Chapter II: Short Vowels (4)

II. The word expressing quantity is omitted and the partitive stands alone as the subject of the sentence. This construction can often, though not always, be rendered by the word ‘some’ in English, or by ‘de’ with the article in French. =Leipää on pöydällä=, _there is some bread on the table_ (_il y a du pain sur la table_). It is to be noticed that in this construction the verb of which the partitive is the subject must be intransitive, and is always in the singular, though the subject should be in the plural. =Onko teillä vaatteita?= _have you any clothes?_

The subject of a negative sentence is put in the partitive, in cases where we should say in English,—‘There is not’ or ‘there is no.’ =Ei ole täällä ihmisiä=, _there are no men here_. In such a sentence as =en ole merilohia, syvän aallon ahvenia= (Kal. v. 122), _I am not a salmon_, the partitive must be explained as indicating a class, _I am not one of the salmons_. In ordinary Finnish the partitive is only used in this way with determining adjectives. Thus one says, =En ole vaimo=, _I am not a woman_; but =En ole niitä vaimoja jotka unhottavat miehensä=, _I am not one of the women who forget their husbands_.

III. The object is put in the partitive whenever it is not total (_vide_ rules given above, p. 127). =Juoda kahvia=, _to drink some coffee_; =poika lukee kirjaa=, _the boy is reading the book_. The object of a negative verb is always regarded as partial. =Poika ei antanut kirjaa=, _the boy did not give the book_. =Hevonen ei jaksanut vetää kuormaa=, _the horse could not carry the load_.

V. As stated in the rules given p. 123, the complement of a sentence is put in the partitive when it expresses a whole of which the subject is a part. The partitive is particularly used to express the substance of which a thing is made. =Sormus on kultaa=, _the ring is gold_. =Kieli on lihaa ja hampaat ovat luuta=, _the tongue is flesh, and the teeth are bone_.

VI. In a sentence expressing comparison the word =kuin= (_than_) can be omitted, and the word which follows the comparative be put in the partitive. =Kuu on pienempi kuin aurinko=, _or_ =kuu on pienempi aurinkoa=, _the moon is smaller than the sun_. =Pietari on suurempi Helsinkiä=, _St. Petersburg is larger than Helsingfors_. =Eikö Abanan ja Pharpharan wirrat Damaskussa ole kaikkia Israelin vesiä paremmat?= _Are not Abana and Pharphar, rivers of Damascus, better than all the waters of Israel?_

VII. Adjectives expressing height or size require the partitive. =Kirkon torni on kaksi sataa jalkaa korkea=, _the church tower is 200 feet high_. =Joki on kaksikymmentä jalkaa syvä=, _the river is 200 feet deep_. =Silta on puolta virstaa pitkä=, _the bridge is half a verst long_.

VIII. The partitive is used in salutations, exclamations, etc., where it is to be explained by the omission of some word. =Hyvää iltaa=, =hyvää huomenta= _(I wish you) good morning_; =kiitoksia=, _thanks_; =terveisiä=, _my compliments_; =mahdotonta!= _impossible!_ =kauheaa=, _horrible!_ So too in such expressions as =voi päiviäni=.

_Accusative._

I. The direct object of a finite active verb, if not in the imperative, is put in the accusative, when the action of the verb is regarded as total (_vide_ p. 126). =Isä ostaa kirjan pojalle=, _the father buys the book for the boy_. =Kauppamies saa rahat=, _the merchant receives the money_.

II. The accusative is also used to denote duration of time. =Viivyn päivän=, =viikon=, =muutamat viikkokaudet=. =Itki illat=, =itki aamut=, =yöhyet ennemmin itki=, Kal. v. 7, 8. It is also used in answer to the question, how many times, or which time. =Minä olen täällä ensimäisen kerran=, _I am here for the first time_. =Mina olen ollut Helsingissä muutamat (useat, monet) kerrat=, _I have been many times at Helsingfors_.

But expressions with =joka=, such as =joka kerta=, =joka päivä=, are used in the nominative. =Olen joka kerta matkustanut meritse=, _I have several times travelled by sea_. =Hän on minun nähnyt harva kerta=, _he has rarely seen me_. =Minä ratsastan joka päivä=, _I ride every day_.

_Genitive._

I. The genitive in Finnish is used with nouns—

(1) As the subjective genitive. =Alqwistin teokset=, _the works of Alquist_; =kaupungin kadut=, _the streets of the town_.

(2) As the objective genitive. =Vanhempain rakkaus=, _love for one’s parents_; =jumalan pelko=, _fear of God_.

(3) As the determinative genitive. =Helsingin kaupunki=, _the town of Helsingfors_; =kunnon mies, kunnon valkea=, _a good man, a good fire_.

II. Adjectives ending in =-inen=, which express age, measure, character, etc., take the genitive. =Vanha=, _old_, follows the same rule. =Sen muotoinen=, _of this kind_; =sormen pituinen=, _of a finger’s length_; =venäläisen luontoinen=, _a Russian in character_. =Pullo on kolmen lasin vetoinen=, _the bottle holds three glasses_. =Susi on koiran näköinen=, _a wolf looks like a dog_. =Miehen peukalon pituinen, waimon waaksan korkeuinen= (Kal. ii. 115). If the word in the genitive is an adjective, numeral, or pronoun, it is written as one word with the word on which it depends. =Pahankurinen=, _ill-behaved_; =hyväntapainen=, _well-behaved_.

III. The genitive is also used—

(1) With certain impersonal verbs, such as =täytyy=, =pitää=, =tulee=, =käskee=, =sopii=, =kelpaa=, =tarvitsee=, and with the verb =olla=, when this latter is used with certain adjectives. =Minun pitää lähteä ulkomaalle=, _I must go abroad_. =Hänen sopii viipyä täällä=. =Subjectisanan tulee olla nominativissa tai partitivissa=, _the subject must be in the nominative or partitive_. =Parempi minun olisi, parempi olisi ollut=, _better had it been for me_. =Ei hänen ollut vaikea päästä ulos=, _he had no difficulty in getting out_.

(2) A good many words expressing some state or feeling are used with the verb =olla=, and a genitive of the person who feels. =Minun on jano=, _I am thirsty_; =minun on nälkä=, _I am hungry_; =minun on tarve=, _I must_. =Hänen on aika mennä=, _it is time for him to go_. Similarly, =Rikkaiden on velvolisuus antaa köyhille=, _it is the duty of the rich to give to the poor_. =Sotamiehen on pakko mennä vaaraan=, _it is the duty of a soldier to go into danger_. In these latter sentences the genitive seems quite natural in our idiom, but they are really closely analogous to the phrases given above. In the dialect spoken about St. Petersburg it is usual to say =minulla= (not =minun=) =on jano, nälkä=.

Some of the examples quoted above support the idea (_v._ p. 24), that there is an old dative in Finnish ending in =n=, which has become confused with the genitive. It is hardly possible to explain otherwise such expressions as =Jumalan kiitos=, _thank God_; =Anna minun olla rauhassa=, _leave me in peace_.

