Chapter II: Short Vowels (1)

The simple vowels =o=, =ö=, =u=, =y= are invariable, but =a=, =ä=, =e=, =i= are subject to certain changes in the last syllable of a root.

=A. Ä.=

When the vowels =A= and =Ä= at the end of a root are followed by the =i= characteristic of the imperfect tense, or plural, they undergo the following changes:—

=6.= (1) =Ä= is always rejected in disyllables—e.g. =heitän=, _I throw_, =heitin=, _I threw_.

=7.= (2) =A= at the end of disyllabic roots is rejected before =i=, if the vowel of the first syllable is =o=, =u=, =uu=, =ou=, =uo=, =oi=, or =ui=: but is changed into =o= if that vowel is =a=, =e=, =i=, =aa=, =ii=, =ai=, =au=, =ei=, =eu=, =ie=, or =iu=. Thus =ottavat=, _they take_, past =ottivat= (for =ottaivat=); =nuora=, _a cord_, =nuorilla=, _with cords_; =tupa=, _a hut_, =tuvissa=, _in huts_. But on the other hand, =kala=, _a fish_, =kaloiksi=; =annan=, _I give_, =annoin=, _I gave_; =kannan=, _I carry_, =kannoin=, _I carried_.[5]

Disyllabic verbs, where the final =a= is preceded by =t=, can change it into =o=, but generally reject it, =ahtoi= or =ahti=: =kaartoi= or =kaarti=.

=8.= Derivatives of verbs in =ma=, =ja=, =va=, always reject the =a=: =sanova=, =sanovia=; =ottaja=, =ottajia=; =puhuva=, =puhuvia=.

=9.= (3) Polysyllabic verbs always reject =a= and =ä= in the imperfect. =Odotan=, _I wait_, =odotin=, _I waited_, etc. The rejection also takes place in polysyllabic substantives ending in =-mpa=, =-mpä=, and derivatives in =va=, =vä=, =sa=, =sä=, and those where =h= or any vowel but =i= precedes the final =a=, e.g. =vanhempa=, =vanhemmille=; =sanova=, =sanovina=; =vieraha=, =vierahille=; =kapea=, =kapeita=. But should the final =a= be preceded by two consonants, or the penultimate syllable contain the vowel =i=, =a= and =ä= become respectively =o= and =ö=; =asia=, _a thing_, =asioissa=; =karitsa=, _a lamb_, =karitsoita=; =kynttilä=, _a candle_, =kynttilöitä=, _candles_. But the words =isäntä=, =emäntä= always reject =i=, =isännille=, =emännille=.

=10.= (4) In cases which come under none of these heads, e.g. such a word as =peruna=, _potatoe_, =a=, =ä= can be either dropped or changed to =o=, =ö=, =perunia= or =perunoita=, partitive case plural.

=11.= (5) =a= and =ä= change to =e= before the comparative suffix =-mpa= in disyllabic words, and before the suffix =ta=, =tta=, of the passive. =Vanha=, _old_, comparative =vanhempi=; =istutan=, _I plant_, =istutetaan=, passive.

=12.= (6) The nominative sing. of superlatives (stem =-impa=), and of caritive adjectives (stem =-toma=), drops =a=: =kovimpa= becomes =kovin= (by rules =24=, =46=); and =viattoma=, _innocent_, =viaton= (=46=).

=13.= (7) =a=, =ä= become =i= in the nominative sing. of comparatives, stem =kovempa=, nominative =kovempi=.

=E.=

=14.= (1) =E= is always rejected before =i=. =Kive-illä= becomes =kivillä=, _with stones_; =Mere-illä=, =Merillä=.

=15.= (2) Dissyllables ending in =e= always change that vowel to =i= in the nominative singular. Stems, =mere=, _sea_, =tuule=, _wind_, nominatives, =meri=, =tuuli=.

The only important exceptions to this rule are the words =itse=, _self_, and =kolme=, _three_. =Nukke=, _a doll_, is also found, and =sine=, _blue_, is used as well as =sini=.

The stem =miehe=, _man_, makes =mies= in the nominative sing.

=16.= (3) Polysyllabic stems ending in =e= reject it in the nominative sing. Stem, =sisare=; nominative, =sisar=, _a sister_.

=17.= (4) The final =e= of a disyllabic stem disappears in nouns before terminations commencing with =t=, and in verbs before terminations beginning with =k= or =n=, provided that =e= is preceded by any simple consonant but =k=, =p=, =v=, =m=, or by a double consonant of which the last letter is =t= or =s= (except =ht=). Thus from the stem =une= (_sleep_), =vuore= (_mountain_), =vete= (_water_) (nominative, =vesi=), come the forms =unta=, =vuorta=, =vettä=, and from the verbal stems =tule= (_come_), =mene= (_go_), such forms as =tulkaa=, =tullut= (for =tulnut=), =menkää=. =Lapse=, _a child_, forms =lasta=, for =lapsta=; =veitse=, _a knife_, =veistä= for =veitstä=.

But =e= remains in the verbs =potea=, _to fall ill_, =tuntea=, _to know_, and in =itse=, _self_, =suksi=, _snowshoe_, =sääksi=, _a gnat_, =ripsi=, _an eyelash_, =viiksi=, _a moustache_, which form their partitives in =itseä=, =suksea=, etc.

=18.= But in disyllabic words =e= is not rejected if preceded by =k=, =p=, =v=, or =m=. Thus the stems =joke=, _river_, =läpe=, _a hole_, =kive=, _stone_, =Suome=, _Finland_, form their partitives =jokea=, =läpeä=, =kiveä=, =Suomea=.

=19.= Likewise =e= remains in disyllables where it is preceded by =ht=, or by any two consonants of which the last is not =t= or =s=: =tähte=, _star_, and =lehte=, _leaf_, form =tähteä= and =lehteä=. =Onne=, _fortune_, and =hanhe=, _goose_, =onnea= and =hanhea=.

But =yksi=, _one_, and =kaksi=, _two_ (roots =yhte= and =kahte=), form =yhtä= and =kahta= for =yhttä=, =kahtta=. =Lumi=, _snow_, is also an exception and forms =lunta=. Also the verbal stems =teke= and =näke=: infinitive, =tehdä=, =nähdä=.

=20.= In polysyllabic words the =e= is always suppressed: root =kysymykse=, _a question_, partitive case, =kysymystä= for =kysymykstä=.

=I.=

=21.= (1) When =i= at the end of substantives meets the =i= of the plural, the first =i= changes into =e=, =risti=, _cross_, =risteissä=. This rule is however not always observed, and forms like =ristissä= are used for the plural. But in other cases, when two =i=’s meet, the first falls out, pres. =etsivät=, imp. =etsivät=, not =etsiivät=. In old Finnish, words like =etseivät= are found.

=22.= (2) When =i= (generally owing to the dropping of a consonant) is found between two vowels it becomes =j=. =Kaloia= becomes =kaloja=.

=23.= All these four vowels, =a=, =ä=, =e=, and =i=, are rejected before the =-i= of the terminations of the superlative: =vanha=, _old_, =selkeä=, _bright_, =suure=, _great_, =auli=, _liberal_, make in the superlative =vanhin=, =selkein=, =suurin=, =aulin=.

B. _Changes of Consonants._

=24.= A word cannot end with more than one consonant. If the rejection of a final vowel leaves two consonants at the end of a word, one is rejected, usually the first, e.g. =Lupaukse=, _a promise_. By rule =16=, =e= is rejected in the nominative sing., and there remains =lupauks=, which becomes =lupaus=. But if the second consonant is not one of those allowed to end a word by rule =2=, it is rejected and the first only kept. =Suurimpi= becomes =suurimp=, and as =p= is not a possible final letter, =m= is kept, and by rule =46= (below) becomes =n=, =suurin=.

THE SOFTENING OF THE HARD CONSONANTS =K=, =T=, =P=.

General rule: Whenever one of the three hard consonants, =k=, =t=, =p=, is found at the beginning of a naturally short and open syllable (that is, one ending in a simple vowel) which becomes closed (that is, ends in a consonant) owing to the addition of a suffix, then the hard consonant is softened or rejected[6].

