children_. =Kouluja varten=, _for the use of schools_. =Mitä varten sinä itket?= _why do you weep?_

(13) =Vuoksi=, _for the sake of, for_ (much the same as =tähden=). Postposition with the genitive. =Rahan vuoksi=, _for money_. =Minä lueskelen huvin vuoksi=, _I read for pleasure_.

II. Postpositions and Prepositions which are declined in several cases.

(1) The following words, usually considered as cases of a nominative =ali= which is not found, are used as postpositions with the genitive to express rest or motion under an object.

_a._ =Alla=, rest under. =Pöydän alla=, _under the table_. =Paljaan taiwaan alla=, _under the open heaven_. Also metaphorically, =Hänellä on suuret maat allansa=, _large countries are under his dominion_. =Johdon alla=, _under the direction of_. =Oven suussa orren alla=, Kal.

_b._ =Alta=, motion from under. =Koira tuli pöydän alta=, _the dog came from under the table_. =Itse altansa=, _of oneself_. =Hän on mies itse altansa=, _he is a self-made man_. =Karhu nousi petäjän alta=, _the bear got up from under the fir tree_.

_c._ =Alle=, motion to the place under an object. =Koira juoksi pöydän alle=, _the dog ran under the table_. =Antaa asia toisten tuomion alle=, _to leave a thing to another person’s discretion_. =Kala ui sillan alle=, _the fish swam under the bridge_.

_d._ =Alitse= _or_ =alatse=, expressing motion across a space under an object. =Lintu lensi auringon alatse=, _a bird flew under_ (or _across_) _the sun_. =Yli kuun, alitse päivän=, _above the moon, but below the sun_.

(2) From the nominative =asen=, _place_, come =asemessa= and =asemesta=, postpositions with genitive, _in the place of_, _instead of_. =Miehen asemesta=, =leivän asemesta=, _instead of a man_, _bread_, etc. =Talon pojat suorittavat veronsa rahan asemesta viljassa=, _the peasants pay their taxes in corn instead of money_.

(3) From =esi=, the space before an object, are formed the following postpositions which require the genitive before them.

_a._ =Edessä=, rest before. =Hevonen on reen edessä=, _the horse is (harnessed) in front of the sledge_. =Älä seiso edessäni=, _do not stand before me_. =Pilvet ovat kuun edessä=, _there are clouds over the moon_.

_b._ =Edestä=, motion from before. =Siirtyä jonkun edestä=, _to move from before some one_, _to get out of the way_. =Edestä= is also used somewhat loosely to express _for_, _instead of_, etc.; e.g. =Kristus kuoli meidän synteimme edestä=, _Christ died for our sins_. =Tee se minun edestäni=, _do it instead of me_, _for me_.

_c._ =Eteen=, the illative, expresses motion into the space before an object. =Wiholliset seisahtuivat leirin eteen=, _the enemy marched up to the camp and halted_. When used metaphorically, like =edestä=, it means _for_. =Isä tekee työtä lastensa eteen=, _the father works for his children_. =Katsoa eteensä=, _to look before_ or _take care_.

_d._ =Edellä= expresses rest on a space before an object, and is nearly the same as =edessä=, the only difference being that between the inessive and adessive cases. =He kävivät minun edelläni=, _they walked before me_. =Prepositionit käytetään partitivin edellä=, _prepositions are used before the partitive_.

_e._ =Edelle= expresses motion into a place before anything. =Hän ajoi hevosensa koko joukon edelle=, _he drove his horse on to a place before all the people_. =Kuningas asetti johtajat kansan edelle=, _the king appointed leaders for the people_.

_f._ Similarly =edeltä= expresses motion from a place in front of anything. =Mies läksi toisten edeltä=, _he went from before the others._

(3) =Joukko=, _a crowd_, _number_.

_a._ =Joukossa=, _in the crowd_ or _among_. Postposition with the genitive. =Elää ihmisten joukossa=, _to live among men_. =Älä istu pilkkaajain joukossa=, _be not among the scornful_.

_b._ =Joukkoon= expresses motion into or with. =Katosi kansan joukkoon=, _he was lost in this crowd_.

(4) =Jälki=, _footstep_ or _trace_, is used in several cases to mean _behind_, chiefly of motion.

_a._ =Jälessä=, _behind_. =Mennä jonkun jälessä=, _to walk behind anyone_. =Paimen kulkee laumansa jälessä=, _the shepherd goes behind his flock_. =Tuli minun jälessäni=, _he walked behind me_.

_b._ =Jälestä=, _behind_ or _after_, with the idea of motion from. =Jumalten jälestä ovat ihmiset=, _men come next to gods_. =Hän tuli minun jälestäni=, _he came later than I_. Also used in exactly the same sense as =jälessä=. =Sen jälestä on iso joki=, _behind it is a big river_.

_c._ =Jälkeen= means simply _after_, the force of the illative case having been lost. =Kristuksen syntymän jälkeen=, _after the birth of Christ_. =Minun luuloni jälkeen=, _according to my opinion_. =Kello kolmen jälkeen=, _after three o’clock_. =Minä kirjoitan sanainne jälkeen=, _I write from your dictation_.

(5) =Kera=, meaning _company_ or _society_, is used as a postposition with the genitive in the nominative, adessive, and allative, in the signification of _with_, or _beside_.

_a._ =Kera=:—=Sen kera=, _therewith_. =Istuin isännän kera=, _I sat with the master of the house_.

_b._ =Keralla=:—=Minä menin hänen kerallansa=, _I went with him_. =Kenenkä keralla olette olleet?= _with whom were you?_

_c._ =Keralle=:—=Tule keralleni=, _come with me_.