IV. The genitive is used with the infinitives and participles to denote the agent. Examples of this use will be found in the description of the use of those parts of the verb (p. 184, ff.).

This use is also found after caritive adjectives. =Miekan miehen käymätöntä= (Kal. xxviii. 257), _untouched by the sword of man_.

THE INTERNAL CASES—INESSIVE, ELATIVE, AND ILLATIVE.

The inessive, elative, and illative are sometimes called the interior cases, because they express existence in and motion from or to the interior of an object. The adessive, ablative, and allative, on the other hand, are called the external cases, because they indicate rest on and motion from or into the exterior surface of an object. However, this distinction is not always kept up in the use of the cases, and the choice of the interior or exterior case in a given phrase seems often to be regulated by idiom or caprice, rather than by a reference to the original meaning.

_Inessive._

I. The proper meaning of this case is existence in an object. =Mies istuu tuvassa=, _the man sits in the hut_. =Parempi kala suussa kuin haava päässä=, _a fish in the mouth is better than a wound in the head_. =Vene kulkee vedessä=, _the boat moves in the water_. Here the inessive is used, because, though motion is indicated, it is motion _within_ a given space, and not to or from a given point.

There is much irregularity as to the use of the exterior and interior cases of local proper names, (1) Names ending in =la= always take the interior cases for euphony. =Urjalassa=, not =Urjalalla=. (2) Names of countries not ending in =maa=, and foreign names generally take the interior cases; but the word =Venäjä=, _Russia_, is always used in the forms =Venäjällä=, =-ltä=, =-lle=. (3) Names of countries ending in =maa= are generally used in the exterior cases, but the interior cases are used in speaking of things being found in the country. =Olin Saksanmaalla=, _I was in Germany_, but =Saksamaassa on paljo sotamiehiä=, _there are many soldiers in Germany_. But =Suomenmaa=, _Finland_, is always used in the interior cases.

Besides this strict use, the inessive is employed in a variety of expressions either metaphorically or in a loose local sense. Most of such phrases are quite obvious, and can be rendered in English by the preposition ‘in.’

II. It is used to express the time within which anything occurs. =Viidessä viikossa=, _in five weeks_. =Valmistuuko työ kahdessa päivässä=, _finish the work in two days_. =Pietarista Hatsinaan voi matkustaa puolessa toista tunnissa=, _one can go from Petersburg to Gatchina in an hour and a half_.

III. From expressing the place in which the subject is, it is used by a natural transition to express the surroundings, state, or condition of anything. Thus it is employed in speaking of the weather. =Olin ulkona tuulessa ja sateessa=, _I was out in the wind and rain_. =Minä ajoin hevosella lumessa ja tuiskussa=, _I drove in a snow storm_.

Also in a number of metaphorical expressions. =Olla eksyksissä=, _to be in error_; =olla hyvässä kunnossa=, _to be in good condition_; =olla hyvässä turvassa=, _to be safe_; =olla hyvissä voimissa=, _to be prosperous_. =Te olette oikeassa ja minä olen väärässä=, _you are right and I am wrong_. =Olen ollut pari tuntia kovassa päänkivistyksessä=, _I had a violent headache for a couple of hours_. =Kello on epäjärjestyksessä=, _the watch is out of order_. =Siinä tapauksessa=, _in that case_. =Kaikki on mieli melkeässä, Ajatukset arvoisessa= (Kal. v. 177).

IV. In a number of expressions the inessive is used where the adessive would seem more natural to express close connection between two objects, particularly in the case of one thing being fixed or hung on another. =Kala on ongessa=, _the fish is on the hook_. =Takki on naulassa=, _the coat is hung on the nail_. =Pitäkää hattu päässä=, _keep your hat on your head_. =Hänellä ei ollut saappaita jalassa=, _he had no boots on his feet_.

V. It also expresses the occupation in which one is engaged. =Poika on työssä=, _the boy is at work_. Cf. =Olla pidoissa=, =häissä=, _to be at a banquet_ or _marriage_. Notice such idiomatic phrases as =olla kalassa=, _to be fishing_; =olla heinässä=, _to be making hay_; =olla marjassa=, _to collect berries_. It is noticeable that the verb =käydä=, _to go to_, or _frequent_, is generally followed by the inessive. =Käydä kirkossa=, _to go to church_; =käydä katsomassa=, _to go to sea_.

VI. It is also used to express that an object is covered or soiled with some liquid. =Nenänsä on veressä=, _his nose is bleeding_. =Silmät ovat vesissä=, _the eyes are full of tears_. =Sinun otsas hiessä pitää sinun syömän leipää=, _in the sweat of thy face shall thou eat bread_. Cf. also the expression =Järvi on jäässä=, _the lake is frozen_.

VII. It is used to express that certain qualities reside in a man. =Hänessä on jaloutta=, _he is noble_ (_nobility is in him_). =Sinussapajo onkin koko mies=, _you are a man worth the name_. =Ei ole lapsessa heinän niittäjätä=, _a child cannot be a haycutter_. =Teissä on kuume=, _you are feverish_.

_Elative._

As the inessive expresses properly rest in something, so the elative expresses motion from the interior of something. Many of its uses correspond to those of the inessive already described.

I. The strict literal use is to denote motion from an interior. =Mies lähti tuvasta=, _the man went out of the hut_. =Lohi hyppäsi merestä=, _the salmon leapt out of the sea_. =Metsästäjä tuli kotia metsästä=, _the huntsman came home from the forest_. =Kaatakaa olut pullosta lasiin=, _pour the beer out of the bottle into the glass_.

II. In expressing time, the elative is used to denote the beginning of a period—that is to say, the period is regarded as setting forth from a given date. =Pääsiäisestä on seitsemän viikkoa Helluntaihin=, _from Easter to Whitsuntide is seven weeks_. =Eilisestä illasta alkaen=, _since last night_. =Me läksimme matkaan aamusta=, _we set out in the morning_ (beginning from the morning). =En ole nähnyt häntä Joulusta saakka=, _I have not seen him since Christmas_. =Siitä hetkestä=, _from that hour_.

III, IV, V, VI. In all such expressions as those quoted under these headings for the inessive, the elative can be used when cessation _from_ an occupation or condition, or purification _from_ any defilement is to be expressed. =Tulin kotiin tuiskusta ja tuulesta=, _I came home from the snow and wind_. =Kadota silmistä, näkyvistä=, _to disappear from view_. =Päästä pulasta=, _to get out of difficulties_. =Poika oti lakin päästänsä=, _the boy took the cap off his head_. =Pese nenäsi verestä=, _wash the blood off your nose_. =Pyyhi silmäsi kynelistä=, _dry your eyes_. =Järvi lähti jäästä=, _the lake became free of ice_. =Tulla pois työn teosta=, =kalasta=, _to cease working_ or _fishing_.

VII. The elative is also used by a natural transition to express separation or difference from. =Minun on vaikea päästä virasta vapaakai=, _it is hard for me to get away from my work_. =Mies ei saa luopua vaimostansa=, _a man cannot be separated from his wife_. =Lätin kieli on kokonaan eroavainen Suomen kielestä=, _the Lettish language is perfectly different from Finnish_.