It must be observed that some syllables which are apparently open are treated in grammar as being closed, because they end with the aspiration. This aspiration, though hardly heard except in dialects, generally represents an original consonant (_v._ the rules respecting the formation of the Imperative, Infinitives I and II, and passive).

This curious rule of the softening of consonants pervades the whole Finnish language and is one of its distinguishing features. The addition of a final letter to a syllable necessitates a certain effort in order to sound it accurately, and in order to compensate for the difficulty thus added at the end the pronunciation of the first letter is made easier. It is indeed clear that it is easier to say =kukan= than =kukkan=, if both =k=’s are carefully pronounced; but an English mouth does not find it easier to say =revin= than =repin=. But it must be remembered that the Finnish language is extraordinarily susceptible in regard to consonants. Mouths which are incapable of pronouncing two consonants at the beginning of a word must have to struggle with difficulties in pronunciation which we are quite incapable of understanding. It must also be remembered that simple consonants are pronounced exceedingly lightly, so that their disappearance is easier than it would be, were they sounded as strongly as in our language.

=K.=

=25.= (1) =kk= becomes =k=. That is to say, when the final syllable of =kukka=, _flower_, becomes closed by the addition of =n=, one of the =k=’s is dropped, and we have =kukan= for =kukkan=. So =kirkko=, =kirkossa=.

=26.= (2) =nk= becomes =ng=. =Aurinko=, _sun_, forms the genitive =auringon=. =Kaupunki=, _town_, =kaupungin=.

=27.= (3) =lk=, =rk= become simply =l=, =r=, but if followed by =e=, =lj=, =rj=. For example, =jalka=, _a foot_, genitive =jalan=; =märkä=, _wet_, genitive =märän=; =kulke=, _leave_, =kuljen=, _I leave_; =särke=, _break_, =särjen=, _I break_.

=hk= generally becomes simply =h=, but may remain unchanged; =tuhka=, _ash_, genitive =tuhan=, but sometimes =tuhkan=; =sähkö=, _electricity_, genitive =sähön=. In old Finnish such forms as =tuhvan= are found.

=28.= (4) Between two vowels =k= generally is lost altogether when the syllable is closed; =tako=, _forge_, =taon=, _I forge_; =vika=, _a fault_, genitive =vian=.

If the =k= is preceded by a diphthong ending in =i= or by simple =i=, a =j= is developed when =k= falls out: thus =aika=, _time_, =poika=, _boy_, =ikä=, _life_, make =ajan=, =pojan=, =ijän=. Similarly when =k= falls out between two =u=’s or two =y=’s, a =v= is developed, at any rate in pronunciation. The orthography varies between =uu= and =uvu=, but the latter is generally adopted when there is any ambiguity, e.g. =puvun=, from =puku=, _clothes_, not =puun=, because this is liable to be confused with =puun=, the genitive of =puu=, _a tree_; =suvun= from =suku=, _a family_; but =suun= from =sun=, _a month_; =luvun= from =luku=, _a number_, but =luun= from =luu=, _a bone_.

=29.= (5) =sk=, =tk= remain unchanged, =lasku=, =laskun=, =itku=, =itkun=.

=T.=

=30.= (1) =tt= becomes =t=, =opetta=, _teach_, =opetan=, _I teach_.

=31.= (2) =lt=, =rt=, =nt= become =ll=, =rr=, =nn=. =Pelto=, _field_, =pellon=; =parta=, _beard_, =parran=; =kanta=, _base_, =kannan=.

=32.= (3) After a vowel or =h=, =t= becomes =d=. =Pata=, _pot_, =padan=; =tahto=, _wish_, =tahdon=[7].

=P.=

=33.= (1) =pp= becomes =p=. =Pappi=, _priest_, =papin=.

=34.= (2) =mp= becomes =mm=, stem =kovempa=, _harder_, =kovemman=.

=35.= (3) In other cases =p= becomes =v=. =Lepo=, _rest_, =levon=; =repi=, _tear_, =revin=; =halpa=, _cheap_, =halvan=.

=36.= N.B.—This softening of =k=, =t=, =p=, takes place if in a polysyllabic radical one of them is the first letter of a syllable whose vowel forms a diphthong with the =i= of the plural. =Harakka=, _magpie_, =harakoita=; =aurinko=, =auringoita=, _sun_; =palkinto=, =palkinnoita=, _reward_.

These rules for the weakening of consonants are rigorously observed throughout the language, with the one exception that the addition of the pronominal suffixes produces no change in a word. Though =tapa + n= becomes =tavan=, =tapa + nsa= remains =tapansa=.

OTHER CHANGES OF CONSONANTS.

=T=, meeting with the vowel =i=, under certain circumstances becomes =s=.

=37.= =T= in the last syllable of a word, when preceded by a vowel or by =l=, =n=, =r=, becomes =s= when a final =e= is rejected or changed into =i=. E.g. in the nominative of the root =vete=, _water_, the final =e= becomes =i= by rule, and =t= changes to =s=, forming =vesi=. Similarly when the final =e= of =hyvyyte=, _goodness_, is rejected =t= becomes =s=, forming the nominative =hyvyys=; so also =jälte= becomes =jälsi=, and =varte=, =varsi=.

=38.= =T= also becomes =s= before =i= in the plural of ordinal numbers whose stem ends in =-nte=. E.g. the essive singular of stem =neljänte=, _fourth_, is =neljäntenä=; in the plural the corresponding case is =neljänsinä=, for =neljäntinä=.

=39.= The plural of stems ending in =-ute=, =-yte=, forms the essive and other analogous cases from a stem ending in =-ksi=. =Suuruus=, _greatness_, has for the sing. the stem =suuruute= (e.g. essive =suuruutena=), but forms in the plur. =suuruuksina=, etc. So also from =hyvyyte=, _goodness_, comes from the sing. =hyvyytenä=, and the plur. =hyvyyksinä=.

=40.= =T= in the last syllable of a verb, preceded by a double vowel or =l=, =n=, =r=, changes to =s= before the =i= of the imperf., the vowels =a=, =ä= being suppressed. Thus from =pyytää=, _to ask_, comes =pyysi= (for =pyytäi=); from =taitaa=, _can_, =taisi=. But =pitää=, _to hold_, makes =piti=, because this vowel is simple.

=Nousee=, _he arises_, forms the imperfect =nousi=, but =noutaa=, _he brings_, makes =nouti=, to distinguish it from the other. Similarly =kyntää=, _to plough_, generally forms its imperfect =kynti=, to distinguish it from the same tense of =kynsiä=, _to scratch_.

In poetry forms like =kielti=, for =kielsi=, are found, and in the ordinary language a number of verbs which should by the above rule form the imperfect in =si=, either keep =ti=, as =hoiti= (=hoitaa=, _to look after_), =jouti= (=joutaa=, _to have time_), or have alternative forms, =hääti= or =hääsi= (=häätää=, _to keep off_), =sääti= or =sääsi= (=säätää=, _to place_), =kiiti= or =kiisi= (from =kiitää=, _to hasten_), =hyyti= or =hyysi= (=hyytää=, _to freeze_), =syyti= or =syysi= (=syytää=, _throw out_), =sieti= or =siesi= (=sietää=, _to bear_), =jäyti= or =jäysi= (=jäytää=, _to gnaw_).

=T= always becomes =s= in the imperfect of contracted verbs, =lupata=, _to promise_, pres. =lupaan=, impf. =lupasin=.

The combination =ts= is pronounced in dialects as =tt= or =ht=; e.g. =metsä=, _a forest_, appears as =mettä= or =mehtä=.

=41.= =K= before =t=, =d=, =n= becomes =h=. E.g. from the root =teke=, whose final vowel is liable to be rejected, come =tehtiin=, =tehdään=, =tehnen=, and also =tehkää=.

=42.= But =h= before =s= becomes =k=. Thus the stems =yhte=, _one_, =kahte=, _two_, =haahte=, _a ship_, form the nominatives =yksi=, =kaksi=, =haaksi=, =te= becoming =si= by the rules previously given, and =h= changing to =k=.