(6) =Keski=, _the middle_. From this are formed the following:—

_a._ =Kesken.=

i. Preposition with the partitive, or rarely with the genitive, _in the midst of_. =Hän pysähtyi kesken puhettansa=, _he stopped in the middle of his speech_. =Poika itki kesken lauluansa=, _the boy wept in the midst of his song_.

ii. More commonly as a postposition with the genitive. =Heidän kesken syntyi riita=, _a controversy arose between them_. =Kahden keskan=, _tête-à-tête_. =Olkoon se sanottu kahden kesken=, _let this be between ourselves_. =Asia on sovittu miesten kesken=, _the matter has been arranged among the men_.

_b._ =Keskenä=, literally, _in the midst_, is used with the pronominal suffixes in a reflexive sense which closely resembles the Latin _inter se_. =He pitävät vihaa keskenänsä=, _they hate one another_. =Me sovimme keskenämme=, _we became reconciled_. =Pilatus ja Herodes tulivat ystäviksi keskenänsä=, _Pilate and Herod were reconciled_.

_c._ =Keskellä= (dial. =Kesellä=). Preposition with the partitive, or postposition with the genitive, _in the midst of_. =Keskellä kaupunkia= _or_ =kaupungin keskellä=, _in the middle of the town_. =Keskellä virtaa=, _in the middle of the stream_. =Keskellä kesää=, =alvea=, =yötä=, =päivää=, _in the middle of summer_, _winter_, _the night_, _the day_.

_d._ =Keskeltä=, _from the midst_. Preposition with the partitive, or, more usually, postposition with the genitive. =Tulla keskeltä peltoa= _or_ =pellon keskeltä=, _to come from the middle of the field_. =En nähnyt miestä keskeltä huonetta=, _I did not see the man from the middle of the room_.

(7) =Kohta=, _a place_ (_or_ =kohti=) gives the following forms:—

_a._ =Kohdalla=, =kohdalta=, and =kohdalle=, denote rest in, or motion from and to a place in the vicinity of something else, and are postpositions with the genitive. =Talo on kirkon kohdalla=, _the house is near the church_. =Ota pois tuolit ikkunan kohdalta=, _take the chairs away from the window_. =Katu on laaistu talon kohdalta=.

_b._ =Kohtaan=, the illative postposition with the partitive, means _for_ or _in respect of_. =Hän on hyvä ystäviänsä kohtaan=, _he is good to his friends_. =Rakkaus Jumalaa kohtaan=, _love of God_. =Lapset ovat nöyrät isäänsä kohtaan=, _the children are humble before their father_.

_c._ =Kohti=, _or_ =kohden=, postpositions with the partitive. =Tulla kaupunkia kohti= _or_ =kohden=, _to come to the town_. =Hän kulki kotia kohti.= =Maksetaan viisi markkaa päivässä miestä kohden.=

(8) =Liki.= The nominative, adessive, allative, and ablative are used to mean _near_.

_a._ =Liki=, preposition with partitive. =Talo on liki kaupunkia=, _the house is near the town_. =Reppänä on liki lakea=, _the smoke hole is near the roof_.

_b._ =Likellä=

_c._ =Likelle=

_d._ =Likeltä=

are used either as prepositions with the partitive, or as postpositions with the genitive. =Minä asun kaupungin likellä=, _or better_, =likellä kaupunkia=, _I live near the town_. And similarly the other two cases are used to express motion towards or from the neighbourhood of an object.

(9) =Lähi=, _neighbourhood_, is used in the adessive, allative, and ablative in exactly the same sense as =liki=, either as a preposition with the partitive, or as a postposition with the genitive. =Kirkon lähellä= _or_ =lähellä kirkkoa=, _near the church_, etc. =Rannan lähellä= (_or_ =lähellä rantaa=) =kasvavat kaihlat=. =Minä ammuin linnun aivan läheltäni=, _I shot a bird quite near me_.

(10) =Luo=, which is not found as a substantive in the nominative, is used in the essive, partitive, and translative as a postposition with the genitive.

_a._ The essive, =luona=, means _with_ or _at the house of_ (French _chez_). =Lapset asuivat setänsä luona=, _the children lived with their uncle_.

_b._ The translative, =luoksi=, is used to express motion to the house or presence of a person. =Milloin tulette minun luokseni?= _when are you coming to see me?_ =Keisari käski ruhtinaan tulla hänen luoksensa=, _the emperor ordered the prince to appear before him_.

_c._ There is a form =luo=, no doubt shortened from =luoksi= and really a translative, which is used in the same sense as =luoksi=. =Minä menen tuttujeni luo=, _I am going to see my acquaintances_.

_d._ The partitive =luota= denotes motion from the house or presence of a person. =Lähettiläs tuli keisarin luota=, _the ambassador came from the emperor_. =Milloin läksit hänen luotansa?= _when did you leave him?_

(11) =Läpi=, =lävitse= (=läpitse=), mean _across_. =Läpi= means literally _a hole_.

_a._ =Läpi= is either a postposition with the genitive, or a preposition with the same case. =Kuula meni ikkunan läpi=, _the bullet came through the window_. =Aurinko paistaa läpi ikkunan=, _the sun shines through the window_. =Katosi läpi käsien=, _it fell through his hands and was lost_.

_b._ =Läpitse= _or_ =lävitse=, the prolative, is used in much the same sense, expressing a motion along and through an object. =Nuoli tunkesi seinän läpitse=, _the arrow passed through the wall_. =Ei puhalla tuuli turkin lävitse=, _the wind does not pierce through a fur_.

(12) =Muka=, _nearness_ or _likeness_.

_a._ =Muassa=, _with_. Postposition with genitive. =Kulkea muiden muassa=, _to journey in company with others_. =Ei minulla ollut rahoja muassani=, _I had no money about me_.