Besides these uses, which are parallel with those of the inessive, the elative has a variety of other significations. These mostly arise in a quite intelligible manner, from the idea of motion from, taken in a metaphorical sense.

VIII. In many phrases the elative is used almost like the partitive, that is to say, it denotes one or more persons or things taken or selected from a number. =Nuorin veljistä=, _the youngest of the brothers_. =Urhoollisin sotilaista=, _the bravest of the warriors_. =Laatokka on suurin Europan järvistä=, _Ladoga is the largest lake in Europe_. =Yksi näistä vaimoista=, _one of these women_.

There is, however, a slight difference in the meaning of the elative and partitive in such expressions, inasmuch as the former always implies a certain part of a given quantity which is in the mind of the speaker. Thus one says =kolme sisarta=, _three sisters_, a merely numerical expression. But =kolme sisaristani= means _three of my sisters_. So =naula voita= means _a pound of butter_; but =naula voista=, _a pound of the butter_, referring to a particular kind or mass of butter.

IX. From denoting the starting-point, the elative is used to express the origin or cause of anything, or the material from which a thing is made. =Kuolla myrkystä=, _to die of poison_. =Hän puhisi vihasta=, _he snorted from anger_. =Poika oli kylmästä köntistyneenä=, _the boy was numb with cold_. =Tyhjästä loi Jumala maailman=, _God created the world from Chaos_. =Hänestä tuli kelpo sotilas=, _he made a good soldier_. =Ei lapsesta laulajaksi=, _a child can’t be a singer_ (proverb). =Hän on hyvästä perheestä=, _he is of good family_. =Sanasta sana syntyy, kypenestä maa kytee=, _one word gives birth to another, and the world catches fire from a spark_. =Sormus on tehty kullasta=, _the ring is made of gold_. =Munan kuori on kovasta aineesta=, _the shell of an egg is of a hard substance_. =Venäjän valtio on kokoonpantu monenlaisista kansallisuuksista=, _the Russian empire is composed of many nationalities_.

In this sense it is often used to denote the object, particularly with words denoting speaking or some feeling. For instance, =puhua asiasta=, _to speak of a thing_, the thing being regarded as the point from which a conversation is started. =Kiitoksia kysymästänne=, _thanks for your question_. =Siitä voitte olla varma=, _you may be sure of it_. =Mitä pidätte Suomen kielestä?= _How do you like Finnish?_ =En välitä kenestäkään=, _I don’t care for anybody_. =Älkää surko huomisesta päivästä=, _take no thought for the morrow_.

N.B.—There is a curious use of =minusta= to denote ‘in my opinion, as far as I am concerned.’

X. Somewhat similar is the use of the elative in expressions denoting price. The Finnish idiom is to say =möin kirjan markasta=, _I sold the book for a mark_; =ostin kirjan markasta=, _I bought the book for a mark_; and =sain markan kirjasta=, _I received a mark for the book_. That is to say, ‘I bought a book from a mark,’ the price being regarded as the origin of the transaction. =Mitä tahdotte viikossa tästä huoneesta?= _how much do you want per week for this room?_ =Silmä silmästä ja hammas hampaasta=, _an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth_. =Kauppamies on myönyt tavaransa kalliista=, _the merchant sold his goods dear_.

XI. The elative is used to express the object in which any one is rich or poor. =Rikas rahasta=, _rich in money_, that is to say, money is regarded as the cause of the riches. =Kaivo on tyhjä vedestä=, _the well is empty of water_. =Huoneet olivat täydet väestä=, _the rooms were full of people_.

XII. The elative is also used in a variety of expressions, in which the cause or commencement of an action is emphasized by an idiom different to our own. Thus one says, not to seize by the ear, but from the ear, =pitää korvasta=; =sidottu käsistä ja jaloista=, _bound hand and foot_. =Damokleen miekka riippui hivuskarvasta=, _the sword of Damocles hung by a hair_, and metaphorically, =saada kiini rikoksesta=, _to convict of crime_. =Sanasta miestä, sarvesta härkää= (proverb), _a man is held by his words and an ox by the horns_.

By an idiom of the language verbs denoting to find, or seek, and also often verbs of seeing and hearing, are followed by an elative where we should use an expression implying rest in a place. =Mistä hänen löysit?= _where did you find him?_ =Milloin hyvänsä tuli huoneesen, tapasi hänen aina lukemasta=, _whenever one went into the room, one always found him reading_.

The elative comes to be used much as the accusative of respect in Latin, to mark the part in which anything is affected. =Mies on kipeä silmistänsä=, _the man is ill from his eyes_. =Hän on kömpelö käsistä=, _he is clumsy with his hands_. =Raukea jaloista=, _foot-sore_. =Koivu on tuuhea latvasta=, _the birch has spreading branches at the top_. =Veitsi on terävä kärestä=, _the knife has a sharp edge_.

_Illative._

The original meaning of the illative is motion into the interior of an object, from which it passes into the general sense of motion to. Most of its uses are parallel to those of the inessive and elative. =Mennä kouluun=, =kirkoon=, _to go to school_ or _to church_. =Lähteä Amerikaan=, =Sipiriaan=, _to go a journey to America_, _to Siberia_. =Merimies putosi laivalta veteen=, _the sailor fell from the ship into the water_.

It must, however, be noticed that a good many actions are regarded as implying motion to, in Finnish, which by our idiom are followed by prepositions signifying rest in. Thus one says, =Hevoset seisahtuivat pihaan=, _the horses stopped in the court_. =Sananlennätin tolpat ovat pystytetyt tien viereen=, _the telegraph wires are laid along the road_. =Me perustamme koulun kaupunkiin=, _we founded a school in the town_.

The most singular instance of this is, that the verbs signifying to remain or to leave invariably take this case, or the allative. _To stay at home_ is =jäädä kotiin=, the original meaning of the verb having apparently been to go to a place and stay there. Similarly =jättää=, _to leave behind_, and =unhottaa=, when it is used in the same sense, take the illative. =Jätin hattuni teaatteriin=, _I left my hat in the theatre_. =Unhotin rahakukkaroni kotiin=, _I left my purse at home_.

II. The illative is used in two ways to denote time.

A. It denotes the _end_ towards which a period is regarded as advancing, and can be translated by _until_ or _to_. =Pääsiäisestä on seitsemän viikkoa Helluntaihin=, _it is seven weeks from Easter to Whitsuntide_. =Kuu kiurusta kesään=, _it is a month from the time when the lark sings to summer_ (proverb). =Vieläkö on pitkältä Jouloon?= _is it still long till Christmas?_

In this sense it is often used with the preposition =hamaan=, or the postpositions =asti= and =saakka=. =Tähän päivään saakka=, _up till that day_; =myöhään yöhön saakka=, _till late at night_; =hamaan viimeiseen päivään asti=, _till the day of one’s death_.