=43.= In contracted words (_v._ page 18) =h=, when left as a final letter, becomes =s=, =t=, or the aspiration. Stem =vieraha=, nominative =vieras=, for =vierah=; stem =kevähä=, nominative =kevät=, for =kevähä=; stem =venehe=, nominative =veneʻ=, for =venehe=.

Though the above rules are given as being convenient for grammatical purposes, there is no doubt that in all these cases =h= is a weakening of some other letter; indeed, there is reason to think it is never original in Finnish. =Vieras= represents an original =vierasa=, and the genitive =vierasan= is weakened into =vierahan= and =vieraan=. Similarly in =yksi=, =yhden=, the =k= is more primitive.

=44.= =N=, after =l=, =n=, =s=, is frequently, though not always, assimilated, especially in verbs. Thus =tul-nut=, =pur-nut=, =pes-nyt=, become =tullut=, =purrut=, =pessyt=.

=45.= In polysyllabic verbs =n= becomes =t= before =k= and =t=. Thus root =pakene= makes in the imperative =paetkaa= (for =pakenkaa=, which becomes first =paketkaa=) and infinitive =paeta=. (The steps are =pakenetaʻ=, =pakentaʻ=, =pakettaʻ=, =paettaʻ=, =paeta=.)

=46.= =M=, at the end of a word, always becomes =n=. Stem =avaime=, _a key_, nominative =avain=, for =avaim=. Similar is the formation of the nominatives of superlatives: =kovimpi= becomes =kovimp= by rejection of the final vowel, and then =kovim= (rule =24=), which changes to =kovin=.

=47.= =M= also becomes =n= before terminations beginning with =t= or =n=. Thus the stem =rahattoma=, _moneyless_, shortened to =rahatom=, makes =rahatonta= and =rahatonna= in the partitive and essive cases.

CONTRACTION.

When two vowels are found together from the loss of a consonant or other causes, they frequently become a long vowel or a diphthong. This phenomenon is called Contraction, and occurs frequently in Finnish. It can, like the loss of final vowels, be easily accounted for on phonetic grounds, if it be remembered that the tonic accent of a word is always on the first syllable, so that there is a natural tendency to drop or pronounce quickly syllables at the end of words.

This contraction is of two kinds:—

=48.= I. The first kind takes place when the vowels of the two final syllables of a word are the same, and the consonant between them (=h= in nouns or =t= in verbs) falls out. Thus, =vierahan= becomes =viera͡an= (two syllables); =lupatan=, =lupa͡an=; =tervehen=, =terve͡en=.

This form of contraction is universally employed in certain classes of nouns and verbs, the uncontracted forms being only found in poetry and the Karelian dialect.

=49.= II. The second kind is when the vowels of the last and penultimate syllables of a word meet, the last vowel being =a= or =ä=. Under these circumstances the assimilation of the second vowel to the first, and contraction of the two into one long vowel is admissible, but not obligatory, though it usually takes place if the first vowel is =o=, =e=, or =ö=. Thus =lankean= (_I fall_), =kokoan= (_I collect_), become =lankeen=, =kokoon=. But the contraction of =ia= or =ua= to =ii=, =uu= is rare.

Forms like =silee=, =ainoo= for =sileä=, =ainoa= are found in poetry. In prose this form of contraction is confined to verbs.

The contraction of two vowels into one long vowel or diphthong also occurs in adding the case suffixes:—

(1) The =a= or =ä= of the partitive sing. with the final vowel of roots ending in =a= or =ä= forms a long vowel, e.g. =jalka-a=, =leipä-ä= become =jalka͡a=, =leipä͡ä=.

(2) When the =e= of a termination becomes =i= after the final vowel of a root, this =i= forms a diphthong with that vowel, e.g. =korvaen= becomes =korva͡in=; and when the =i= of the plural meets with the final vowel of a root it forms a diphthong with it.

The point in all these cases is that, though no change takes place in writing, the two vowels form one syllable instead of two.

Vowels which meet from the disappearance of =k= are often contracted in pronunciation: =te͡en=, =nä͡in= from =teken=, =näkin=, are pronounced as one syllable.

NOUNS.

Finnish is called an agglutinative language; that is to say, the words, as they appear used in a sentence, are formed of roots, to which have been added certain terminations: thus =taloiltansa=, meaning _from his farms_, is made up from the root =talo=, and the suffixes =i= (a sign of the plural), =-lta= (giving the idea of from), and =-nsa= (his).

Every root in Finnish ends in a vowel or a diphthong.

In adding suffixes to a root the rules for the changes of letters must be carefully observed. The result of applying them is that from the original full root there may be produced three modifications:—

(1) The closed form. Root =vete=, _water_, closed form =veden=.

(2) The shortened form, =paimen= for =paimene=.

(3) A form both closed and shortened. =tantere=, nominative =tanner=.

_Declension._

The Finnish noun is declined by adding suffixes to the root, which undergoes any modifications required by the rules of Euphony.

There are fifteen cases, which, with the exception of the nominative, may be regarded as the noun followed by a preposition, or rather postposition. The Finnish word =maalta= corresponds to the English _from land_, only the _from_ is put after _land_, and the two are written as one word. =maalta= is analogous to such an expression as the Greek γῆς ἀπό, only that in this case we have both a case-form and a postposition. Most of the terminations have two forms, one with a hard, one with a soft vowel. Roots with hard vowels take the hard termination, those with soft, the soft ones. Thus we find =maa-ssa=, but =työ-ssä=.

These fifteen cases are as follow:—

(1) The _nominative_ has no suffix, though it does not always represent the pure root. In =maa=, _land_, the two are identical, but the roots =käte=, =vete=, =vieraha= produce the nominatives =käsi=, =vesi=, =vieras=.

(2) The _partitive_ is formed by the suffix =ta=, =tä= or =a=, =ä=. It may be roughly described as answering to a noun preceded in English by the word _some_, or in French by the partitive article. =Leipää=, _some bread_, _du pain_; =vettä=, _some water_, _de l’eau_.

(3) The _genitive_ is formed by the suffix =n=. =Puun=, _of the tree_.

The Finnish genitive really represents two cases, the genitive and accusative, which have become confused in one form.

(4) The _inessive_ expresses the place, in which anything takes place, and is formed with the suffix =-ssa=, =-ssä=. =Missä=, _where_ (_in what_); =kirkossa=, _in the church_.

(5) The _elative_ expresses the place from which motion takes place, and is formed with the suffix =-sta=, =-stä=. =Mistä=, _whence_ (_from what_); =kirkosta=, _from the church_; =talosta=, _from the farm_.

(6) The _illative_ is formed by adding to the root the consonants =h—n=, between which is inserted the last vowel of the root, or, if it ends in a diphthong, the second vowel in that diphthong. =Talo=, =talohon=; =metsä=, =metsähän=; =työ=, =työhön=. Generally the termination is shortened by the omission of =h=, and we have forms like =taloon=, =metsään=. It expresses the place into which motion takes place.

(7) The _adessive_ is formed with the suffix =-lla=, =-llä=, and signifies the place on which, or the object with which, anything is done. =Lattialla=, _on the floor_; =kädellä=, _with the hand_.

(8) The _ablative_ is formed with the suffix =-lta=, =-ltä=, and expresses motion from. =Maalta=, _from the land_; =pöydältä=, _from the table_.

(9) The _allative_ expresses motion towards, and is formed with the suffix =-lle=. =Pellolle=, _to the field_; =rannalle=, _to the shore_.

(10) The _abessive_ is formed with the suffix =-tta=. It expresses the absence of something; =rahatta=, _without money_.

(11) The _prolative_ is formed by adding the syllable =-tse=, and expresses motion along; =talotse=, _along the farm_. In modern Finnish it is rarely used in the singular. =Maitse=, =meritse=, _by land_, _by sea_.

(12) The _translative_ is formed with the suffix =-ksi=. It generally is used to express some change in the form of existence. =Hän tuli sotamieheksi=, _he became a soldier_.

(13) Whereas the _essive_, formed by adding =-na= or =-nä= to the root, expresses a state of being regarded as continuous. =Lapsena=, _as a child_.

