Chapter IV: Introduction (2)

The group of languages to which Finnish belongs is at present spoken by tribes scattered over the more northern parts of European Russia and immediately to the east of the Ural. In Siberia we have Ostiak, spoken by tribes about the river Obi (for the Ostiak of the Yenisei appears to be a different language), and Vogul, spoken by scattered tribes on either side of the Ural. With these languages is connected Magyar, though owing to foreign influences and its great literary development, comparable only to that of Finnish, it presents many peculiarities. Though both the grammar and vocabulary of these languages leave no doubt of their relation to the rest of the group, they differ from them in many points of detail. The case terminations present few resemblances; Vogul and Ostiak have a dual, and they all more or less employ constructions rejected by most of the other languages, such as the incorporation of the object in the verb, the distinction between predicative and possessive suffixes in the verb, etc. Also it is remarkable that they have not developed fully the peculiar negative constructions of Finnish and the more western languages.

East of the Voguls dwell a race called Syryenians or Zyrjenians (Russian =Зыряне=), whose head quarters are at the town of Ishma, on the Pechora; south of these again are the Votiaks, mostly in the government of Viatka. On the north bank of the Volga, to the west of Kazan, live the Cheremissians, speaking two dialects, some scattered settlements of whom are found further east, while to the south of these again, mostly about the rivers Oka and Sura, are numerous scattered settlements of Mordvinians, who have likewise two dialects. None of these are literary languages. Besides them we have Lappish, in three dialects spoken in the northern parts of Finland, Sweden, and Russia, and the various Baltic idioms, with Suomi or Finnish.

The relation of these languages to one another have been ably described in Dr. Donner’s work, ‘Die gegenseitige Verwandschaft der Finnish-Ugrischen Sprachen.’ He divides the whole group into two divisions, the first called Ugric, and comprising only Ostiak, Vogul, and Magyar; the second called Finnish, including all the other languages. This second or Finnish division is divided into two groups, the Permian and Volga-Baltic, the former including only the Syrjenians, Permians, and Votiaks, the latter again in two sub-divisions, the Volga group or Mordvinian and Cheremissian, and the West Finnish group including Lappish, Esthonian, and Finnish.

This classification may be represented thus in a table:—

Finno-Ugrian Languages

{1. Ostiak.
A. Ugrian. {2. Vogul.
{3. Magyar.

{i. Permian { Syrjenians, Permians, Votiaks.
{
{ {_a._ Volga group {Cheremissian, Mordvinian.
B. Finnish. { {
{ii. Volga { {1. Lappish.
{ Baltic {_b._ West Finnish {2. Esthonian, Livish,
{ { { Votish, Vepsish.
{ {3. Finnish.

All these languages have a certain common vocabulary, and a common grammatical substratum, though many of them possess constructions unknown to the others. The pronouns, numerals, and in a less obvious degree the pronominal affixes of nouns and verbs are also identical. The Ugrian languages however, seem to have parted company with the rest before a system of declension had been fixed. Their nominal suffixes seem to be mostly later formations, though we find =t=, =tl=, or =k= for the plural, and traces of =l= as a local element. Corresponding phenomena appear in the conjugation of verbs, as noticed above.

The remaining languages—or Finnish group—have not developed any striking differences from the Ugric division, but they show greater resemblance to one another in details. They all have local cases characterised by the letter =s= (unknown in the Ugric group), others characterised by =l=, an abessive ending in =ta= or =tak=, and negative adjectives characterised by the syllable =tem=, or =tom=. They mostly agree in having a peculiar form for the negative conjugation. The present of the positive conjugation has =p= (or =v=) regularly or sporadically in certain persons, and the remaining verbal forms, though far from agreeing absolutely, show a sufficient resemblance to warrant us in regarding them as the results of a common development.