B. The illative is also used idiomatically to express the space of time during which anything has _not_ taken place. =En ole nähnyt häntä kahteen vuoteen=, _I have not seen him for two years_. =En ole syönyt kunnolleen kolmeen päivään=, _I have not eaten properly for three days_. =Ei ole ollut näin kaunista syksyä miesmuistiin=, _there has not been such a fine autumn in the memory of man_.

C. It is also used to express the period of time in which an action is performed. =Ansaitsee viisi ruplaa viikkoonsa=, _he earns five roubles a week_. In this use the suffix is nearly always added to the case, but the words =aikaan=, =aikoihin=, and =puoleen= (in compounds), and =seutuun= are used in expressing time loosely. =Siihen aikaan=, _or_ =näihin aikoihin=, _at that time_. =Joulun seutuun=, _about Christmas time_. =Talven puoleen=, _in winter time_.

III, IV, V, VI. Like the inessive and elative, the illative is used in a variety of metaphorical expressions, when entrance into a state or condition is denoted. =Joutua eksyksiin=, _to go into error_, _to go astray_. =Tulla toimeen=, _to get on_, _manage satisfactorily_. =Ei se käy laatuun=, _that is impossible_. =Joutua hukkaan=, _to perish_. =Ajoi hevosen uuvuksiin=, _he rode his horse till it was tired_. So also it is used in speaking:—

(1) Of occupations, which are begun. =Hän meni työhön=, _he went to his work_; and also such expressions as =mennä kalaan=, _to go fishing_; =mennä marjaan=, _to go berry gathering_.

(2) Of the place on which anything is put. =Upseeri pani hattunsa naulaan=, _the officer hung his hat on the peg_. =Vedä sappaat jalkaan=, _to put on one’s boots_.

(3) Of liquids. =Hän löi nenänsä vereen=, _he gave him a bloody nose_. =Järvi meni jäähän=, _the lake froze_.

VII. The illative also expresses the use to which anything is put, or the purposes for which it is capable of being used. The origin of this sense of the case is clearly shown by the derivation of the verb to use, =käyttää=, which is the causal form of =käydä=, _to go_, and means _to make a thing go in a certain direction_. =Hän käytti rahansa hyviin tarkoituksiin=, _he employed his money for good purposes_. =Tuhlasi aikansa turhuuteen=, _he wasted his time_. So also =Hän sopii kaikkeen=, _he can do everything_. =Lappalaiset ovat kykenemättämiä sotapalvelukseen=, _the Laps are not fitted for military service_. =Mustalainen ei pysty työhön=, _a gipsy is not a good worker_. =Hän on valmis kaikkeen hulluuteen=, _he is ready for any folly_.

VIII. Somewhat similar is the use of the illative to express the object or desired goal of an action. =Isä kehoittaa poikaa ahkeruuteen=, _the father exhorts the boy to be diligent_. Similarly =kehoitta iloon=, etc. =Kasvattakaa lapsenne Jumalan pelkoon ja hyviin tapoihin=, _bring up your children to fear God and behave properly_. =Minä neuvoin ystävääni kärvällisyyteen=, =malttavaisuuteen=, _I advised my friend to be patient_, or _prudent_. =Kenraali innostutti sotamiehet urhouteen=, _the general exhorted his soldiers to bravery_.

IX. The illative is further used with verbs expressing feeling, chiefly those formed with =u= or =y=, the idea being apparently that the feeling passes from the subject to the object. For instance, =olla rakastunut johonkin=, _to be in love with some one_. Cf. the Russian idiom =онъ въ нее влюбленъ=. =Olen kyllästynyt näihin riitoihin=, _I am weary of these quarrels_. =Siihen voitte luottaa=, _you may be sure of this_. =Hän ei mielistynyt heidän neuvoonsa ja tekoonsa=, _he was not pleased with their advice and doings_. =Tyydytkö siihen?= _are you satisfied with this?_

X. There is a curious idiom by which in certain phrases the illative seems to be used to express the agent or cause of an action. =Kuolla nälkään=, _to die of hunger_; =kuolla veteen=, _to be drowned_. =Nukkui nuoret, nukkui vanhat Wäinämöisen soitantohon=, _old and young were thrown into sleep by the songs of Wäinämöinen_. =Murehisin murtumatta=, =huolihin katoamatta= (Kal. v. 216-7).

The idea in these phrases seems to be that the subject of the verb passes _into the power_ of whatever is denoted by the illative.

XI. The illative is also used to express likeness. This is quite natural with such a verb as =verrata=, _to compare_. E.g. =Verrattuna meihin, on hän onnellinen=, _compared to us, he is happy_. The verb =vivahtaa=, _to be like_, also takes this case: =vivahtaa veljeensä=, _he is like his brother_; but the original meaning of the word is apparently physical motion, to glance quickly by or into. By a similar idiom the verb =tulla=, _to come_, with the illative means to resemble. =Hän tulee isäänsä=, _he is like his father_. The use of the simple verb =olla=, _to be_, with this case to express likeness is however truly singular, and is apparently to be explained only by analogy. =Lapsi on isäänsä=, _the child is like its father_. It is, however, exactly parallel to the Russian expression =онъ въ отца, въ мать=. Cf. =Vesa kasvaa kantohonsa=, _the young sprout grows like the parent stem_ (proverb).

XI. The illative expresses the limit which a number reaches. =Luku nousi kahteen-sataan=, _the number reached two hundred_. =Siellä oli lapsia viiteenkymmeneen=, _there were as many as fifty children_.

From this use the illative is also used to denote price. =Myydä halpaan hintaan=, _to sell cheap_; =myydä kalliisen hintaan=, _to sell dear_. =Tässä on omenoita kymmeneen kopekkaan=, _here are apples for ten copecks_.

THE EXTERNAL CASES—ADESSIVE, ABLATIVE, AND ALLATIVE.

The external cases correspond in their general significance and employment to the internal cases already described, only while these latter denote rest within and motion to or from the interior of an object, the former in their strict meaning imply rest on and motion to or from the surface of an object. But as may be seen by the examples this distinction is not always very strictly observed. The external cases have a tendency to denote animate objects.

_Adessive._

I. The adessive primarily denotes the place on which an action takes place. =Poika istuu lattialla=, _the boy sits on the floor_. =Tuskin voin olla jaloillani=, _I can hardly stand on my legs_. =Hän asuu tällä kadulla=, _he lives in this street_. =Millä paikoilla?= _whereabouts?_ =Saksan maalla kasvaa hyviä viinirypäleitä=, _in Germany good grapes grow_. =Kivet laikkui lainehilla, Somerot vesillä souti= (Kal. xliv. 261, 2).

II. The adessive is also used to mark time, when the period is not definitely specified by a cardinal number or otherwise. =Päivällä=, _in the day_, _by day_; =yöllä=, _by night_; =keväällä=, _in spring_; =kesällä=, _in summer_; =syksyllä=, _in autumn_; =talvella=, _in winter_; (but =viime kesänä=, _last spring_, because the time is determined by the adjective).

=Kalat tärpäävät kesällä=, _fish bite in spring_. =Aamulla ani varahin=, _very early in the morning_ (Kal. iv. 303). =Kysyi työtä iltaisella=, _he asked for the work in the evening_ (Kal. xxxii. 6).