(14) The _comitative_ is formed with the syllable =-ne=, and is generally used in the plural, and with a possessive affix. =Lapsine= (or oftener =lapsinensa=), _with his children_.

(15) The _instructive_ is formed by simply adding the letter =n= to a root, and expresses the means by which anything is done. =Käsin=, _with the hands_. The singular of the instructive is only used in poetry.

There are two numbers in Finnish, the singular and plural. For the singular, the suffixes are added directly to the root: to form the plural other letters are also added.

A. The nominative plural is formed by adding =t= to the root, e.g. root and nominative sing. =maa=, nominative plur. =maat=; root and nominative sing. =pata=, nominative plur. (by rule =31=) =padat=; root =vieraha=, nominative sing. =vieras=, nominative plur. =vierahat=; root =vete=, nominative sing. =vesi=, nominative plur. =vedet=.

B. The other cases, with the exceptions below mentioned, simply add =i= to the root, which suffers the necessary phonetic changes, and then take the same suffixes as the sing. =Maa=, inessive sing. =maassa=, inessive plur. =maissa= (=3=); =pata=, illative sing. =patahan= or =pataan=, illative plur. =patoihin= (=7=); =vieraha=, translative sing. =vierahaksi= or =vieraaksi=, translative plur. =vierahiksi= or =vieraiksi= (=11=).

C. But the genitive plural is formed with the suffix =-ite= (apparently a combination of the two suffixes =i= and =t(e)= above mentioned), placed before the case suffix =-n=.

This suffix is found in three forms:—

(1) =ite + n= becomes regularly =-iden=, =maiden=.

(2) Monosyllabic roots and polysyllabic roots ending with a long vowel have a strengthened form, =-itte-n=, often found alternating with =-ide-n=, e.g. =maitten=, =vierahitten=.

(3) The =t= drops out and the suffix becomes simply =-ie-n=, e.g. =jalka-iten= becomes (rule =7=) =jalko-iten=, then =jalko-ien=, then (rule =21=) =jalkojen=; =äiti-iten= becomes =äititen=, and then =äitien=. Sometimes the =i= or =j= drops out between two vowels; e.g. =kirkkoen=.

Most of the cases above enumerated are common to nearly all the Finno-Ugric languages, though the same suffixes are used with rather different meanings.

The suffix =-na=, called here essive, is used in most other languages of the family as a locative, and a few traces of this use are preserved in Finnish, e.g. =kotona=, _at home_, =ulkona=, _out of doors_, (=olla=) =läsnä=, _to be present_, =takana=, _behind_, =tänä pänä=, =tänään=, _to-day_.

No accusative is usually given in Finnish grammars, because this case coincides with the genitive in the sing., and with the nominative in the plural. The accusative sing. is, however, etymologically a distinct formation, with the termination =m= or =ma=, as is proved by a comparison of the other languages of the family (Ostiak and Vogulian =ma=, =me=, or =m=; Tcheremissian and Syrjenian =m=). As =m= cannot be a final in Finnish, it becomes =n=, and the case is indistinguishable from the genitive.

There is also an accusative in =-t=, found in the pronominal declensions of Finnish, Ostiak, Syrjenian, and Mordvinian. It is supposed to represent the demonstrative pronoun =ta= suffixed to a word, and perhaps stands for =-nt=.

Another case which occurs sporadically, though not usually given in grammars, is the Excessive, ending in =-nta=. This termination is much used in the dialect spoken about St. Petersburg, and is even employed by some writers. It expresses departure either from a place or a state; e.g. =kotonta=, _from home_; =hän jäi palvelijanta=, _he gave up being a servant_. =Hän muutti paimenenta rengiksi=, _he became a farm-labourer instead of a shepherd_. It is also found in some adverbial forms, e.g. =siintä=, =luonta=, =takanta=.

Another sporadic case is an allative or dative ending in =-nne=, =-ne=, or =-n=. Its original form seems to have been =-nek=, for in the Savo-dialect we find =tuonnek=, =tännek= instead of the ordinary =tuonne=, =tänne=, _thither, hither_. In written Finnish this termination is only used in a few adverbs, as =sinne=, _thither_, =muuanne=, _to another place_. =Alle=, =päälle=, and =ylle= are also apparently for =al-ne=, =pääl-ne=, =yl-ne=. In the expression =Jumalan kiitos=, _thanks be to God_, =Jumalan= appears to be really this case, and similar strange uses of an apparent genitive in old writings are no doubt to be explained the same way.

It will be observed that the local cases are arranged in two sets of three, one characterised by the presence of =s=, the other by that of =l=.

We have:—

Inessive =s-sa= (for =s-na=) Adessive =l-la= (for =l-na=)
Elative =s-ta= Ablative =l-ta=
Illative =sen= or =h-n=. Allative =l-le= (for =l-len=)

The Essive in =na= and Excessive in =n-ta= are parts of a similar set.

The case called adessive (=-lla=) is also used as an instrumental, and probably represents two original cases.

The primitive form of the abessive appears to have been =taka= or =taha=, which is considered by some as identical with the word =taka=, _back_. Besides the regular termination in =-tta=, the forms =-ta= and =-t= are found in dialects, and =-ti= in some adverbs; =ääneti=, _silently_; =huoleti=, _carelessly_. Closely connected with the abessive are the caritive adjectives ending in =-ttoma=.

The prolative, though generally counted as one of the regular cases, is really very seldom employed, and cannot be formed from the majority of nouns.

The plur. inflection of the Finno-Ugric languages, gives three suffixes, =t=, =k=, and =i=, of which =t= and =i= are found in Finnish. It has been suggested that the =t= and =k= are really identical, =k= not being allowable as a final letter. It is not improbable that =i= may be the remains of a =k= weakened to =j= (cf. =26=, =27=).

=There are no genders in Finnish.=

The simplest way of dividing the declensions is by the form of the Partitive case.

The _first_ declension has the partitive ending in =ta= or =tä=, after a long vowel or diphthong.

The _second_ has the partitive ending in =a= or =ä=, after a short vowel.

The _third_ has the partitive in =ta= or =tä=, after a consonant.

_The First Declension._

This declension includes all words ending in a long vowel or a diphthong.

It has the following characteristics:—

(1) The partitive sing. has the suffix =ta= or =tä=, after a long vowel or diphthong.

(2) The nominative sing. is the same as the root.

(3) No change of consonants takes place in the root.

(4) The genitive plur. is found ending in =-iden= or =-itten=, before which the last vowel of the root is rejected by rule =3= or =4=.

(5) Monosyllabic roots form the illative in =h—n=, the last vowel of the root being between the two consonants: =täi=, =täihin=; =jää=, =jäähän=. But dissyllables ending in a long vowel, e.g. =harmaa=, =ehtoo=, have the illative sing. in =-sen= and the illative plur. in =-sin= or =-hin=. Sing. =harmaasen=, plur. =harmaisin= or =harmaihin=.

Example of a noun of first declension with a hard vowel. Puu, _a tree_:—

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =puu= =puut=
_Part._ =puuta= =puita=
_Gen._ =puun= =puiden= _or_ =puitten=
_In._ =puussa= =puissa=
_El._ =puusta= =puista=
_Il._ =puuhun= =puihin=
_Ad._ =puulla= =puilla=
_Abl._ =puulta= =puilta=
_All._ =puulle= =puille=
_Abes._ =puutta= =puitta=
_Prol._ [=puutse=] =puitse=
_Transl._ =puuksi= =puiksi=
_Ess._ =puuna= =puina=
_Com._ (=puune=) =puine=
_Instr._ (=puun=) =puin=

There is nothing to be remarked on the declension of this word, except that in the plur. the diphthong =uu= is shortened to =u= before the vowel =i=; =puissa=, etc., and not =puuissa=.