From the accounts given of Syrjenian and Votiak it would seem that they were the first to cease to participate in this common development. They appear to be characterised by few striking peculiarities, but to show a less degree of conformity to a common standard than the remaining languages. The phonetic system of Syrjenian seems to be much the same as that of Cheremissian or Mordvinian, except that it has a great fondness for the sound of =i̱=. The pronouns of both numbers, and the pronominal affixes of the singular, show much more resemblance to the Finnish than to the Ugrian, but the pronominal affixes of the plural (=ni̱m=, =ni̱d=, =ni̱s=) are curious, and obviously represent the singular affixes in combination with a syllable =ni̱=, which may perhaps be akin to the Finnish plural demonstrative =ne=. In the verb, the 1st person singular has no personal termination. In the plural we find =m=, =ni̱d=, =ni̱s=, as in nouns. Generally Syrjenian seems to be more thoroughly agglutinative, as opposed to inflected, than the Finnish language. In this it may be compared with Cheremissian, where the plural is formed by the syllable =vlja= (or =vi̱lä=) added between the stem and case termination, just like =jas= in Syrjenian. The Permian languages have some close analogies in detail with the Ugrian group. Thus twenty is =ki̱s= in Syrjenian, =kōs= or =χūs= in Ostiak, =husz= in Magyar; the reflexive pronoun is =as= or =ats= in Syrjenian and Votiak, =at= in Ostiak.

Of the remaining languages Mordvinian is in many ways the most remarkable. Though generally admitted to be nearly akin to Cheremissian, it has many constructions peculiar to itself. Thus it has a fully developed object conjugation and two forms of declension, the definite and indefinite. It has a great fondness for the letter =f=. On the other hand, such phenomena as the suffix =n-za= for the 3rd person, the word =kemen=, _ten_, the regular formation of the imperfect with =i=, infinitives in =ma=, and participles in =f= (Finn. =va=) show a near approach to Finnish. Cheremissian has also developed some new singular negative forms, by which the verbal root is negatived (in the preterite) by a suffix =te + l=, after which the personal suffixes are added.

The connection of the West Finnish languages is much more striking than that of those which have already been discussed. The resemblance of Lappish to Finnish and Esthonian is a little disguised owing to the elaborate phonetic system of this language, which has an extraordinary fondness for diphthongs, and also a very extensive provision of consonants, including some (e.g. =γ=, =θ=, =δ=) which do not occur in any of the cognate languages. The nominal declension is very similar to that of Finnish. Compare the singular forms =tšalme=, =tšalmen=, =tšalmesn=, =tšalmest=, =tšalmetaka= with =silmä=, =silmänä=, =silmässä=, =silmästä=, =silmättä=. In the singular the genitive and partitive have lost their termination (cf. the Esthonian forms, nom. =silm=, gen. and part. =silma=). The analogy in the plural is still closer; the nominative ends in =h= or =k=, but the other cases are characterised by the insertion of =i=, =tšalmeh= or =tšalmek=, =tšalmiti=, =tšalmi=, =tšalmin=, =tšalmisne=, =tšalmist=, =tšalmitaγa= corresponding to =silmät=, =silmiä=, =sílmien=, =silminä=, =silmissä=, =silmistä=, =silmittä=. There are also forms in =l=, =le=, =lt=, or =ld=. The partitive case appears to be peculiar to the West Finnish languages. The pronouns of Lappish point the other way, and are all but identical with those of Mordvinian, =mon=, =ton= or =don=, =son=, =mi=, =ti= or =di=, =si=; Mordvinian =mon=, =son=, =ton=, =min=, =sin=, =tin=. The singular affixes are =m=, =d=, =s= (Mordv. =n=, =t=, =nza=), but those of the plural take the characteristic =k= (=mek=, =dek=, =sek=). There are also dual forms. The verb is peculiar in using different affixes for the present and preterite. Otherwise it is much the same as the Finnish forms. We have =b= or =p= as a sign of the present, =je= or =i= for the preterite, =ket=, =kus=, etc. in the imperative; comparatives formed with =fč-=, =kč-=, =č-= (=ksi=), or =le=. The negative conjugation also shows close analogies. Lappish has thus a great resemblance to Finnish, but is much nearer than the remaining western languages to Cheremissian and Mordvinian, thus connecting these latter with Finnish and the Esthonian languages.

There is no need to insist on the close connection of Livish, Votish, Vepsish, and Esthonian with Finnish. The grammatical structure and vocabulary of these languages is so alike that the fact is obvious not only to a philologist, but to the most casual learner. Esthonian is now far the most important of these languages, and has a certain amount of literary culture. It has two chief dialects, that of Revel and that of Dorpat[3].