III. Like the inessive the adessive is used in a loose or metaphorical sense to denote the external circumstances under which anything takes place. Thus it is used of the weather. =Kuivalla säällä=, _in dry weather_; =tuulella=, _in windy weather_. =Minä palasin kotiin sateella=, _I returned home in the rain_. =Joka tyynellä makaa, se tuulella soutaa= (proverb), _he who sleeps in a calm, rows in a wind_.

=Olla hereellä= _or_ =valveella=, _to be awake_. =On tulolla sade=, _it is going to rain_. =Olen menolla=, _I am going_.

And in some cases where according to our ideas the circumstances denoted are distinctly internal, e.g. =olla hyvällä tai pahalla mielellä=, _to be in a good or bad humour_. =Olla hyvällä päällä=, _to feel courageous_. Cf. Kal. xliv. 269, 270. =Nuoret naiset naurusuulla, Emännät ilolla mielin.=

In particular it is thus used with verbal nouns to express that an action is being undertaken. =Kirjan käännös on tekeellä= (_or_ =tekeilla=), _the translation of the book is being made_. =Kangas on kuteella=, _the cloth is being woven_.

IV. By a closely analogous use the adessive signifies the occupation in which any one is engaged (cf. the use of the inessive in this sense). =Olla ongella=, =nuotalla=, _to be engaged in fishing with a hook_ or _net_.

This use is particularly frequent in the case of games or meals. =Olla päivällisellä=, _to be at dinner_; =olla aamiaisella=, _to be at breakfast_; =olla koppisilla=, _to be playing ball_. =Lapset ovat piiloisilla=, _the children are playing hide and seek_.

V. The adessive is also used to signify with, near, or in the house of (French _chez_). =Poika on meillä=, _le garçon est chez nous_. =Hänellä on vieraita=, _he has guests staying with him_. =Vietin kolme päivää eräällä ruotsalaisella herralla maalla=, _I spent three days with a Swedish gentleman in the country_.

From an extension of this use it comes to denote possession, and in combination with the =olla= replaces the verb _to have_, which does not exist in Finnish. =Minulla on kirja=, _I have a book_. =Hänellä on luunkolotus=, _he has the rheumatism_. =Mikä este sinulla oli?= _what hindered you?_

In this idiom the verb is always in the third person sing., even though the substantive is in the nominative plur. =Isällä on harmaat hiukset=, _the father has white hair_. =Onko teillä saksia?= _have you a pair of scissors?_ =Hevonen on rengillä=, _the man has the horse_. =Hyvällä on nimiä paljo, pahalla tapoja paljo=, _good has many names and evil many shapes_. =Jumalalla on onnen ohjat, Luojalla lykyn avaimet= (proverb), _God has the reins of fortune, the Creator has the keys of luck_. Cf. Kal. xliii. 337. =Jumalall’ on ilman wiitta, Luojalla avaimet onnen.=

VI. It also denotes the price at which a thing is bought or sold. =Minä ostin kirjan kahdella markalla=, _I bought a book for two marks_. =Kauppamies möi kaikki tavaransa suurella voitolla=, _the merchant sold all his goods at a great profit_. =Ostin matot huokeammalla (hinnalla), kuin niiden arvo on=, _I bought these carpets for less than they are worth_.

VII. Besides these various significations which can be deduced from the primary meaning of rest on, the adessive has quite another use, viz. as an instrumental to denote the means or the object by which an action is accomplished. It would seem that two originally distinct forms have been confused in the case as it at present exists in Finnish, though it might be possible to derive this instrumental meaning from the metaphorical uses quoted under III. =Näin sen omilla silmilläni=, _I saw it with my own eyes_. =Oillä päivät jatketaan, virsillä vähät oluet= (proverb), _the days are lengthened by the nights, and a little beer goes further if one sings_. =Elä koukulla kohenna, kärryksellä käännyttele= (Kal. xxiii. 401-2)—=Kansalla karhukin kaadetaan= (proverb).

VIII. From this use is derived another, signifying the way in which anything is done. =Ilolla=, _joyfully_. =Monella tavalla=, _in many ways_; =ei millään tavalla=, _in no way at all_. =Sen teen mielelläni=, _I do it with pleasure_.

_Ablative._

I. The ablative expresses motion from the surface of anything. =Lapsi putosi pöydältä=, _the child fell from the table_. =Ei köyhä korkealta kaadu, luudan päältä lattialle=, _the poor cannot have a great fall: only as high as a besom from the floor_ (proverb). =Korkealta kakko lenti ... Allit aalloilta syviltä, Joutsenet sulilta soilta=, _the eagle flew from high, the wild duck from the deep waves, the swans from the watery marshes_.

II. It is also used in various expressions denoting time.

A. In such sentences as ‘year after year,’ ‘day after day.’ In Finnish the first word is put in the nominative and the second in the ablative. =Päivä päivältä hän tulee kipeämmäksi=, _day by day he gets worse_. =Myrsky kiihtyy hetki hetkeltä=, _the storm grows stronger every hour_. =Odotan häntä tunti tunnilta=, _I expect him every hour_.

B. In sentences expressing money earned in a given time. =Hän saa kaksituhatta markkaa vuodelta=, _he receives two thousand marks a year_. =Maksavat rengille viisitoista ruplaa kuukaudelta=, _the servant is paid fifteen roubles a month_.

C. The time from which anything begins. =Kaupunki on viima vuosisadalta=, _the house dates from the last century_. =Niinkuin asetus tammikuun viidenneltä päivältä määrää=, _according to the provisions of the decree of January 5_.

Similarly—=Kello kuudelta aamulla nousin työtä tekemään=, _I begin to work at_ (that is, _beginning from_) _six o’clock in the morning_. =Tulee pimeä jo kello neljältä=, _it gets dark at four o’clock_.

III. It is used analogously to the adessive (No. IV), to express cessation from an occupation, game, or meal. =Miehet tulivat ongelta=, _the men came home from fishing_. =Tulimme päivälliseltä=, _we came from dinner_. =Lapset lakkasivat sokkosilta=, _the children stopped playing blind man’s buff_.

IV. The ablative denotes motion from a person or from his house. =Vierahat tulivat teiltä=, _the strangers came from you_. =Palvelija tuli isännältä=, _the servant came from his master_. Cf. =Ostin tavaroita kauppamieheltä=, _I bought some goods of the merchant_. So also =Minä sain äidiltäni kirjeen=, _I received a letter from my mother_. =Kysyivät häneltä=, _they asked of him_.

V. From the idea of separation the ablative comes to denote the person who loses anything or from whom anything is hidden, defended, etc. It becomes in fact very nearly what is called the ‘dativus incommodi’ in Latin Grammar. =Häneltä kuoli äiti=, _his mother died_ (_died from him_). =Ei Jumala kiellä lapsiltansa iloa=, _God does not forbid joy to his children_. =Ei tytär salaa äidiltänsä mitään=, _the daughter hides nothing from her mother_.