The declension of a noun with a soft vowel, e.g. =työ=, _work_, is exactly analogous, except that the suffixes have the soft forms =-ssä=, =-stä=, etc.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =työ= =työt=
_Part._ =työtä= =töitä=
_Gen._ =työn= =töitten=, _or_ =töiden=
_In._ =työssä= =töissä=
_El._ =työstä= =töistä=
_Il._ =työhön= =töihin=
_Ad._ =työllä= =töillä=
_Abl._ =työltä= =töiltä=
_All._ =työlle= =töille=
_Abes._ =työttä= =töittä=
_Prol._ [=työtse=] =töitse=
_Transl._ =työksi= =töiksi=
_Ess._ =työnä= =töinä=
_Com._ [=työne=] =töine=
_Instr._ [=työn=] =töin=

According to rule =4= before the =i= of the plural the vowel =y= is rejected from the diphthong =yö=. So =suo=, =yö=, =tie= form in the plural =soissa=, =öillä=, =tein=.

_The Second Declension._

The second declension has the following characteristics:—

(1) The partitive sing. ends in =-a= or =-ä= (=-ta=, =-tä=) after a short vowel. (Polysyllables have often =-ta=, =-tä=.)

(2) The nominative has the same number of vowels as the root, and generally preserves those vowels unaltered except that the final =a= or =ä= of comparatives and final =e= become =i=.

(3) The illative sing. ends in the last vowel of the root doubled with =n= suffixed; =kirkkoon=, not =kirkohon=.

(4) The genitive plur. generally ends in =-jen= or =-en=, as described above. In the ordinary language this =-en= is further weakened to =-in= after the vowel of the root, unless that vowel is itself =i=.

(5) Hard consonants at the beginning of the last syllable are of course softened by rules =24-35=, when the syllable becomes closed.

This declension comprises—

A. Roots ending in the vowels =o=, =ö=, =u=, =y=, which never change.

Example:—=Aurinko=, _the sun_.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =aurinko= =auringot=
_Part._ =aurinkoa= =aurinkoja=, =auringoita=
_Gen._ =auringon= =aurinkoen=, =aurinkoin=
=aurinkojen= _or_ =auringoiden=
_In._ =auringossa= =auringoissa=
_El._ =auringosta= =auringoista=
_Il._ =aurinkoon= =aurinkoihin=
_Ad._ =auringolla= =auringoilla=
_Abl._ =auringolta= =auringoilta=
_All._ =auringolle= =auringoille=
_Abes._ =auringotta= =auringoitta=
_Prol._ [=auringotse=] =auringoitse=
_Transl._ =auringoksi= =auringoiksi=
_Ess._ =aurinkona= =aurinkoina=
_Com._ [=aurinkone=] =aurinkoine=
_Instr._ [=auringon=] =auringoin=

Here in the majority of cases the =k= is weakened to =g=, because the syllable which it commences becomes closed containing a single vowel or a diphthong formed by that vowel with the =i= of the plural; but the =k= remains in such places as the illative, where the syllables remain open. The original form of the genitive plur. would be =aurinkoiten=. This is weakened to =auringoiden=. Then the =d= dropping out we have =aurinkojen=, =aurinkoen=, _or_ =aurinkoin=.

=Luettu= (past participle), meaning _read_, is thus declined:—

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =luettu= =luetut=
_Part._ =luettua= =luettuja= _or_ =luetulta=
_Gen._ =luetun= =luetuitten=, =luituiden=
=luettujen= _or_ =luettuin=
_In._ =luetussa= =luetuissa=
_El._ =luetusta= =luetuista=
_Il._ =luettuun= =luettuihin=
_Ad._ =luetulla= =luetuilla=
_Abl._ =luetulta= =luetuilta=
_All._ =luetulle= =luetuille=
_Abes._ =luetutta= =luetuitta=
_Prol._ —— ——
_Transl._ =luetuksi= =luetuiksi=
_Ess._ =luettuna= =luettuina=
_Com._ —— ——
_Instr._ —— ——

Here =tt= is weakened to =t= when the syllable becomes closed (rule =30=), and the partitive and genitive plur. either take or reject =t=.

The declension of words with soft vowels is precisely similar, except that the suffixes have soft vowels. =Eläimistö=, _animal kingdom_, =lyöty=, _struck_.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =eläimistö= =eläimistöt=
_Part._ =eläimistöä= =eläimistöjä=
_Gen._ =eläimistön= =eläimistöjen=
=eläimistöen=
=eläimistöin=
_In._ =eläimistössä= =eläimistöissä=
_El._ =eläimistöstä= =eläimistöistä=
_Il._ =eläimistöön= =eläimistöihin=
_Ad._ =eläimistöllä= =eläimistöillä=
_Abl._ =eläimistöltä= =eläimistöiltä=
_All._ =eläimistölle= =eläimistöille=
_Abes._ =eläimistöttä= =eläimistöittä=
_Transl._ =eläimistöksi= =eläimistöiksi=
_Ess._ =eläimistönä= =eläimistöinä=

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =lyöty= =lyödyt=
_Part._ =lyötyä= =lyötyjä=
_Gen._ =lyödyn= =lyötyjen=
=lyötyen=
=lyötyin=
_In._ =lyödyssä= =lyödyissä=
_El._ =lyödystä= =lyödyistä=
_Il._ =lyötyyn= =lyötyihin=
_Ad._ =lyödyllä= =lyödyillä=
_Abl._ =lyödyltä= =lyödyiltä=
_All._ =lyödylle= =lyödyille=
_Abes._ =lyödyttä= =lyödyittä=
_Transl._ =lyödyksi= =lyödyiksi=
_Ess._ =lyötynä= =lyötyinä=

Here the =t= of =lyöty= is weakened when the syllable is closed, but the =t= of =eläimistö= remains, being preceded by =s= and consequently unchangeable.

B. All roots ending in =a=, =ä=, except superlatives for adjectives, e.g. =pata=, _a pot_. In this declension the final =a= frequently becomes =o= in the plural by rule =7=. Dissyllabic words reject =t= in the partitive both sing. and plur., and in the genitive plur.; but polysyllabic words optionally preserve it in these cases.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =pata= =padat=
_Part._ =pataa= =patoja=
_Gen._ =padan= =patojen=, [=pataen=]
=patain=
_In._ =padassa= =padoissa=
_El._ =padasta= =padoista=
_Il._ =pataan= =patoihin=
_Ad._ =padalla= =padoilla=
_Abl._ =padalta= =padoilta=
_All._ =padalle= =padoille=
_Abes._ =padatta= =padoitta=
_Prol._ [=padatse=] =padoitse=
_Transl._ =padaksi= =padoiksi=
_Ess._ =patana= =patoina=
_Com._ [=patane=] =patoine=
_Instr._ [=padan=] =padoin=

Such words as =sota=, _war_, =korva=, _the ear_, do not change the final =a= to =o= in the plural.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =sota= =sodat= (=30=)
_Part._ =sotaa= =sotia=
_Gen._ =sodan= =sotain= _or_ =sotien=
_In._ =sodassa= =sodissa=
_Il._ =sotaan= =sotiin=
etc. etc.

Polysyllabic nouns are declined as follows:—

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =korkea= =korkeat=
_Part._ =korkeata= =korkeita=
=korkeaa= =korkeoita=
_Gen._ =korkean= =korkeiden= (=-eoiden=)
=korkeitten= (=-eoitten=)
_In._ =korkeassa= =korkeissa=
_Il._ =korkeaan= =korkeihin=
etc. etc.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =harakka= =harakat= (=25=)
_Part._ =harakkata= =harakoita=
=harakkaa= =harakkoja=
_Gen._ =harakan= =harakoiden=
=harakoitten=, =harakkojen=
_In._ =harakassa= =harakoissa=
_Ill._ =harakkaan= =harakkoihin=
etc. etc.

Similarly, =Isäntä=, _a father of a family_, makes =isäntää=, =isännän= (=t= becoming =n= by rule =31=), =isännässä=. This word in the plur. loses its final vowel, and does not change it to =o=. =Isännät=, =isäntiä=, =isäntien= (=-äin=), =isännissä=, etc.

Comparatives whose root ends in =-mpa=, =-mpä=, change the final vowel to =i= in the nominative sing.; e.g. =parempa=, _better_. Nominative =parempi=, partitive =parempaa= _or_ =parempata=, genitive =paremman= (by rule =34=), inessive =paremmassa=, etc. Plur. nominative =paremmat=, partitive =parempia=, genitive =parempien=, =parempaen=, _or_ =parempain=, inessive =paremmissa=, illative =parempiin=, etc. All comparatives reject the final =a= before the =i= of the plural.