_b._ The essive =mukana= is also used in the same sense. =Kuka on sinun mukanasi?= _who is with you?_

_c._ =Mukaan=, postposition with the genitive, means _with_, or _according to_, _agreeably to_, _after_. =Lähteä toisten mukaan=, _to go with the others_. =Tehkää käskyn mukaan=, _do as you are bid_. =Neuvon mukaan=, _according to the advice_. =Luonnon mukaan=, _naturally_. =Tapansa mukaan=, _according to his custom_. =Koetti hän kasvattaa itsensä Turgenjevin naistyyppien mukaan=, _she tried to form herself after Turgenieff’s female types_.

(13) _a._ =Myötä=, postposition with genitive, meaning _with_. =Onko rahoja miesten myötä?= _have the men money with them?_ =Hän ei ottanut aseita myötänsä=, _he did not take the arms with him_.

_b._ =Myöten=, postposition with partitive, meaning _along_ or _according to_. =Käydä tietä myöten=, _to follow a road_. =Tahtoasi myöten=, _as you wish_. =Virta paisui äyräitänsä myöten=, _the river flowed by its banks_.

(14) =Ohi=, _side_, forms the following postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Ohessa=, _at the side of_. =Istui tien ohessa=, _he sat by the wayside_. =Muun ohessa puhui=, _among other things he said_.

_b._ =Ohesta=, _from the side_, rarely used. =Nousi tien ohesta=, _he rose from the way side_.

Similarly

_c._ =ohella= (_or_ =ohilla=),

_d._ =ohelta=,

_e._ and =oheen=

in much the same sense, _by the side of_ or _with_. =Hän kulki minun ohellani=, _he came with me_. =Ääni kuului tien ohelta=, _a noise was heard from the road_. =Iso kivi on pellon ohella=, _there is a big stone by the field_. =Istautui tien oheen=, _he sat down by the wayside_.

_f._ =Ohitse= _or_ =ohi= expresses motion along or by the side of anything. =Kulkea jonkun ohitse=, _to pass a person_. =Me ajoimme heidän ohitsensa= (_or_ =ohi=), _we drove by them_. =Ammuin linnun ohitse=, _I missed (shot beside) the bird_.

(15) =Perä=, the _extreme_ or _hinder part_ of anything, forms postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Perässä=, _behind_. =Lapsi käy isän perässä=, _the child walks behind the father_. =Sairaswaunut kulkevat sotajoukon perässä=, _the ambulance goes behind the army_.

_b._ =Perästä=, _behind_ or _after_, generally implying that the second object depends on the first, which is thus a point of departure. =Sen perästä=, _afterwards_. =Toinen toisensa perästä=, _one after another_. =Kolmen wuoden perästä=, _after three years_.

_c._ =Perään=, _after_, implying motion. =Mennä jonkun perään=, _to go to look for some one_. =Katsoa lapsen perään=, _to look after the children_. =Miksi ette lähettäneet minun perääni?= _why did you not send for me?_

(16) The local cases of =Puoli=, _a half_ or _side_, are used as postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Puolessa=, _at_ or _near_. =Turun puolessa=, _round Turku_ (_Åbo_). =Pohjan=, =idän puolessa=, _in the North_, _in the East._

_b._ =Puolesta=, _from the side of_ or _for_, _on behalf of_. =Puhua itsensä puolesta=, _to speak for oneself_. =Se tapahtukoon minun puotestani=, _it can be done as far as I am concerned_. =Sen puolesta, että....=, _for this reason, that...._ =Hän nousi maansa puolesta=, _he rose up for his fatherland_.

_c._ =Puolella=, _on the side of_. =Tuuli on idän puolella=, _the wind is in the East_. =Olla kuninkaan puolella=, _to be on the king’s side_. N.B. =toisella puolella= followed by partitive. =Toisella puolella järveä=, _on the other side of the lake_.

_d._ =Puolelta=, _from the side of_, _from_. =Tuli syttyi tuulen puolelta=, _the fire burnt in the side when the wind blew_.

_e._ =Puolelle=, _to the side of_, _to_. =Mennä wihollisten puolelle=, _to go over to the enemy_.

_f._ =Puoleen=, _to the side of_, _to_. =Katsoa jonkun puoleen=, _to look towards a person_. =Kenenkä puoleen minun olisi käännyttävä?= _to whom shall I turn?_

(17) =Pää=, _the head_ or _extremity_, forms postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Päässä=

_b._ =Päästä=

_c._ =Päähän=

are used to express a distance or limit in space. =Kuula menee kahden virstan päähän=, _the bullet carries two miles_. =Suomen raja on jonkun penikulman päässä Pietarista=, _the Finnish frontier is some miles from Petersburg_. =Minä tunsin tulijan viiden kymmenen sylen päästä=, _I recognised the new comer from several yards’ distance_. =Vihollinen on virstan päässä=, _the enemy is a mile off_. =Päästä= is also used of time. =Viikon päästä=, _after a week_.

_d._ =Päällä=

_e._ =Päältä=

_f._ =Päälle=

express respectively rest on, motion from above or into the space above an object. =Olla veden päällä=, _to float_. =Tuuli on meren päältä=, _the wind comes from the sea_. =Lentää katon päälle=, _to fly on to the roof_. =On sadekaapu palttoon päällä=, _there is a cape on the great coat_.

(18) =Rinta=, _breast_ or _side_, forms postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Rinnalla=

_b._ =Rinnalle=

expressing rest by, or motion to the side of. =Poika istuu isänsä rinnalla=, _the boy sits by his father’s side_. =Laskea joku jonkun rinnalle=, _to put some one by some one else_, i.e. _to compare_. =Älä pyri hänen rinnallensa=, _strive not to be like him_.