VI. The cause which prevents an action is put in the ablative. =Tyttö ei päässyt kotoa astiain pesulta=, _the maid could not leave the house because she had to wash the things_. =En jouda kesäisiltä kiirehiltä=, _I cannot come on account of the work that has to be done in summer_. =En voinut nukkua koiran haukunnalta=, _I could not sleep on account of the dogs barking_.

VII. The ablative is also used to denote the part or quality with respect to which anything is predicated of an object. =Hän on hyvä tavoiltansa=, _he has a good disposition_. =Munat ovat väriltään ja suuruudeltaan erilaisia=, _eggs are of different colours and sizes_. =Poika on iältään jo kymmenvuotias=, _the boy is ten years old_ (_in his life_). =Tyttö on solakka varreltaan=, _the girl has a graceful figure_. =Ukko on vielä ketterä jalalta=, _the old man is still quick-footed_. =Tunnen hänen näöltä=, _I know him by sight_. =Mies on Matti nimeltä=, _the man is Matthew by name_.

VIII. It is apparently to this use that must be traced such expressions as =maistua hyvältä=, =karvaalta=, _to taste good_ or _bitter_.

Verbs which express the impression made by an object on the senses are generally followed by an adjective in the ablative describing the nature of the sensation. If it is remembered that the distinction between the adjective and substantive is very slight, we may explain such a phrase as =näyttää kauniilta= as _looks with regard to beauty_, that is, _looks beautiful_.

Examples—=Hän näyti Saksalaiselta=, _he looked like a German_. =Miltä nyt tuntuu?= _how do you feel now?_ =Mansikka maistuu makealta=, _strawberries taste sweet_. =Se näyttää luonnollisemmalta=, _it seems more natural_.

_Allative._

I. The allative expresses motion on to or into the neighbourhood of an object. =Lapsi putosi lattialle=, _the child fell on to the floor_. =Tahdotteko viedä minun Uudelle Kadulle?= _will you show me the way to New Street?_ =Lähen Pohjolan tuville, Lapin lasten tanterille=, _I go to the dwellings of the North, to the plains of the Laplanders_.

II. It expresses also the external circumstances of an action when those circumstances are regarded as not already existing, but as to be entered on. =Koska saatte työnne alkeille?= _when will your work be begun?_ =Minä panen kankaan kuteille=, _I put the stuff to be woven_.

III. Like the adessive and ablative it is used of occupations, games, or meals, in which one engages, but always with the idea of entering on or beginning. =Menkäämme ongelle=, _let us go and fish_. =Emäntä on käskenyt ruoalle=, _the mistress of the house has asked us to dinner_. =Olen kutsuttu kahville=, _I am invited to take coffee_. =Lapset rupeevat piilosille=, _the children begin to play hide and seek_.

IV. From meaning motion into the neighbourhood of an object or to the house of anyone (e.g. =Meille tuli vieraita=, _guests came to see us_), it comes to be used as a dative to express the remote object of an action. =Äiti antoi kirjan pojallensa=, _the mother gave a book to her son_. =Jumala on laupias syntisille=, _God is merciful to sinners_. =Olen kiitollinen teille=, _I am obliged to you_; =olen ottanut itselleni vapauden=, _I have taken (for myself) the liberty_. =Minun on mahdoton määrätä aikaa takaisin tulolleni=, _I cannot fix the date of my return_.

V. The allative is sometimes, though rarely, used in the way described under the ablative IX. =Ilma näyttää kauniille=, _the weather looks fine_. Cf. Kal. xli. 23. =Jo kävi ilo ilolle=, =Riemu riemulle remahti=, =Tuntui soito soitannalle=, etc.

_Abessive._

The abessive expresses the absence of anything.

=Joka syyttä suuttuu,
Se lahjatta leppyy=,

_He who is angry without a cause is reconciled without a reward_ (proverb).

=Joka kuritta kasvaa,
Se kunniatta kuolee=,

_He who grows up without education dies without honour_ (proverb), =Olkaa huoletta=, _don’t trouble yourself_ (_be without care_). =Elä suihki sutsunatta, Eläkäräämi rätsinättä, Elä liiku liinaisetta= (Kal. xxiii. 215), _go not without raiment, wander not without a shirt, stray not without a kerchief_. =Vanhempien tiedotta=, _without the knowledge of one’s parents_. =Muitten avutta=, _without the help of others_.

For emphasis the particle =ilman= is placed before the abessive.

=Ilman tau’in tappamatta,
Ottamatta oivan surman=,

_Without being slain by disease or taken by a natural death_ (Kal. xvi. 178, 9).

The use of the abessive of the third infinitive is particularly frequent, see below, p. 193.

_Essive._

I. The original use of the essive is locative, but this only survives in some adverbial expressions: =ulkona=, _out of doors_; =kaukana=, _far_; =luona=, _near_; =takana=, _behind_; =kotona=, _at home_; =läsnä olla=, _to be present_; =kokonansa=, _altogether_ (_in its entirety_); =keskenänne=, =keskenänsä=, etc., _between you, them_; and such expressions as =olla rannempana=, _to be near shore_; =olla sisempänä=, _to be inside_.

II. From this use comes that denoting a definite period of time during which something happens; =tänäpänä=, _to-day_; =huomenna=, _to-morrow_; =Maanantaina=, =Tiistaina=, etc., _on Monday, Tuesday,_ etc. =En ole maannut kolmena viimeisenä yönä=, _I have not slept there the last three nights_. =Ihmiset käyvät pyhänä kirkossa=, _people go to church on a Saint’s day_. =Eip’ on toiste tullutkana, Ei toiste sinä ikänä=, _She never came again, Never again in this life_ (Kal. v. 138). =Jo päivänä muutamana, huomenna moniahana= (Kal. v. 53).

III. From a metaphorical use of this local meaning the essive comes to denote the character or state in which the subject of a sentence is. It is used thus—

(1) As the predicate. =Isäni on pappina=, _my father is a priest_.

=Taivas köyhän kattona,
Maantie permantona= (proverb),

_The sky is the roof of the poor man and the high road his floor_. =Mikä on asiana?= _what’s the matter?_

(2) As the appositional case.

=Minkä nuorena oppii
Sen vanhana muistaa= (proverb),

_What one learns young one remembers when old_. =Nuorna vitsa väännettävä=, _one should bend the bough while it’s young_ (proverb). =Poikana minä en tuntenut häntä=, _as a boy I never knew him_.

_Translative._

I. The original meaning of the translative, like that of the illative and allative, seems to be motion to; but this only survives in a few adverbs. =Ulos=, _out of doors_ (‘foras’); =luoksi= or =luoʻ=, _to_; =taakse= or =taaʻ=, _backwards_; =sisemmäksi=, _inwards_; =rannemmaksi=, _nearer shore_.

II. In a temporal sense the translative is used to express the time in which a thing _is to be_ (not _was_) accomplished. =Poika rupesi palvelukseen vuodeksi=, _the boy entered service for a year_. =Hän jäi meille yöksi=, _he stayed with us for the night_ (the event, though in the past, is regarded from the point of view when it was future).