C. All roots ending in =-i=. The root of the plural ends in the diphthong =ei= or short =i=, e.g. =kaupunki=, _a town_.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =kaupunki= =kaupungit=
_Part._ =kaupunkia= =kaupunkeja= _or_ =kaupungeita=
[_rarely_ _or_ =kaupunkia=
=kaupunkita=]
_Gen._ =kaupungin= =kaupungeiden=, =kaupunkein=,
_or_ =kaupunkien=
_In._ =kaupungissa= =kaupungeissa=
_El._ =kaupungista= =kaupungeista=
_Il._ =kaupunkiin= =kaupunkeihin=
_Ad._ =kaupungilla= =kaupungeilla=
_Abl._ =kaupungilta= =kaupungeilta=
_All._ =kaupungille= =kaupungeille=
_Abes._ =kaupungitta= =kaupungeitta=
_Prol._ =kaupungitse= =kaupungeitse=
_Transl._ =kaupungiksi= =kaupungeiksi=
_Ess._ =kaupunkina= =kaupunkeina=
_Com._ [=kaupunkine=] =kaupunkeine=
_Instr._ [=kaupungin=] =kaupungein=

Here =k= becomes =g= when the syllable is closed, and =ii= in the plur. =ei= (=26= and =21=).

D. Dissyllables ending in the vowel =e=, preceded by =k=, =p=, =v=, a doubled consonant, or two consonants of which the last is =h=, =j=, or =m=; that is to say, roots like =reke=, =nukke=, =hanhe=, =kolme=, =pilve=, etc.

A few words coming under none of these heads also belong to this declension.

_a._ With a few exceptions the final =e= becomes =i= in the nominative sing.

_b._ The plur. stem ends in simple =i= (=14=), but in speaking =ei= is sometimes used in order to distinguish the sing. and plur.

=Läpe=, _a hole_.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =läpi= =lävet=
_Part._ =läpeä= =läpiä=
_Gen._ =läven= =läpien=
=läpein=
_In._ =lävessä= =lävissä=
_El._ =lävestä= =lävistä=
_Il._ =läpeen= =läpiin=
_Ad._ =lävellä= =lävillä=
_Abl._ =läveltä= =läviltä=
_All._ =lävelle= =läville=
_Abes._ =lävettä= =lävittä=
_Prol._ (=lävetse=) =lävitse=
_Transl._ =läveksi= =läpiksi=
_Ess._ =läpenä= =läpinä=
_Com._ (=läpene=) =läpine=
_Instr._ (=läven=) =lävin=

=P= is weakened to =v= in the closed syllables (=35=).

=Reke=, _a sledge_.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =reki= =reet=
_Part._ =rekeä= =rekiä=
_Gen._ =reen= =rekien=, _or_ =rekein=
_In._ =reessä= =reissä=
_Ill._ =rekeen= =rekiin=
_Ess._ =rekenä= =rekinä=
etc. etc.

=K= is dropped by rule =28=. Notice that the word takes the soft terminations.

_The Third Declension._

The third declension has the following characteristics:—

(1) The partitive sing. ends in =ta= or =tä= _after a consonant_.

(2) The nominative sing. is never the same as the root.

(3) The root is closed in the partitive sing. and first form of the genitive plur., and sometimes in the nominative and essive sing.

The nouns belonging to this declension may be classed under two divisions.

_First Division._

This comprises all words belonging to this declension which have the illative sing. ending in a doubled vowel and =n=.

To this class belong—

I. Dissyllabic roots ending in =e= preceded by =h=, =l=, =n=, =r=, =s=, =t=, =lt=, =nt=, or =rt=, and all roots ending in =-hte=, =-kse=, =-pse=, =-tse=.

E.g. =Vete=, _water_.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =vesi= =vedet=
_Part._ =vettä= =vesiä=
_Gen._ =veden= =vetten= _or_ =vesien=
_In._ =vedessä= =vesissä=
_El._ =vedestä= =vesistä=
_Il._ =veteen= =vesiin=
_Ad._ =vedellä= =vesillä=
_Abl._ =vedeltä= =vesiltä=
_All._ =vedelle= =vesille=
_Abes._ =vedettä= =vesittä=
_Prol._ [=vedetse=] =vesitse=
_Transl._ =vedeksi= =vesiksi=
_Ess._ =vetenä= =vesinä=
_Com._ (=vetene=) =vesine=
_Instr._ (=veden=) =vesin=

In the nominative sing. =te= becomes =si= by rule =37=. The partitive sing. and first genitive plur. are formed from the closed root. In the majority of the cases of the sing. =vete= becomes =vede= when the root is closed by the addition of a suffix, while in the plur. =te + i= becomes =ti=, which changes to =si= by the rule above quoted.

The stem =miehe=, _man_, forms the nominative =mies=, partitive =miestä=, genitive =miehen=, inessive =miehessä=, etc. Plur. =miehet=, genitive =miesten=, partitive =miehiä=, inessive =miehissä=, etc.

=Toise=, _second_.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =toinen= =toiset=
_Part._ =toista= =toisia=
_Gen._ =toisen= =toisten=, _or_ =toisien=
_In._ =toisessa= =toisissa=
_El._ =toisesta= =toisista=
_Ill._ =toiseen= =toisiin=
_Ad._ =toisella= =toisilla=
_Abl._ =toiselta= =toisilta=
_All._ =toiselle= =toisille=
_Abes._ =toisetta= =toisitta=
_Prol._ [=toisetse=] =toisitse=
_Transl._ =toiseksi= =toisiksi=
_Ess._ =toisena=, _or_ =toisina=
=toisna=
_Com._ (=toisene=) =toisine=
_Instr._ (=toisen=) =toisin=

Roots ending in =se= change this termination in the nominative to =nen=. Thus =kirjase=, _a little book_, =venäläise=, _Russian_, =iloise=, _glad_, =vihollise=, _hostile_, form in the nominative =kirjanen=, =venäläinen=, =iloinen=, =vihollinen=. In all such words the partitive sing. and first genitive plur. are formed from the closed root and the essive sing. has two forms.

II. All words of more than one syllable ending in =-e=.

E.g. Root:—=Kolmante=, _third_.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =kolmas= =kolmannet=
_Part._ =kolmatta= =kolmansia=
_Gen._ =kolmannen= =kolmansien=
_In._ =kolmannessa= =kolmansissa=
_El._ =kolmannesta= =kolmansista=
_Il._ =kolmanteen= =kolmansiin=
_Ad._ =kolmannella= =kolmansilla=
_Abl._ =kolmannelta= =kolmansilta=
_All._ =kolmannelle= =kolmansille=
_Abes._ =kolmannetta= =kolmansitta=
_Prol._ [=kolmannetse=] =kolmansitse=
_Transl._ =kolmanneksi= =kolmansiksi=
_Ess._ =kolmantena= =kolmansina=
_Com._ [=kolmantene=] =kolmansine=
_Instr._ [=kolmannen=] =kolmansin=

Here (1) the =e= is rejected in the nominative (rule =16=), and =kolmant= becomes =kolmas= (=24= and =37=). (2) The partitive also is formed from the shortened root (=kolmant=), and =kolmantta= becomes =kolmatta=. (3) The cases of the singular and nominative plural, where the last syllable of the root is closed, change =nt= to =nn= (rule =31=). (4) The essive sing. in the form taken from the full root preserves the root entire, =kolmanna= is not used. All the cases of the plural which take =-i= reject the final =e= before that letter, and change =nt= to =ns= (rule =37=).

Similarly =kannukse=, _a spur_, makes in the nominative =kannus= (rules =16= and =24=). The root remains unaltered in the genitive, etc., =kannuksen=, while the partitive is =kannusta= for =kannuksta=. Similarly in the plural we have =kannukset=, genitive =kannuksien= _or_ =kannusten=, partitive =kannuksia=.

=Kalleute=, _dearness_, makes in the nominative sing. =kalleus= (=24= and =37=), partitive =kalleut-ta=, illative =kalleuteen=, genitive =kalleuden=, etc.; plur. nominative =kalleudet=, first genitive =kalleutten=, but the second genitive is =kalleuksien=, and all the remaining cases are of the same type (partitive =kalleuksia=, illative =kalleuksiin=, etc.), being formed exactly as if the root was =kalleukse=.