=Jos arvossa mä oisin=
=Ja rikkahitten rinnalla.=—_Popular song._

(19) =Seka=, _a mixture_ or _collection_, forms postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =seassa=

_b._ =seasta=

_c._ =sekaan=

=Kiiltää kulta rikkojenkin seasta=, _gold glitters in what one throws away_. =Panna wettä wiinin sekaan=, _to mix water with wine_. =Ihmisten seassa=, _among men_. =Seassamme=, _between us_.

(20) =Sisä=, _the interior_, is used as a postposition in all the local cases.

_a._ =Sisässä=

_b._ =Sisästä=

_c._ =Sisään=

_d._ =Sisällä=

_e._ =Sisältä=

_f._ =Sisälle=

=Oletko ollut tämän huoneen sisässä=, _have you been in this room?_ =Kärme tuli puun sisästä=, _the snake came out of the tree_. =Onko kirkon sisällä paljo väkeä=, _are there many people in the church?_

(21) =Taka=, meaning _the space behind anything_, forms postpositions with the genitive.

_a._ =Takaa= (partitive), _from behind_ or _after_. =Hän tuli oven takaa=, _he came from behind the door_. =Iso honka näkyy koivujen takaa=, _there is a great fir behind the beeches_. =Wuoden takaa=, _after a year_. It means also _according to_. =Woimansa takaa=, _according to one’s power; with all one’s might_.

_b._ =Takana= (essive), _behind_. =Käydä jonkun takana=, _to go behind_ or _follow any one_. =Seisoa seinän takana=, _to stand behind the wall_. =Rahat on takanani=, _the money is in my keeping_. =Olla turvan takana=, _to be under the protection of_.

_c._ Translative—=taaksi=, =taakse=, =taa=, _back_, _backwards_, or _across_. =Katsoa taaksensa=, _to look backwards_. =Lähteä meren taaksi= (_or_ =taa=), _to go across the sea_. =Aurinko laskeutuu vuorten taa=, _the sun sets behind the mountains_.

(22) =Sisäpuoli=, _interior_, is used in the adessive, ablative, and allative.

_a._ =Sisäpuolella Suomalaiset kanssaheimot eivät asu kaikki suomen rajain sisäpuolella=, _all the Finnish tribes do not live within the Finnish frontier_.

_b._ =Kuuluiko ääni huoneen sisäpuolelta?= _was the voice heard within the room?_

_c._ =Paimen ajoi lampaat aitauksen sisäpuolelle=, _the shepherd drove the sheep into the sheepfold_.

(23) =Tykö=, _nearness_, forms postpositions with the genitive which have exactly the same meaning as the corresponding cases of =luo=. =Tyköä=, _from_; =työ=, _to_ (e.g. =minä tulen miehen työ=); =tykönä=, _at_ or _with_. The form =työ= is due to the fact that a termination, probably that of the translative, has been lost. It is only used dialectically.

(24) =Ulkopuoli= (cf. =sisäpuoli=), _the exterior_, is used in the adessive, allative, and ablative as either a preposition with the partitive or a postposition with the genitive. =Kaupungin ulkopuolella= or =ulkopuolella kaupunkia=, _outside the town_. Similarly are employed the other cases to express motion to or from the outside of anything.

(25) =Vasta=, _the place opposite anything_.

_a._ =Vastassa=, postposition with the genitive, means _opposite_, _facing_. =Hänen vastassansa=, _opposite him_. =Toistensa vastassa olevat kaupungit=, _the cities lie facing each other_.

_b._ =Vastaan=, postposition with the genitive, has the same meaning with the idea of motion towards added, which however seems to disappear in many metaphorical uses. =Mennä isän vastaan=, _to meet one’s father_. =Minä en ole sitä vastaan=, _I am not against that_. =Tehdä käskyä vastaan=, _to disobey a command_. =Sitä vastaan=, _on the other hand_.

_c._ =Vastoin= (instructive plural) is a preposition with the partitive, meaning _against_ or _contrary to_. =Vastoin virtaa, tuulta=, _against the river, the wind_. =Vastoin tahtoani=, _against my wish_. =Älkää pakoittako tyttäriänne vastoin mieltä=, _do not compel your daughters against their will_. =Vastoin lakia=, _against the law._

_d._ =Vasten=[17] (instructive singular from a form =vasti=), preposition or postposition with the partitive, is used in much the same sense as =vastoin=, but means also (1) _about, towards_. E.g. =älä lyö poikaa vasten silmiä=, _don’t hit the boy about the eyes_. =Hän sai vasten silmänsä=, _he got one in the eye_; (2) as a postposition with the genitive it means _for_, _on account of_. =Moni tekee työtä ainoastansa omaa hyötyänsä vasten=, _many work only for their own profit_. But =varten= is better in this sense.

_e._ =Vastapäätä= is used in the meaning of _opposite_ or _vis-à-vis_, as a preposition with the partitive. =Kirkko on rakennettu vastapäätä raastupaa=, _the church is opposite the court-house_.

(26) =Väli=, _the midst_, forms postpositions with the genitive. All the local cases are used: =Välissä=, =välistä=, =väliin=, =välillä=, =välille=, =välitse=. =Kirkon ja pappilan välillä on maantie=, _there is a road between the church and the parsonage_. =Kansan välitse=, _through the midst of the people_. =Sano hänelle suoraan silmien väliin=, _tell him to his face_.

(27) =Yli=, meaning the place above anything, is used in various forms as a preposition or a postposition with the genitive.

_a._ =Yli= (1) as a preposition with the genitive expresses existence above an object; e.g. =Pilvet liitävät yli meren, yli maan=, _the clouds glide over land and sea_. =Yli päämme on kirkas taivas=, _the bright heaven is above us_. We also find expressions like =kello on yli viiden=, _it is after five o’clock_. It also expresses metaphorically pre-eminence. =Hän on kunnioitettava yli muiden=, _he is more honourable than the rest_. It is used metaphorically in such expressions as =yli wuoden=, _more than a year_; =maata yli aikansa=, _to sleep too long_. =Yli sen mitä ennen on maksettu=, _what has been paid in addition to previous payments_.