It also expresses a limit of time: =tämä kirja valmistuu jouluksi=, _the book will be ready by Christmas_. =Voinko saada ne ensi maanantaiksi?= _can I have them by next Monday?_

It is also used to express place in numerical order. =Ensiksi=, _first_, _in the first place_; =toiseksi=, _in the second place_.

III. The most frequent signification of the translative is metaphorical, viz. the state into which anyone or anything passes. It can be used thus after transitive and intransitive verbs. =Tulla köyhäksi=, _to become poor_. =Ilma ei muutu selkeäksi=, _the weather does not become clearer_. =Ne tulevat valmiiksi=, _they will be ready_. =Myrsky käy raivoisaksi=, _the storm grows high_. =Emäntä leipoi jauhot leiviksi=, _the housewife baked the flour into bread_. =Itse tuon sanoiksi virkkoi=, (frequent phrase in Kalevala), _himself thus put this into words_. =Kaupunki paloi tuhaksi=, _the town was burnt to ashes_.

It is also used as a complement after verbs of naming, calling, considering, perceiving, etc. (_v._ p. 201), the idea being that in consequence of the action of such verbs the object passes into a new state. =Kutsutte minun mestariksi ja Herraksi=, _ye call me master and Lord_. =Näkivät hänen kuolleeksi=, _they saw he was dead_. =Älkää pahaksi panko=, _don’t take it amiss_. =Tunnen itseni hyvin sairaaksi=, _I feel very ill_. The verb =pitää= is peculiar in always taking the essive, and not translative, after it. E.g. =Pitää jotakin häpeänä=, _to think a thing a shame_.

IV. It also expresses the purpose or use for which anything serves. =Hän kelpaa opettajaksi=, _he is fit for a schoolmaster_. =Mitä voin tehdä palvelukseksenne?= _what can I do for you (for your service)?_ =Olkoon tämä teille opiksi=, _let this be a lesson to you_. =Yhtiö lasten suojelemiseksi=, _a society for protecting children_. =Juon viiniä terveydekseni=, _I drink wine for my health_. =Juoda onneksi=, _to drink to some one’s health_.

By an extension of this use the translative is used almost like the essive (cf. the dative of the complement in Latin). =Se on hänelle häpeäksi=, _he ought to be ashamed of it_ (_it is for a shame to him_). Compare also =miksi?= _why?_

The translative can be used idiomatically in such phrases as _He speaks Finnish well for a foreigner_, or _considering that he is a foreigner_, =hän puhuu suomea hyvin ulkomaalaiseksi=. So too, =Laiva on purreksi hyvä kulkemaan=, _the ship goes well for a sailing-boat_. =Poika on liian viisas ikäiseksensä=, _the boy is very clever for his age_. A good example of this use is found in Kal. v. 63 ff. =Sileähk’ on silkaseksi=, =Kuleahka kuujaseksi=, =Evätöin emäkalaksi=, =Ihala imehnoksiki=, =Pää-rivatoin neitoseksi=, =Vyötöin veen on tyttöseksi, Korvitoin kotikanaksi=.

VI. This use is analogous to the adverbial use of the translative, which is frequent. For instance, =pahaksi= (or =kovaksi=), =hyväksi onneksi=, _fortunately, unfortunately_. =Osaksi=, _partly_. =Elää herroiksi=, _to live en grand seigneur_.

With this may be compared its use to express the language in which anything is written. =Kirja on käännetty suomeksi=, _the book is translated in Finnish_. So =Saksaksi=, _in German_; =Ruotsiksi=, _in Swedish_; =Venäjäksi=, _in Russian_.

_Comitative._

I. The comitative is used to express the person in whose company, or the object in connection with which an action takes place. It is always used in spoken Finnish in the plural, even if only one person or object is referred to, but in the old language and in printed books the singular is sometimes found. It nearly always takes a pronominal affix. =Mies meni pois vaimoinensa=, _the man went away with his wife_. =Vetivät verkon kaloinensa=, _they drew in the net with the fish_. =Otti lapsen äitinensä=, _he took the child with its mother_. =Kesä on tullut ihanine ilmoinensa=, _the summer is come with beautiful weather_. =Sata miestä miekkoinensa=, _a hundred men with their swords_ (Kal. xi. 100).

When the comitative is combined with an attribute, the latter frequently ends in =n=, not =ne=. For instance, =järvet saoin saarinensa=, _lakes with a hundred islands_ (Kal. xxiv. 459). =Ei hänen sovi tulla tänne tuhmin tapoinensa=, _he ought not to come here with his foolish ways_. =Älä tule sisään likaisin jalkoinesi=, _don’t come in with your dirty feet_.

Copious examples of this case will be found in Kalevala, xxiv. 444-462. =Jää nyt pirtti terveheksi, Pirtti lautakattonesi=, etc.

_Instructive._

I. The instructive is used to express the instrument or the manner in which an action is performed. The instructive of substantives is chiefly used of parts of the body and in modern Finnish always in the plural. =Paljain jaloin=, _with bare legs, barelegged_. =Poika meni ulkos paljain päin=, _the boy went out bareheaded_. =Omin käsin=, _with one’s own hands_; =omin silmin=, _with one’s own eyes_. =Ristissä käsin=, _with hands crossed_. =Kaikki huonekalut ovat sikin sokin=, _all the furniture is topsy-turvy_. =Kulkea jalan=, _to go on foot_. =Alla päin=, _with one’s head hanging down_ (Kal. iii. 501 and following lines). =On meillä valta omin luvin tulla huoneesenne=, _we have authority to come into your room without asking leave_. =Kahden ynnä=, _both together_; =yksin mielin=, _with one accord_; =yksin syntyi Wäinämöinen=, _Wäinämöinen was born alone_.

It is noticeable that generally when this case is used, either a noun with an adjective is found or two nouns both in the instructive. Thus one can say =kissa repi ovea kynsin hampain=, whereas if only one word were used it would be better to use =kynsillä= _or_ =hampailla=.

The instructive rarely takes pronominal suffixes. Kal. ix. 507, 509, =En liiku omin lihoini ... En väiky omin väkini=.

II. The instructive of adjectives is frequently used adverbially to express manner.

(1) The instructive _singular_ of an adjective is used adverbially to qualify another adjective or adverb in the positive. =Tavattoman kaunis=, _exceedingly beautiful_; =kauhean ruma=, _horribly ugly_; =hyvin hyvä=, _very good_; =tämä yö oli hirveän pitkä=, _the night was terribly long_.

(2) The instrumental _plural_ of adjectives in the comparative or superlative is used to define verbs. =Puhu nopeammin=, _speak quicker_; =aurinko paistaa kirkkaammin=, _the sun shines brighter_.