In a few cases Esthonian shows older forms than Finnish, but on the whole it is less primitive. Besides the Finnish consonants it possesses =b=, =g=, =z=, and =ṅ=. The accent is on the first syllable, and has led to weakening or loss of final syllables. The vowel harmony is known only in the Dorpat dialect, and there not perfectly. Consonants are weakened in much the same way as in Finnish, =pp=, =tt=, =kk= are reduced to single consonants; =p=, =t=, =k=, =s= become =b=, =d=, =g=, =z=; =b= becomes =w= or disappears, and =d=, =g=, =z= disappear. These changes, however, do not in the present state of the language take place only when syllables are closed, although the original form generally ended with a consonant. Thus =tīb=, =urk=, =rind=, =toit=, =rid= form the genitives =tīwa=, =urga=, =rinna=, =toidu=, =riu=; and the verbs =pühkima=, =uskuma=, =prūkima=, =hoidma= form =pühin=, =uzun=, =prūgin=, =hoian=. The noun has only eleven cases, the six local (exterior and interior) the genitive, partitive, abessive, and translative, all almost identical in form with Finnish, except that the genitive has lost the =n= of the termination, and the other cases the final vowel. The plural takes =d= in the nominative and =i= in the other cases. The pronouns resemble Finnish, but the 3rd person singular and plural is the demonstrative =tema= or =nema= in Esthonian, Livonian, and Votish, but Vepsish has =hän=, =hö=. Esthonian has almost lost the pronominal affixes, which are used only in adverbial forms, and replaced in most cases by the genitive of the personal pronoun.

The affirmative verb closely resembles Finnish, except that the concessive formed with =ne= has, except in the Dorpat dialect, been almost entirely lost. The 3rd person singular present ends regularly in =b=, and the 3rd plural in =wad=. The preterite is sometimes formed with simple =i=, but generally with =si=, and the conditional with =ksi=. The imperative 2nd singular has no termination, but as in Finnish the root is weakened. The other persons are characterised by =gu= or =ge=. The passive is formed by affixing =ta + k + se= in the present, and =ta + i= (=ti=) in the preterite. The negative verb for the imperative is =ärä=, =ärgu=, =ärge=, but in the other forms Esthonian does not affix personal endings to the negative, but uses =ei= with all persons. Similarly Livish has =äb= or =ab= for all persons except the second, where =ad= is sometimes used. Votish and Vepsish follow Finnish. It will thus be seen that Esthonian, closely allied as it is to Finnish, has lost many peculiarities which it once no doubt possessed, but occasionally (e.g. the passive present in =takse= and the conditional in =kse=) preserves forms which in Finnish have been weakened or disguised.

It is easier to discuss the relations of the Finno-Ugric languages to one another than to decide what are their affinities with other groups. They are generally considered to be connected with the Samoyede, Turkish, Mandchu, and Mongolian languages, that is to say, the ancestor of each of these groups was related to the ancestor of the Finno-Ugrian languages. When, however, identity of vocabulary cannot be proved, it is dangerous to make comparisons on the ground of general grammatical resemblances, because the grammar of agglutinative languages offers few striking peculiarities, and represents a stage of development through which may other languages, certainly the Aryan, have passed. The only general description which can be given of the Finno-Ugric group is that they are languages without gender, whose grammatical structure consists entirely in appending suffixes. To these characteristics is generally added another, the vowel harmony, but this exists very partially in the Finnish group. Now without denying the possible relationship of Turkish, Mongol, and Mandchu to Finnish, it must be admitted that they have only a very general resemblance, and very many and precise differences. Mandchu and Mongol, with their uninflected verbs, would have been put into quite another class were they not undoubtedly akin to languages with a more developed system. And why should Japanese be excluded? It presents no phenomena incongruous with the grammar of the languages above cited, and the want of vowel harmony cannot be alleged as a difficulty.

If, however, we turn to the Samoyede languages the case is very different. They are usually mentioned as if they stood no nearer to the Finno-Ugric group than Turkish or Mandchu, and yet the resemblances in detail are numerous and striking.