(2) =Yli= is also used as a postposition with the genitive, and as such expresses motion over a thing, so that the object moving remains temporally above it. =Matto on levitetty koko lattian yli=, _the carpet is spread over all the floor_. =Hän tuli wähän yli puoliwäliin matkaa=, _he came a little over half way_. =Hän katseli olan yli=, _he looked over his shoulders_.

_b._ =Ylitse= (prolative) expresses motion over and across an object. =Purjehtia meren ylitse=, _to sail across the sea_. =Kun pääsisi tämän raskaan ajan ylitse=, _when one has got over these hard times_.

_c._ =Yllä=

_d._ =Yltä=

_e._ =Ylle=

literally expressing rest on, and motion from or to the space above an object, are used as postpositions with the genitive to express the wearing, putting on or taking off of clothes. =Pojan yllä on uusi takki=, _the boy has a new coat on_. =Hänellä on waatteet yllänsä=, _he has clothes on_. =Riisua waatteet yltänsä=, _to take off one’s clothes_. =Panna, pukea yllensä=; _to put on clothes_. Cf. =oli loassa yltä päältä= (adverb), _to be dirty from head to foot_.

(28) =Ympäri=, the space surrounding, gives the following forms.

_a._ =Ympäri= is used as a postposition with the genitive. =Laiva purjehti maan ympäri=, _the ship sailed round the land_. It is also used as a preposition with the genitive or partitive in much the same sense. =Riittikö oma leipä ympäri vuoden?= _is your own corn enough for the year?_

_b._ =Ympärillä=

_c._ =Ympäriltä=

_d._ =Ympärille=

are postpositions with the genitive expressing rest in, motion from or to the space round an object. =Kuori on puun ympärillä=, _the tree has bark round it_. =Panna sontaa puun ympärille=, _to manure a tree_. =Metsät ovat kadonneet kaupungin ympäriltä=, _the forests have been cut down round the town_. =Miksi on kääre sormesi ympärillä?= _why have you a bandage on your finger?_ =Ota huivi kaulan ymperiltä=, _take the handkerchief from round your neck_.

NEGATIVE SENTENCES.

As has been explained, the negative in Finnish only exists in combination with the personal pronouns as a negative verb, and there is no word corresponding to _no_ or _not_. This peculiarity naturally makes the structure of negative sentences different from that of other languages.

(1) The answer ‘no’ to a question must be rendered by the proper person of the negative verb, with or without the root of the verb negative. To the question =Tuletteko?= _are you coming?_ the negative answer is =en tule= _or_ =en=, if one person is referred to, but =emme tule= _or_ =emme=, if more than one. Similarly, to =tulevatko lapset?= _are the children coming?_ the negative reply must be =eivät tule= _or_ =eivät=.

(2) If a sentence contains such words as _never_, _no one_, _nothing_, _nowhere_, etc., they are expressed by using the proper person of the negative verb, with the proper case of the interrogative pronoun or the interrogative adverb, which receive the termination =kaan= _or_ =kään=, sometimes shortened into =aan= _or_ =ään=. =Emme ole nähneet ketäkään= _or_ =ketään=, _we have seen no one_. =Missä olette käyneet? En missäkään=, _where have you been? Nowhere_. =Onko hän koska ollut Helsingissä? Ei koskaan= (_or_ =Ei milloinkaan=) _has he ever been to Helsingfors? No, never_.

(3) It is clear that as the negative is always joined to a personal pronoun, sentences where it qualifies an infinitive in most languages (for instance, _it would be better not to go_) cannot by any means be rendered literally in Finnish. Such sentences are turned quite differently, the chief device being to use the abessive of inf. III; for instance, _I advise you not to go_, =minä kehoitan teitä, älkää menkö=, _or_ =olemaan menemättä=. =Olisi parempi olla kirjoittamatta=, _it would be better not to write_. _The house is not sold_, =talo on myömättä= (but =ei ole myöty= is also possible). _The present is not given_, =lahja on antamatta= (_or_ =ei ole annettu=). _You need not go_, =ei sinun pidä mennä= (where =ei= negatives =pidä= not =mennä=), _or_ =sinun pitää olla menemättä=. _You will have to go away and not see your sister_, =teidän pitää matkustaa pois sisartanne näkemättä=.

Sentences are occasionally found where =ei= apparently negatives an infinitive. E.g. S. John vii. 34, =Teidän pitää minua etsimän ja ei löytämän=, _ye shall seek me and not find me_. But this construction is really elliptical for =ja ei pidä löytämän=.

Nevertheless this use of the negative verb with an infinitive or participle is occasionally found, even in the Kalevala; e.g. xxviii. 262, =Sie vanno valat ikuiset ... ei sotia käyäksesi=, _swear eternal oaths ... that thou willst not go to war_. And immediately afterwards, =Vannon mie valat vakaiset En kesänä ensimmäisnä ... Saa’a suurihin sotihin=, _I swear firm oaths that in the first summer ... I will not go to war_. Here =käyäksesi= and =saa’a= (for =käydäksesi= and =saada=) are infinitives constructed with =ei= and =en=. In the first passage =et= would have seemed more natural. So again in xliii. 237, =Sanoit et käyväsi sotoa=, _thou saidst thou wouldst not go to war_. As these constructions do not seem capable of being explained by the principles of Finnish syntax, they are probably due to the influence of foreign languages.

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

If an interrogative sentence does not contain an interrogative pronoun or adverb, its character is marked by adding the particle =ko= or =kö= to some word in the sentence. Thus one says =menettekö kotiin?= _are you going home?_ But in such sentences as =mihin menette?= or =kuka menee?= it is unnecessary to use =ko=, as the sentence already contains a word which makes its interrogative character clear. It will be noticed that this use of =ko= is exactly similar to that of =ли= in Russian.