III. The instructive plural is also used in a temporal sense, and denotes an indefinite or recurring period of time. Thus =linnut laulavat illoin=, =aamuin=, _the birds sing in the morning_, _in the evening_ (whereas if a definite morning or evening is meant the essive must be used). In this sense the termination =sin= is often used, which is really the instructive plural of an adjective with a nominative =nen= formed from the noun. Thus =me alamme työn aamuisin kello kahdeksasta=, _we begin to work at eight in the morning_. =Iltaisin rupeamme aikaisemmin maata=, _we go to led earlier in the evening_. =Hän tekee talvisin kauppamatkoja=, _he makes business journeys in the winter_. =Onko teillä tapa valvoa öisin?= _are you in the habit of not sleeping at night?_

This same ending is added to substantives in a sense somewhat analogous to the prolative. =Minä menen rautateisin=, _I go by rail_. =Sotaväki matkusti osaksi maisin osaksi merisin=, _the troops travelled partly by land, partly by sea_.

_Prolative._

This case is rarely used, and in fact has no sense when formed from any but substantives expressing some kind of local position. It expresses motion by or over anything, and is chiefly employed in adverbial expressions, and generally in the plural. =Tulla meritse tai maitse=, _to come by sea or land_. =Järven ranatse=, _along the shore of the lake_. =Niemen nenitse=, _round the promontory_. =Aalloitse=, _by sea_. =Minä kylvän kyyhättelen Luojan sormien lomitse=, _I sow by the finger of God_ (lit. through the interval of the fingers). Kal. ii. 297 =(Mehiläinen lenti) Otavaisten olkapäitse, Seitsentähty en selitse=, _(the bee flew) over the shoulder of the great bear, over the back of the seven stars_.

THE ADJECTIVE.

Most of the peculiarities of the Finnish Adjective have been already noticed. The various rules for its concord with a substantive have been given on p. 128 f., and rules for the cases used after comparatives and superlatives on pp. 136 & 143. With reference, however, to this latter subject, it may be as well to recapitulate the rules.

_Comparative._ After an adjective in the comparative can be used:—

I. The word =kuin=, followed by the substantive in the proper case. =Oletkos sinä suurempi kuin meidän isämme Abraham?= _art thou greater than our father Abraham?_

II. Or else the word =kuin= is omitted and the substantive is put in the partitive. The sentence quoted above from the Bible might have been equally well written—=Oletkos sinä suurempi meidän isäämme Abrahamia?=

III. Such expressions as ‘it is better to,’ and the like, are rendered by =parempi on= (_or_ =olisi=), with the first infinitive. =Parempi on nöyränä olla=, _it is better to be humble_.

_The superlative_ can be used either absolutely, or with some word depending on it in such phrases as ‘_the greatest of kings_’. Such a word is put either in the partitive or in the elative, with very little difference in the meaning. The elative, however, implies reference to a more definite class than the partitive. =Suurin kuninkaita= is _greatest of kings_; but =suurin kuninkaista=, _the greatest of the kings_.

Not only are adjectives and substantives declined in exactly the same manner, but the distinction between them is very slight. The same form is sometimes used both as a noun and an adjective e.g. =lysti=, =ikävä=, or adjectives are used in cases which seem to imply that they have a substantival meaning; =Olla lujassa=, _to be firm_; =olla kylmillä=, _to be cold_. Some substantives can be compared, as if they were adjectives. =Rannempi=, _nearer shore_, =mielellämmin=, _more agreeably_; so too =syrjempi= (=syrjä=), =talvempana=, =keväämpänä=, popular expressions for _later in winter_ or _spring_. =Minä jätän illemmäksi=, _I leave it till later in the evening_.

PRONOUNS.

_Personal Pronouns._

The personal pronouns are always employed when there is any emphasis on them in English; otherwise, they are mostly omitted, the termination of the verb indicating the person with sufficient clearness. Thus one says, =Minä olen sen tehnyt, et sinä=, _I did it, not you_; but =Tahtoisin lähteä huomenna, jos ette pane vastaan=, _I should like to leave to-morrow if you have no objection_.

If the subject of _both_ a principal and subordinate sentence is a pronoun of the first or second person, it is always omitted in the subordinate sentence. =Ottakaa mitä tahdotte=, _take what you like_. =Hän sanoi ettei tunne tätä miestä=, _he said he did not know the man_.

=Sinä= and =Te= are used with much the same distinction as =Du= and =Sie= in German, that is to say, the plural is used out of politeness when speaking with anyone but inferiors or intimate friends.

_Possessive Pronouns._

There are no pronominal adjectives in Finnish corresponding to _my_, _thy_, etc. Their place is supplied (_a_) by the genitive of the personal pronoun, (_b_) more frequently by the pronominal affixes.

When the possessive pronoun is emphatic, both the genitive and the affix are used, and in the Bible this construction is frequent, even when there is no particular emphasis. As a rule, however, the affix alone is sufficient in the 1st and 2nd persons.

The affix of the 3rd person, however, is used alone only when it refers to the subject of the principal verb; for instance, =Hän ei nähnyt vaimoansa=, _he has not seen his wife_; but =Ettekö nähneet hänen vaimoansa?= _have you not seen his wife?_ Similarly, _He has not seen his_ (another person’s) _wife_ must be rendered, =Hän ei nähnyt hänen vaimoansa=.

Such a sentence as _that is mine_ is rendered by =Se on minun=. =Ei minun oppini ole minun=, _my doctrine is not mine_.

_It is I_ is rendered by =minä olen=.

The affixes =ni=, =si=, =nsa=, etc. have a simple possessive sense when added to nouns, but they are added to a variety of other words under circumstances which render it impossible to translate them by the possessive pronoun in English. It would appear that they simply denote that the pronoun which they represent is to be taken in connection with the word to which they are added. When the two ideas of House and I are taken together this naturally means ‘my house,’ but other combinations have to be rendered in a different manner.

I. In old Finnish, particularly in the Bible, they are added to the cases of the personal pronouns for emphasis. =Tutkikaat raamatuita, sillä niissä te luulette teillenne ijankaikkisen elämän olevan=, _search the Scriptures for in them ye think ye have eternal life_ (S. John v. 39). =Puhukaan itse hänestänsä=, _let him speak for himself_ (S. John ix. 21). =Että te rakastaisitte teitänne keskenänne=, _that ye might love one another_ (S. John xiii. 34). This use is found chiefly in the western dialect of Finnish.

II. They are similarly added to various adjectives. =En minä ole yksinäni=, _am not alone_. Cf. the use of =hyvänsä= with pronouns. Similarly in such phrases as =rakastakaa toinen toistanne=, etc. (_vide_ p. 171). =Olkoon sinänsä=, _let it be_; =olla semmoisenansa=, _to be like it_ or _him_; =jättää työ siksensä=, _to leave one’s work as it is_. =Hän on suorastansa hullu=, _he is a perfect fool_. Cf. =mieleiseni=, _agreeable to me_.

III. They are very commonly added to postpositions (_vide_ p. 203 ff.), or to adverbs (which however are mostly cases of nouns or adjectives). =Ainoastansa=, =kokonansa=; =yhtenään=, =yleensä=.

IV. They are also added to infinitives and participles in many constructions (_vide_ pp. 184-200).

_Demonstrative Pronouns._

The demonstrative pronouns are as follows:—