They possess the vowel harmony, and apparently a law for the weakening of consonants analogous to that of Finnish and Esthonian, e.g. =kinta=, =kindan=; =mat=, =maden=; =sok=, =sogon=. The noun is strikingly like Finnish. We find a genitive in =n=, an accusative in =m= or =p= (cf. Lappish), a dative in =ni= or =n=, a locative in =nan= (cf. Finnish =na=), and an instrumental in =se=. There are three numbers, the dual is characterised by =g= or =hā= (cf. gen. in Ostiak, =ag= in Vogul), and the plural is formed with =la= or =t= (=d=). The pronouns show a good deal of variety, and it is evident that some forms (e.g. =pudar=, _thou_; =puda=, _he_) are not real pronouns but substantives used as pronouns. Still we find a general consensus for =man= as the 1st person singular, and some form of the same word for the plural; =tan= for the second singular, and =te=, =ten=, or =ši= for the plural (cf. Lappish, Cheremissian, Syrjenian, and Mordvinian). The 3rd person exists in several forms, =tep=, =sete=, =di=, etc., which may perhaps be compared with the Ostiak =ten=, Cheremissian =tidä=, and Syrjenian =si̱a=. The pronominal affixes are also extraordinarily numerous and varied, but they seem to include =m= for the 1st singular, =t= or =d= for the 2nd, =jea= (cf. Magyar =ja=) for the 3rd; =mu= or =met= for the 1st plural, and =ta= or =tet= for the 2nd. The interrogative pronouns are =kutö=, =hübea=, =hoke=, etc., _who_, and =ma=, =mi=, _what_. The verb and noun are not sharply distinguished. The verb takes two sets of pronominal suffixes, the predicative, with which an intransitive verb is always conjugated, and the possessive, which are used with both transitive and intransitive verbs. The preterite is formed by adding =s=, which occurs as a preterite suffix in Cheremissian, Mordvinian, Vogul, and Ostiak. The conjunctive is formed with =nji=, =ne=, =na= (cf. the Finnish =ne=). The imperative is formed with the syllable =kar=, =gar=, =har= (cf. Finnish =ka=). There is also an optative with the suffix =rava=, so perhaps =kar= is =ka-ra=.

Besides this similarity of grammatical forms there is a large common vocabulary. The following examples are taken at haphazard out of Castren’s lexicon:—_River_, =jaha=, =joha= (Finn. =joki=); _hill_, =pirda= (Finn. =vuori=); _dark_, =paebi=, =paevuda= (=pimeä=); _to blow_, =pu’u= (=puhua=); _half_, =pealea=, =fealla= (=puoli=); _good_, =sava=, =sova= (=hyvä=); _fire_, =tu= (=tuli=); _fish_, =kole=, =hale= (=kala=); _tree_, =po=, =pe=, =pea= (=puu=); _bear_, =korg=, =kuerg= (=karhu=); _earth_, =mon= (=maa=); _narrow_, _small_, =tîjea= (=tyhjä=, _empty_); _to place_, =puenan= (=panna=); _live_, =jileadm= (=eleä=); _come_, =tû’am=, =töak= (=tulla=)[4].

On the other hand, the Samoyede languages differ in many ways from the Ugro-Altaic group. The numbers are entirely different. The Ostiak Samoyede =ōker=, _one_, shows a faint resemblance to =yhte=, and =sidea=, or =sede=, _two_, has been compared with =kahte=, but such analogies are doubtful. Only the number _seven_, =sin=, =sjelde=, =sjaibua= shows a resemblance with the Finno-Ugric forms. But it is clear that the Samoyede numbers represent very primitive attempts at numeration (e.g. Jurak. =hâsava-ju=, _Samoyede big number_, for _nine_, =lutsa-ju=, _Russian big number_ for _ten_), and that in many cases Turkish numbers have been borrowed (cf. =tjet=, =tet=, _four_, with Yakut =tüört= and =kamass=, =khera= 40, =iliχ= 50, =althon= 60, with Turkish =kirk=, =elli=, =altmish=). Samoyede is also more like the Turkish than the Finno-Ugric language in its power of adding predicative and temporal suffixes to nouns (which implies a want of distinction between the verb and noun). Thus =lūtsa= means _a Russian_; =lūtsam=, _I am a Russian_; =lūtsamsʻ=, _I was a Russian_.

The above sketch of Samoyede has no pretence to be exhaustive, and may be charged with inaccuracy, inasmuch as words and forms are cited indifferently from all the dialects. For a proper investigation of the question it is no doubt necessary to thoroughly study the relations of the Samoyede languages to one another, to establish the original forms, and in particular to determine the influence of foreign languages, whether Turkish or Finno-Ugric, on the Samoyede vocabulary. But unless there is something strangely misleading in the superficial character of these dialects, it appears to me that they undoubtedly stand far nearer to Finno-Ugric than do Turkish or Mongolian, and should indeed be classed as outlying members of the Finno-Ugric group. The want of similarity in the numbers is certainly very strange, but the other resemblances in vocabulary seem to me to be conclusive, unless all the words in question are borrowed.

A FINNISH GRAMMAR.