The termination =ko=, =kö= is added to the word on which the chief interrogative stress is laid.

=Tiedättekö mihin hän on lähtenyt?= _do you know where he is gone?_ =Isäkö sen sanoi?= _was it the father who said so?_ =Meritsekö aiotte matkustaa?= _are you thinking of going by sea?_

In a negative question the termination =kö= is always attached to the negative verb. =Ettekö ole nähneet häntä?= _have you not seen him?_ =Eikö jo lakkaa satamasta?= _hasn’t it stopped raining yet?_

In a disjunctive question the particle =ko=, =kö= is attached to the first alternative which is connected with the second by the word =vai=. =Poikako se on vai tyttö?= _is that a boy or a girl?_

But if there are two verbs in the sentence =ko= or =kö= is added to each. =Onko hän vielä kotona vai läksikö?= _is he still at home or has he started?_

In such a sentence as, _Are you coming or not?_ one can say either =Tuletteko vai ette?= or, =tuletteko vai ettekö tule?=

The manner of giving a negative reply has been described above. Though there are two words, =ja= and =niin= (instr. plural of =se=), which can be used for ‘yes,’ the usual way of giving an affirmative reply is, to repeat the word which in the question has =ko= attached to it. =Tuliko pappi?= _has the priest come?_ =Tuli=, _yes_.

OTHER SENTENCES.

Causal, temporal and consecutative sentences offer no special peculiarities, being introduced by the conjunctions given in the accidence and having the verb in the indicative mood. The particle =että= is generally combined with the negative verb: =etten=, =ettet=, =ettei=, etc.

Concessive sentences, introduced by =vaikka=, =vaikkapa=, _or_ =jos kohta=, have the verb in either the indicative or the conditional. =Hän oli niin köyhä ettei ollut mitä syödä=, _he was so poor that he had nothing to eat_. =Vaikka näin häntä usein, kun olin Pietarissa= (_or_ =Pietarissa olessani=), =emme kuitenkaan ole tutut=, _though I often saw him when I was at Petersburg, we were not well acquainted_. =Vaikka hän vannoisi en sittekään uskoisi=, _though he should swear I would not believe him_.

The first member of a conditional sentence is introduced by =jos=, or, if negative, by =jollen=, =ellen= (=jollet=, =jollei=, etc., =ellet=, =ellei=, etc.). The second is often introduced by =niin=. In such sentences as _if I go, he will come_, where the realization of the condition is considered as certain, the indicative is used—=Jos menen niin hän tulee=. But where the realization is doubtful the conditional present is employed, and where it is no longer possible the conditional past. _If I were to go, he would come_, =jos menisin, niin hän tulisi=. _If I had gone, he would have come_, =jos minä olisin mennyt, niin hän olisi tullut=.

Final sentences are introduced by =että= _or_ =jotta=, or in the negative form by =etten=, =ettet=, =ettei=, etc. The verb is in the conditional. As has been described above (pp. 192 and 198) final sentences can also be rendered by infinitives and participles. =Ilmoittakaat minulle että minäkin tulisin ja kumartaisin häntä= (S. Matt. ii. 8), _tell me, that I may come and worship him_. =Hän kävelee ettei vilustuisi=, _he walks that he may not catch cold_.

ORATIO OBLIQUA.

A sentence in oratio obliqua can be rendered by the participial constructions above described, or by a sentence beginning with =että=, _that_. In this latter case the sentence is constructed exactly as in English.

=Hän sanoi ettei se ole varma, mutta että koettaisi tiedustaa tarkemmin=, _he said it was not certain, but that he would endeavour to obtain more accurate information_. =Minä kysyin häneltä oliko hän kuullut että ystäväni oli kuollut ja pyysin että hän kirjoittaisi=, _I asked him if he had heard that my friend was dead, and begged him to write_.

The word =muka= is often used to denote that a statement rests not on the authority of the speaker but of some one else.

=Hän ei tahtonut viipyä: oli muka kovin väsyksissä=, _he did not want to wait, saying he was very tired_. =Luulevat hänen veljensä tulevan: hän oli muka kirjoittanut jollekulle=, _people think his brother is coming: it is said he has written to some one_. =Hän eroitti palvelijansa se kun oli muka varas=, _he dismissed his servant because he was a thief_ (according to his master’s statement).

ON THE DIALECT OF THE KALEVALA.

There are two main dialects of Finnish, the Western, which has produced the modern literary language, and the Eastern, in which the Kalevala is written. There are also many others of which perhaps the most important is that called the Savolaks dialect, which is hardly a literary language, though in the ‘Lönrötin Albumi,’ p. 286, there is a story called ‘Keisarin tuttu’ written in it. It appears to be characterized by a great fondness for the sound of =i=, which is added to other vowels; e.g. =tiällä= for =täällä=, =hiän= for =hän=. On the other hand =i= is often apparently shortened to a semivowel, merely modifying the previous consonant; e.g. =olj= for =oli=. The letter =d= does not occur, but is represented by =j= or =v=, =meijänni= for =meidänkin=, =käyvä= for =käydä=. The dialect would seem to be generally characterized by a soft and rather thick utterance. =Olen= becomes =oun= and =olette=, =outta=. =V= is frequently doubled; e.g. =hyvvee päivee=, and =o= is often used for =a=; e.g. =mokomoo= for =mokomaa=. So also we have forms like =soatanoo= for =saatanee=, =pankoo= for =pankaa=. The root of verbs has the letter =k= added in the negative and imperative forms: =en annak=, =annak=.