Adjectives like =lyhyte=, _short_, =ohute=, _thin_, drop the =t= altogether between two vowels. E.g. nominative sing. =lyhyt=, partitive =lyhyttä=. But the genitive =lyhyte-n= becomes =lyhyen=, the illative =lyhyteen=, =lyhyeen=, etc.; plur. =lyhyet=, genitive =lyhyitten=, =lyhytten=, partitive =lyhyitä= (or =lyhyviä= for =lyhyiä=).

III. All superlatives in =-mpa= or =-mpä=, and all negative adjectives in =-ttoma=.

The termination =-mpa= is shortened to =n= (=24= and =46=) in the nominative, partitive, and genitive plur. (first form), and of course becomes =-mma= when the last syllable is closed in the other cases (=34=); =-ttoma= becomes =-ton= in the nominative sing., partitive sing., and first form of genitive plur. (=46=).

E.g. =suurimpa=, _very large_:—

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =suurin= =suurimmat=
_Part._ =suurimpata=, =suurimpia=
=suurinta=
_Gen._ =suurimman= =suurimpain=, =suurinten=,
_or_ =suurimpien=
_In._ =suurimmassa= =suurimmissa=
_El._ =suurimmasta= =suurimmista=
_Il._ =suurimpaan= =suurimpiin=
_Ad._ =suurimmalla= =suurimmilla=
_Abl._ =suurimmalta= =suurimmilta=
_All._ =suurimmalle= =suurimmille=
_Abes._ =suurimmatta= =suurimmitta=
_Prol._ [=suurimmatse=] =suurimmitse=
_Transl._ =suurimmaksi= =suurimmiksi=
_Ess._ =suurimpana=, =suurimpina=
_or_ =suurinna=
_Com._ [=suurimpane=] =suurimpine=
_Instr._ [=suurimman=] =suurimmin=

In the plural the final =a= is lost before the =i= (=9=).

So also =viattoma=, _guiltless_ (the termination =-ttoma= corresponds to the English termination _-less_, or the prefixes _un-_, _in-_). In Nom. =viaton=, =a= being lost, =m= becomes =n=, and the syllable being thus closed =tt= becomes =t=. Partitive from the same shortened root =viatonta=. Genitive, etc. =viattoman=, etc., nominative plur. =viattomat=, genitive =viatonten=, =viattomain= _or_ =viattomien=, partitive =viattomia=, etc.

_Second Division._

(1) The illative sing. ends in =-sen=, the illative plur. in =sin=, or =hin=.

(2) The shortened form of the root is always employed in the nominative sing., which ends in =s=, =t=, or the aspiration.

(3) The plural is formed from the shortened root, and the stem ends in a long diphthong of which the last letter is =i=.

(4) The partitive plur. after this diphthong has the termination =-ta=, =-tä=.

(5) The second genitive plur. ends in =-den= (=-tten=).

This class is composed of what are called contracted nouns (rule =47=).

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =uros= =uroot=
_Part._ =urosta= =uroita=
_Gen._ =uroon= =urosten=, =uroiden=, =uroitten=
_In._ =uroossa= =uroissa=
_El._ =uroosta= =uroista=
_Il._ =uroosen= =uroihin=, =uroisin=
_Ad._ =uroolla= =uroilla=
_Abl._ =uroolta= =uroilta=
_All._ =uroolle= =uroille=
_Abes._ =urootta= =uroitta=
_Transl._ =urooksi= =uroiksi=
_Prol._ [=urootse=] =uroitse=
_Ess._ =uroona= =uroina=
_or_ =urosna=
_Com._ [=uroone=] =uroine=
_Instr._ [=uroon=] =uroin=

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =vieras= =vieraat=
_Part._ =vierasta= =vieraita=
_Gen._ =vieraan= =vierasten=, =vieraiden=, =vieraitten=
_In._ =vieraassa= =vieraissa=
_El._ =vieraasta= =vieraista=
_Il._ =vieraasen= =vierailun=, =vieraisin=
_Ad._ =vieraalla= =vierailla=
_Abl._ =vieraalta= =vierailta=
_All._ =vieraalle= =vieraille=
_Abes._ =vieraatta= =vieraitta=
_Transl._ =vieraaksi= =vieraiksi=
_Prol._ [=vieraatse=] =vieraitse=
_Ess._ =vieraana= =vieraina=
_or_ =vierasna=
_Com._ [=vieraane=] =vieraine=
_Instr._ [=vieraan=] =vierain=

In poetry we also find a declension: =uros=, =vieras=, genitive =urohon=, =vierahan=, etc., illative =urohosen=, =vierahasen=, plur. =urohot=, =vierahat=, =urohissa=, =vierahissa=, etc., so that it is clear the roots are =uroso=, =vierasa=, being weakened.

Analogously are declined such words as =terve=, _healthy_, =kevät=, _spring_.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =terve= =terveet=
_Part._ =tervettä= =terveitä=
_Gen._ =terveen= =tervetten=, =terveiden=
_Il._ =terveesen= =terveisin= _or_ =terveihin=

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =kevät= =keväät=
_Part._ =kevättä= =keväitä=
_Gen._ =kevään= =kevätten=, =keväiden=
_Il._ =kevääsen= =keväisin=, _or_ =keväihin=

Stems =ikehe=, _a yoke_, =okaha=, _point_ or _prickle_.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =ies= _or_ =ikeet=
=ijes=
_Part._ =iesta=, _or_ =ikeitä=
=ijestä=
_Gen._ =ikeen= =iesten=, =ikeiden=, =ikeitten=
_In._ =ikeessä= =ikeissä=
_Il._ =ikeesen= =ikeisin=, _or_ =ikeihin=
_Ess._ =iesnä=, =ikeinä=
=ikeenä=

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =oas= =okaat=
(rule =27=)
_Part._ =oasta= =okaita=
_Gen._ =okaan= =oasten=, =okaiden=, =okaitten=
_In._ =okaassa= =okaissa=
_Ill._ =okaasen= =okaisin=, _or_ =okaihin=
_Ess._ =oasna=, =okaina=
=okaana=

=Vapaa=, _free_, =koree=, _beautiful_ (for =korea=).

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =vapaa= =vapaat=
_Part._ =vapaata= =vapaita=
_Gen._ =vapaan= =vapaiden=, =vapaitten=
_In._ =vapaassa= =vapaissa=
_Il._ =vapaasen= =vapaisin=, =vapaihin=
_Ess._ =vapaana= =vapaina=

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =koree= =koreet=
_Part._ =koreeta= =koreita=
_Gen._ =koreen= =koreiden=, =koreitten=
_In._ =koreessa= =koreissa=
_Il._ =koreesen= =koreisin=, =koreihin=
_Ess._ =koreena= =koreina=

Participles whose nominative ends in =nut= or =nyt= (that is past active participles), like =oppinut=, =lyönyt=, form the genitive, inessive, etc., from a root ending in =nehe=, contracted =nee=; but the nominative and partitive sing., and one form of the essive sing. and genitive plur. are formed from a root ending in =ute=, =yte=, which loses its final vowel.

_Sing._ _Plur._

_Nom._ =oppinut= =oppineet=
_Part._ =oppinutta= =oppineita=
_Gen._ =oppineen= =oppinutten=, =oppineiden=
_In._ =oppineessa= =oppineissa=
_El._ =oppineesta= =oppineista=
_Il._ =oppineesen= =oppineisin=
_Ad._ =oppineella= =oppineilla=
_Abl._ =oppineelta= =oppineilta=
_All._ =oppineelle= =oppineille=
_Abes._ =oppineetta= =oppineitta=
_Prol._ =oppineetse= =oppineitse=
_Transl._ =oppineeksi= =oppineiksi=
_Ess._ =oppineena= =oppineina=
_or_ =oppinunna=
_Com._ (=oppineene=) =oppineine=
_Instr._ (=oppineen=) =oppinein=

So also =lyönyt=, partitive =lyönyttä=, genitive =lyöneen=, inessive =lyöneessä=, essive =lyöneenä=, _or_ =lyönynnä=; plur. nominative =lyöneet=, partitive =lyöneitä=, genitive =lyönytten= _or_ =lyöneiden=, etc.