The Finnish Alphabet consists of 21 letters, viz.: =a=, =d=, =e=, =g=, =h=, =i=, =j=, =k=, =l=, =m=, =n=, =o=, =p=, =r=, =s=, =t=, =u=, =v= (or =w=), =y=, =ä=, =ö=.

German characters are sometimes used, in which case w always represents the =v= sound. In the Roman character =v= and =w= are used indifferently to express the sound of the English _v_.

The pronunciation of the consonants offers little difficulty. Most of them have the same sounds as in English.

=D=. In true Finnish words this letter is never found at the beginning or end, and in the middle always represents a softened =t= (_vide_ changes of consonants p. 13). Even in this position it is hardly ever heard in the language as spoken by peasants, but replaced in the West Finnish dialect by a sound between =r= and =l=, and in the Eastern dialect entirely omitted. Educated people, however, pronounce it as in English. Thus the educated pronunciation of the genitive case of =sota= is =sodan=; but in dialects the forms =soran=, =solan=, or =soan= are found. The letter =d= is always omitted in the Kalevala, which is written in the Karelian dialect.

=G=, except in a few foreign words, is only found in the combination =ng=, representing an original =nk=, pronounced as in English. In the neighbourhood of St. Petersburg this letter is never used, =k= taking its place.

=H= is a stronger aspirate than in English, and is almost the Russian _x_ or German _ch_. It is heard very distinctly at the end of syllables, e.g. in =tehdä=.

=J= is the English _y_ in _yes_ or _yard_.

The remaining letters of the Roman Alphabet _b_, _c_, _f_, _q_, _x_, _z_, and the Swedish _å_ (pronounced _o_) are sometimes met with in foreign words, but an uneducated Finn will always pronounce =b= and =f= as =p= and =v=, and is also incapable of producing such sounds as the English _ch_ and _sh_, which when occurring in Russian names are generally represented in a Finnish mouth by simple =s=.

There is also a slight aspiration found at the end of some words, as =veneʻ=, _a boat_, =syödäʻ=, _to eat_. It is not usually written, and hardly heard except in some dialects, though it has a grammatical importance, and in some educational works is marked, as above, by an inverted comma.

It will be seen that there is a great paucity of consonants in the Finnish language; the alphabet contains but 13, and of these =g= and =d= are never found at the beginning of native words. Further no word can begin with two consonants, and foreign words, commencing with such combinations, always lose one or more letters, for instance the Swedish words =strand= (_shore_), and =spel= (_game_), appear as =ranta=, =peli=.

On the other hand there is an extraordinary wealth of vowel sounds, and it is of capital importance to learn the exact pronunciation of them all.

The simple sounds are eight in number.

=A= is the Italian _a_ (English _a_ in _rather_ or _father_), but pronounced quicker. It is always short.

=E= is the English _e_ in _met_.

=I= is the English _i_ in _bit_.

=O= is the English _o_ in _hot_.

=U= is the English _u_ in _bull_.

=Y= is the German _ü_ in _über_.

=Ä=, which must be carefully distinguished from =A=, is the short English _a_ heard in _hat_, or _trap_, and must not be pronounced as the English _a_ in _late_. Thus =hän=, _he_, is pronounced exactly like _hand_ without the final _d_. At the end of words (e.g. =työtä=) =ä= is more difficult for an Englishman to pronounce, as the sound is not found in English as a final.

=Ö= is like the French _eu_.

It is very important to observe that the simple vowels are all _short_ sounds. The corresponding long sounds are written by doubling the vowel.

=Aa= is a long Italian _a_, like the _a_ in _rather_, whereas the sound of simple _a_ is shorter than that which we (generally) give to the vowel in this word.

=Ee= is like the English _a_ in _pale_, _late_.

=Ii= is the English _ee_ in _keen_, _three_.

=Oo= is the English _o_ in _hope_.

=Uu= is the English _oo_ in _boot_.

=Yy= is the German _ü_, pronounced long.

=Ää= is the _a_ in _had_, but long. It is a rather difficult sound, but can be obtained by lingering over the vowel of _had_ or _man_, taking care not to change its quality.

=Öö= is the sound of the simple =ö= lengthened.

Besides these simple and double vowels there are also 16 diphthongs, in which both vowels should be sounded but so rapidly and continuously as to form one syllable. They may be divided into two classes.