On the Eastern frontier of Finland and in the adjoining parts of the Russian Government of Olonetz is spoken a dialect called Karelian, which in its present form is much corrupted by the influence of Russia. The Kalevala, however, which was mostly collected in this part of the world, is written in a pure Finnish dialect, which has come to be accepted as the ordinary language of poetical composition.

The chief peculiarities of the dialect of the Kalevala are as follows[18]:—

I. The letter =d= does not exist. =T= disappears altogether in the cases where in the ordinary dialect it is softened to =d=. For instance—=saa’a= (=saada=), =pöyän= (=pöydän=), =tieän= (=tiedän=), =tahon= (=tahdon=), =kahen= (=kahden=), =yhen= (=yhden=), =puhas= (=puhdas=), =ouoille= (=oudoille=), =eellä=, =eessä= (=edellä=, =edessä=), =sio= (=sido=).

II. Similarly the letter =k= is dropped altogether when in literary Finnish it either becomes =j= or remains unchanged.

(1) =lk=, =rk= in a closed syllable become simple =l= and =r=, not =lj=, =rj=: e.g. =jälen= for =jäljen= (=jälki=), =kulen= for =kuljen=.

(2) =sk= and =tk=, which are not subject to softening in ordinary Finnish, become =s= and =t= in closed syllables: =kosen= for =kosken=, =kaselle= for =kaskelle=, =itettävä= for =itkettävä=.

III. =rt=, =lt= are not assimilated in the infinitive of verbs of conj. 3: =kuulta=, =surten= for =kuulla=, =surren=.

IV. The pronominal affixes do not always prevent consonants being softened as in ordinary Finnish: =ajansa= for =aikansa=, =iäni= for =ikäni=.

V. Where long vowels and diphthongs are the result of contraction, the Kalevala employs dissyllabic forms. These contracted forms in ordinary Finnish may be divided into two classes.

(_a_) The long vowel is the result of the omission of =h= (representing an original =s= or other consonant) between the two component vowels. In such cases the Kalevala always employs the fuller and more primitive forms with =h=. So we have =vierahan= for the literary =vieraan=, =kotihin= for =kotiin=, =käyähän= for =käydään= (=d= omitted).

(_b_) But there are a number of cases where the long vowels =aa= and =ää= in ordinary literary Finnish are not the result of the omission of =h=. Under these circumstances the Kalevala has =oa= instead of =aa= and =eä= instead of =ää=. Thus the partitive singular of =kala= is formed by suffixing =a=—that is =kala-a=. In ordinary Finnish this gives =kalaa= (dissyllabic), but in the Kalevala we find =kaloa=. This form may be compared with the partitive plural, =kaloja=, where =a= becomes =o= in ordinary Finnish. It is to be noted however that the change to =oa= occurs in the Kalevala even when the vowel of the first syllable is =a=—=oroa= for =oraa=.

The instances of this change fall under three categories:

(1) Partitive cases of nouns and adjectives: =aikoa= for =aikaa=, =ilmoa= for =ilmaa=, =luutoa= for =luutaa=, =päiveä= for =päivää=, =tereä= for =terää=.

(2) The first infinitive of verbs: =ajoa= for =ajaa=, =eleä= for =elää=, =lenteä= for =lentää=, =piteä= for =pitää=.

(3) Contracted verbs of class 3: =arvoan= for =arvaan=, =lupoan= for =lupaan=, =lepeämättä= for =lepäämättä=.

VI. The plural (except the nom.) is sometimes formed with the suffix =-loi=, before the case suffix. This form is used chiefly in words ending in =o=, =ö=, =u=, =y=, =i=, and =e=; e.g. =rekilöitä=, =ristilöitä=, =lukkoloita=, =mahtiloita=.

VII. The style of the Kalevala is characterized by the frequent use of derivative forms from nouns ending in =o=, =nen= (_or_ =onen=), =yt= (or =ut=), and =kainen=. These forms have a diminutive or endearing significance. They are mostly quite incapable of translation into English, but correspond to the Russian diminutives. E.g. from =emä= are formed =emo=, =emonen=, and =emyt=; from =isä=, =iso=, =isonen=, and =isyt=; from =kaunis=, =kauno=, =kaunokainen= _or_ =kaunukainen=; from =kesä=, =kesonen= and =kesyt=; from =meri=, =meronen= and =meryt=; from =neiti=, =neitinen=, =neito=, =neitonen=, =neiyt=, and =neityinen=; from =puu=, =puuhut=; from =päivä=, =päivönen= and =päivyt=; from =veli=, =velo=, =vello=, =veljyt=, =veijo=, =veito=, =veitonen=, =veikko=, and =veikkonen=.

We also find a great quantity of derivative verbs ending in =ella=, =skella=, =ahta=, =alta=, etc., in which the exact force of the syllable added is often obscure.

VIII. In verbs the 3rd person sing. of the present is formed with the suffix =vi=, a weakening of the original =pi= used in monosyllables. E.g. =tekevi=, =ajattelevi=, =sanovi=, =ajavi=, =kaatelevi=. But in monosyllables =pi= is always used, =uipi=, =saapi=.

IX. Some verbal stems ending in =a= or =ä= reject this vowel before =t=, =k=, =n=, and are conjugated as if they belonged to the third class. Thus =löytää= forms the past participle =löynnyt= for =löytänyt=: =tietää= forms concessive =tiennen= and past part. =tiennyt=. So =seista=, =seiskaamme=, =seissut= from =seiso=.

X. In the formation of the passive many verbs ending in =ta=, =tä= reject this syllable and also the consonant =n=, if it precedes. =Löytää= makes the passive stem =löyttä= instead of =löydettä=: =rakentaa=, =raketta= for =rakennetta=: =kuumentaa=, =kuumetta= for =kuumennetta=.

XI. The conjugation of the reflexive verbs (as already mentioned) offers a mass of forms unknown to literary Finnish, which sometimes also occur in verbs which are not strictly reflexive.