(1) Those in which the stress is on the second vowel. =uo=, =yö=, =ie=, e.g. =tuo=, _this_, =tie=, _a way_, =yö=, _night_.

(2) Those in which the stress is on the first vowel. Of these there are—

(_a_) Four ending in =u=. =au=, =ou=, =iu=, =eu=. =Kauppa=, _sale_, =koulu=, _school_, =hiukka=, _a grain_, =leuka=, _chin_.

(_b_) Two ending in =y=: =äy=, =öy=. =Väylä=, _river bed_, =höyhen=, _feather_.

(_c_) Seven ending in =i=: =ai=, =oi=, =ui=, =ei=, =äi=, =öi=, =yi=. E.g. =nai=, _he married_, =koi=, _a moth_, =pui=, _he threshed_, =vei=, _he led_, =päivä=, _day_, =löi=, _he struck_, =myi=, _he sold_.

These diphthongs, with the exception of those ending in =i=, are found only in the first syllable of words, otherwise the two vowels form two syllables: e.g. =tapa-us=, not =tapa͡us=, =kope-us=, not =kope͡us=, but =talko͡issa=, =pape͡illa=.

The pronunciation of these diphthongs offers no difficulties when that of the simple vowels has been mastered. It must be remembered that they are real diphthongs where both vowels sounds are heard, but pronounced rapidly, so that _au_, though very near the _ow_ in the English _how_, is not quite like it. The pronunciation of =äy= and =öy= requires attention, but is, like that of all the diphthongs, merely the result of pronouncing the simple vowels rapidly.

The chief accent in Finnish is always on the first syllable of every word. =Tálo=, =mínä=, =párempi=, =kívettä=.

There is a secondary accent, generally on the third, fifth, ... syllables, but occasionally on the fourth, sixth, ... e.g. =op-pi-mát-to-múu-des-sán-sa= (_in his ability to learn_).

But =ó-pet-ta-mát-to-múu-des-sán-sa= (_in his ignorance_).

But in no case is the second or last syllable accented, so that such sounds as _howéver_, _deláy_, are impossible.

The pronunciation of Finnish is generally described as easy, but this is by no means the case. It is true that the language contains no sound which is really difficult for an Englishman, but on the other hand extreme care is necessary to pronounce even the simplest words correctly. For instance, in the word =menemme= (_we come_), three things are to be observed. The accent is on the first syllable, the =n= is single and not double, and the =m= is doubled. An Englishman, who has not learned how to pronounce, will in all probability say not =menemme=, but =menneme=. This is because he finds it natural to double the =n= after the accented syllable and hard to double the =m=, without accenting the second syllable. It must be observed, that:—

(1) The simple consonants are pronounced very lightly; =tuli=, _fire_, nearly rhymes to the English _fully_, but the =l= is lighter.

(2) The double consonants must be pronounced distinctly twice, as in Italian. =Kuk-ka=, _flower_, =kyl-lä=, _enough_, =pap-pi=, _priest_.

(3) The simple vowels are very short, the long vowels are to be dwelt on, but the length of a vowel has nothing to do with the accent. =Púhuu= must not be pronounced as if it were =Puhúu=, or =puúhu=.

The observance of these rules is necessary, not only to insure a correct pronunciation, but to prevent absolute confusion, for the paucity of consonants in Finnish results in the existence of a mass of words, which though very distinct to a native, are liable to be confounded by a stranger, and the natural tendency of an Englishman or Russian to slur over unaccented syllables results in complete unintelligibility. For instance, =tuli= is _a fire_, or, _he came_, =tulli=, _a tax_, =tulla=, _to come_ (infinitive), =tule=, _come_ (imperative and root), =tulee=, _he comes_: =tullee=, the concessive of the same verb, =tuuli=, _a wind_, =tuulla=, _to blow_. =Kylä= is _a village_, but =kyllä=, _enough_. =Pitää=, _to hold_, =pyytää=, _to ask_, =peittää=, _to cover_, =peite=, _a covering_, =pöytä=, _a table_.

OF THE FORMATION OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS.

A syllable ending in a simple vowel or diphthong is called _open_: one ending in a consonant or the aspiration is called closed. E.g. =I-sä=, _father_, =tuo-da=, _to bring_, consist of open syllables: =kis-sat=, _cats_, =kir-jat=, _books_, of closed.

As already stated, a word cannot begin or end with more than one consonant.

If a double consonant occurs in the middle of a word the first letter must be pronounced with the preceding vowel and the second with the succeeding, e.g. =pal-lo=, not =pall-o=.