The chief terminations found in these verbs are:—

_Indicative present._

Sing. 1. =me= _or_ =ime=—=luome=, =kaivaime=.
2. =tet=, =itet=, _or_ =te=—=pistätet=.
3. =kse=, =ikse=, _or_ =ksen=—=astuikse=, =istuikse=,
=astuiksen=, =katseleikse=.

_Imperfect._

Sing. 1. =ime=—=annoime=, =siirrime=, =siirräime=.
2. =ihet= _or_ =ihit=—=astelihet=, =suorihet=.
3. =ihe= _or_ =iin=—=ajoihe=, =loihe=, =vetihe=, =pistihe=,
=rikkoihe=, =heittiin=.

The termination =ime= is also found in the 1st pers. sing. of the conditional and =ihe= in the 3rd sing. of the concessive and conditional. The 2nd sing. of the Imper. often ends in =te= or =ite=—=veäite= (=vedä itsesi=), =laskeite=, =paneite=. The inf. of such verbs generally ends in =itä=; e.g. =vetäitä=. Rarely are found such forms as =kuolkosi=, =kaotkosi= for =kuollos=, etc.

XII. The negative verb frequently follows instead of preceding the root which it negatives; e.g. =oisi en paljo pitänyt, maha et lausua lapiksi=.

XIII. The style of the Kalevala is characterized by a general absence of conjunctions and connecting particles, but on the other hand abounds in syllables used merely to give emphasis or quite pleonastically. Such are the suffixes =pa=, =pä=, =han=, =hän=, =kana=. The word =on= is used in the same way; e.g. =juop’ on vanha Wäinämöinen.= =Tuop’ on Pohjolan emäntä sanan virkkoi.= =Enpä anna tyttöäni.=

XIV. A number of other differences from the literary dialect occur, some of which may be classified as follows:—

(1) Contracted essives, where the ordinary language prefers the full form: =lasna= for =lapsena=; =nuorra= for =nuorena=; =suurra= for =suurena=.

(2) In pronouns =ma=, =mä=, or =mie= for =minä=; =sa=, =sä=, =sie= for =sinä=; =milma=, =silma= for =minua=, =sinua=; =miusta= for =minusta=; =siulle= for =sinulle=, =ka= _or_ =ken= for =kuka=, =mi= for =mikä=.

(3) From the verb =olla= are found =oo= for =ole=; =oisi= for =olisi=; =lie=, =liet= for =lienee=, =lienet=; =liekkö= for =lieneekö=.

(4) The imperf. ends in =ti= where in ordinary Finnish it is softened to =si=: =kynti=, =löyti=, =kaati=, =pyyti= for =kynsi=, =löysi=, =kaasi=, =pyysi=.

XV. The syntax of the Kalevala is marked by extreme simplicity in its main features. This is natural in popular poetry, and, besides, the system of versification (short lines of eight syllables generally containing a complete sentence) and the tendency to parallelism and repetition, were all unfavourable to the growth of long and involved phrases. On the other hand, the sentences of the Kalevala are often difficult to understand on account of their irregularity. Not only are the boldest inversions and omissions permitted (e.g. =Emo tuosta itkemähän= for =rupesi itkemähän=), but words are frequently strung together in so loose a manner that, though the thought is plain, it is almost impossible to analyse the sentence grammatically. For instance, xl. 401, =Anna luoja, suo Jumala, Anna onni ollaksemme, Hyvin ain’ eleäksemme, kunnialla kuollaksemme=. This clearly means, _grant that we may be prosperous, live well and die gloriously_, but it is almost impossible to explain it grammatically. Such a tendency to be more careful of the general sense than of the separate words and their correct relation to one another, is very natural in a poem whose authors were ignorant of grammar and had probably no written literature before them. It is accompanied in the Kalevala by a habit of repeating the same idea under numerous synonyms for the sake of emphasis and of creating new words for the sake of parallelism or alliteration, which have sometimes a meaning and bear testimony to the flexibility and fecundity of the language, but sometimes are absolutely unmeaning. Thus in Kal. xi. 55 we have =Enkä lähe Inkerelle, Penkerelle, pänkerelle=. Here =pänkerelle= means nothing at all, but is simply a kind of repetition of =penkerelle=. Similarly Kal. xlviii. 100, =Ihveniä, ahvenia, Tuimenia, taimenia=. =Ihveniä= and =Tuimenia= are meaningless words.

SELECTIONS FROM FINNISH LITERATURE

N.B. When a _rule_ is cited by a number, this refers to the numbered phonetic rules from page 6 to page 18.

PYHÄN JOHANNEKSEN EVANGELIUMI.

1. Alussa[1] oli[2] Sana[3] ja[4] se[5] Sana[3] oli[2] Jumalan[6] tykönä[7] ja[4] Jumala[6] oli[2] se[5] Sana[3].

2. Tämä[8] oli[2] alussa[1] Jumalan[6] tykönä[7].

3. Kaikki[9] ovat[10] sen[11] kautta[12] tehdyt[13] ja[4] ilman[14] sitä[15] ei[16] ole[16] mitään[17] tehty[16] joka[18] tehty[13] on[19].

4. Hänessä[20] oli[2] elämä[21] ja[4] elämä[21] oli[2] ihmisten[22] valkeus[23].

5. Ja[4] se[5] valkeus[23] pimeydessä[24] paistaa[25] jota[26] ei[27] pimeys[24] käsittänyt[27].

6. Yksi[28] mies[29] oli[30] lähetetty[30] Jumalalta[31] jonka[32] nimi[33] oli[2] Johannes[34].

7. Se[35] tuli[36] siitä[37] valkeudesta[38] todistamaan[39] että[40] kaikki[9] uskoisivat[41] hänen[42] kauttansa[43].