=1.= (1) At the end of the first syllable of a word two consonants are tolerated, provided the first be =l=, =r=, =n=, or =m=, and the second =k=, =t=, =p=, or =s=. =Pilk-ku=, _a spot_, =kent-tä=, _a field_, =simp-sukka=, _pearl_: otherwise one of the consonants must be rejected.

=2.= (2) At the end of the second or succeeding syllables may stand only one consonant, and every word must end with a vowel or one of the consonants =n=, =r=, =s=, =t=, =l= (rare), or the aspiration.

If the grammatical changes cause an agglomeration of consonants which does not come under these rules, the consonants must be simplified or changed; =syöks-tä= becomes =syöstä=: =avaim= (for =avaime=) becomes =avain=.

One of the most characteristic features of the Finnish language is what is called the _Harmony of the vowels_. Besides the division of the vowels according to length, there is another by which they are classified according to their quality as follows:—

Hard =a=, =o=, =u=.
Soft =ä=, =ö=, =y=.
Neutral =e=, =i=.

Long vowels and diphthongs belong to the same class as their component elements, which can never be discordant, that is to say, =ay= or =äu= are impossible combinations.

The first syllable of a word may contain any of these vowels. The formation of the remaining syllables is determined by the following rules:—

(1) If the first syllable contains a hard vowel, the vowels in the other syllables must be either hard or neutral, but not soft, =Kala=, _a fish_: ablative, =kalalta=. =Ansaita=, _to deserve_, =ansaitsevat=, _they deserve_.

(2) If the vowel in the first syllable is soft, then the vowels of all the other syllables must be soft or neutral, but not hard. =Tölli=, _a cottage_, =töllissä=, _in the cottage_; =kätkein=, =käkeittäköön=.

(3) If the vowel in the first syllable is neutral, two cases occur.

(_a_) If the vowel of the second syllable is hard, as in the word =vieras=, the succeeding vowels must be either hard or neutral: =vierahaksi= (transitive case).

(_b_) If the vowel of the second syllable is either soft _or neutral_, all the other vowels must be soft or neutral, but not hard. =Retki=, _a journey_, partitive case, =retki-ä=; =sirppi=, _sickle_, =sirppiä=.

It will thus be seen that there are two forms of every termination in Finnish, one containing hard and the other a soft vowel. Thus the ablative ends in =-lta= or =-ltä=: =maa=, =maalta=, but =työ=, =työltä=.

The hard and soft vowels are never found coexisting in any simple Finnish word, but there is no objection to such a compound as =kirkko-väki=, =kirkko-isä=.

This principle of vowel harmony is really extremely natural, and facilitates pronunciation, as will be seen by the example of French. An Englishman pronouncing such combinations as _voulu_, or _du tout_ has, if not accustomed to the language, a tendency to say _voulou_, _du tut_, making the two vowels the same, because the sudden change in the position of the pronouncing organs required to say _u_ or _ou_, or vice versa, is a matter of some difficulty. It is the consciousness of this difficulty which has led Finnish and other languages to adopt the rule that the vowels of a word must be of the same character, so that no rude change may be necessary for their pronunciation.

This vowel harmony is not found in all the Finno-Ugric languages. In its fully developed form it exists (_v._ Dr. Donner, die gegenseitige Verwandschaft der Finnish-ugrischen Sprachen, p. 9) only in Finnish, the Dorpat dialect of Esthonian, Hungarian, one dialect of Tcheremissian and one of Vogulian. In many others of these languages it is found in an incomplete form, whence some think that it is an original characteristic of the Finno-Ugric group, which has been lost by some tribes whose phonetic sense was not keen. Some authorities hold that in the Finno-Ugric language there are two kinds of vowel harmony: firstly, that prevailing between the different syllables of a stem, which is characteristic of all the tongues included in this group, and secondly that which assimilates the vowels of suffixes to those of the stem—i.e. that which obliges us to say =repinyt= and not =repinut=. This latter species of vowel harmony is not primitive, but has been gradually developed, perfectly in Finnish and Hungarian, and imperfectly in the other languages. This view seems very reasonable.

CHANGES OF SOUNDS.

All Finnish words consist of a root to which certain suffixes have been attached, but the addition of these latter often causes certain changes in the final vowel and consonants of the original root. In order to inflect words correctly it is necessary to know these changes.

A. _Changes of Vowels._