_Compound Nouns._

Finnish, especially the modern literary dialect, abounds in compound nouns, in which the last word of the compound is defined by that which precedes it, so that the first word is practically an adjective. Thus in =pääkaupunki=, _a capital_, =kaupunki= means a town, and the word =pää=, _a head_, describes what sort of town is intended. So also =rautatie=, _a railway_, from =rauta=, _iron_, and =tie=, _a road_; =tullihuone=, _a custom house_; =puutarha=, _a garden_ (=puu=, _a tree_, =tarha=, _an enclosure_), =kirkkotarha=, _a churchyard_ (=kirkko=, _church_, =tarha=, _enclosure_). Sometimes the first word is an adjective, as =omatunto=, _conscience_, from =oma=, _own_, and =tunto=, _feeling_. This is written as one word, because =omatunto= conveys a different meaning from the separate words =oma= and =tunto=.

When a compound is made up of more than two words, all but the last may be regarded as a single word qualifying the last, and then be decomposed in their turn. For instance in =ylioppilaskirjasto=, _University students’ library_, =kirjasto=, _library_, is qualified by =ylioppilas=, describing what kind of a library is meant, and in this word =ylioppilas=, =oppilas=, _student_, is particularised by the addition of =yli=. Similarly =isänmaanrakkaus=, _patriotism_, is composed of =isänmaa=, _fatherland_, and =rakkaus=, _love_, and =isänmaa= again is composed of =isä=, _father_, and =maa=, _land_.

Generally the first word of a compound is used in the nominative case. =Sairashuone=, _a hospital_ (stem =sairaha=). Frequently, however, it is in the genitive, this case being either (_a_) descriptive, as in =maantie=, _highroad_, literally _road of the land_: =talonpoika=, _peasant_, literally _son of a farm_; (_b_) subjective, that is to say, if the compound were developed into a phrase the word in the genitive would become the subject, as =kuunvalo=, _moonlight_; (_c_) objective, that is to say, if the compound were developed into a phrase the word in the genitive would become the object, =hatuntekijä=, _a hatmaker_.

More rarely other cases are used, as =toimeentulo=, _subsistence_, =kuntoonpano=, _arrangement_, _accomplishment_.

As a rule, only the last word of a compound is declined, the preceding member remaining unaffected by inflection. But if the first member is an adjective, then both parts of the word receive inflections, e.g. =vierasmies=, _a stranger_, forms the genitive =vieraanmiehen=, inessive =vieraassamiehessä=, etc. But =vierasmiehen= is not wrong.

THE ADJECTIVE.

Adjectives are declined exactly like substantives, and like them have no gender.

Besides declension they are susceptible of inflections indicating the comparative and superlative degrees.

I. The Comparative is formed by adding to the root of the positive =-mpa= or =-mpä=. =Huono=, _bad_, =huonompa=, _worse_; =paksu=, _fat_, =paksumpa=, _fatter_. Root, =iloise=, _gay_ (nominative of positive =iloinen=), comparative =iloisempa=.

If a dissyllabic root end in =a= or =ä=, that vowel becomes =e= before the termination =mpa=. =Vanha=, _old_, =vanhempa= (=13=).

It is important to note that the suffix =-mpa= is added to the root, and not to the nominative of the positive.

The stem thus formed is declined with the usual suffixes, after the models given above: =mpa= in the nominative sing. becomes =mpi=, and in the cases where the syllable is closed =mma=.

II. The Superlative is formed by adding to the root of the positive the suffix =impa=. Before this suffix the vowels =a=, =ä=, =e=, =i= are rejected, and =aa=, =ää=, =ee=, become =ai=, =äi=, =ei=. Thus =iso=, _great_, =isoimpa=: =huono=, _bad_, =huonoimpa=; but =köyhä=, =köyhimpä=, =valkea=, =valkeimpa=, etc.

The root thus obtained is declined after the third declension. Notice the difference in the declension of comparatives and superlatives. In the comparative the final =a= becomes =i= in the nominative sing., in the superlative it is lost and =mp= becomes =n= by rule =2=.

Comparative stem =suurempa=. Superlative stem =suurimpa=.

_Sing._

_Nom._ =suurempi= =suurin=
_Gen._ =suuremman= =suurimman=
_Part._ =suurempaa= (=ta=) =suurimpaa=, =suurinta=
_Ill._ =suurempaan= =suurimpaan=
_Ess._ =suurempana= =suurimpana=, =suurinna=
etc. etc.

_Plur._

_Nom._ =suuremmat= =suurimmat=
_Gen._ [=suurempaen=] =suurempain= =suurinten=, =suurimpain=
=suurimpien=
_Part._ =suurempia= =suurimpia=
etc. etc.

Examples of the formation of the comparative and superlative.

_Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._

=vanha=, _old_ =vanhempi= (=11=) =vanhin=
=raaka=, _raw_ =raaempi= (=28=, =9=) =raain= (=28=)
=vapaa=, _free_ =vapaampi= =vapain=
=ihava=, _fat_ =lihavampi= =lihavin=
=köyhä=, _poor_ =köyhempi= (=11=) =köyhin=
=terävä=, _sharp_ =terävämpi= =terävin=
=suruinen=, _sorrowful_ =suruisempi= =suruisin=
=lyhyt=, _short_ =lyhyempi= =lyhyin=
=aulis=, _liberal_ =auliimpi= =auliin=
=paksu=, _fat_ =paksumpi= =paksuin=
=mieto=, _mild_ =miedompi= (=32=) =miedoin=
=rikas=, _rich_ =rikkaampi= =rikkain=
=kaunis=, _beautiful_ =kauniimpi= =kauniin=, =kaunein=
=oppinut=, _learned_ =oppineempi= =oppinein=

The following words are irregular, the comparative and superlative being formed from different roots to the positive.

_Positive._ _Comparative._ _Superlative._

=hyvä=, _good_ =parempi= =paras=, =parhain=
(root =paraa=)
=paljo=, _much_ =enempi= =enin=
=pitkä=, _long_ =pitempi= =pisin= (as if from
root =pitä=)
=moni=, _many_ =useampi= =usein=

=Molemmat=, _both_, is an isolated comparative form.

The following adjectives are not declined or compared, but remain invariable in all cases.—=Aika=, _strong_; =aimo=, _good_; =kelpo=, _worthy_; =eri=, _different_; =koko=, _all_; =ensi=, _next_; =viime=, _last_; =pikku=, _little_. =Kaikki=, _all_, is not usually changed in the nominative plural, but otherwise is declined.

FORMATION OF SUBSTANTIVES AND ADJECTIVES.

Some substantives and adjectives are primitive—that is to say, they consist of roots which cannot be further analysed, and to which the case suffixes are directly attached. But a great number of words are not mere roots, but roots with additional syllables which modify the meaning of the original root.

The following are the principal syllables so added to roots to form nouns and adjectives.

SUBSTANTIVES.

I. The following suffixes are used to form substantives from verbs.

=-ja.= A factitive suffix, that is to say, denoting the doer of the action denoted by the root. =Luoja=, _the creator_ (=luo=, _to create_). =Kalastaja=, _a fisherman_. When a root ends in =e= this letter is generally changed to =i= before the suffix =-ja=. =Teke=, _to make_, =tekijä=, _a maker_; =luke=, _to read_, =lukija=, _a reader_. This suffix is also found in the forms =-jame= (nominative =-jan= or =-jain=), =-jaise= (=-jainen=), =-jaa=.

=-ri= has the same meaning as =-ja=: =mylläri=, _a miller_, =juomari=, _a drunkard_, =petturi=, _a deceiver_. (This is really a foreign termination from the Swedish =-re=.)

=-ma= (the termination of the third infinitive) expresses an action or the result of an action. =Sanoma=, _report_ (“a speaking”), =elämä=, _life_, =kuolema=, _death_.

=-mise= (nominative =minen=, the termination of the fourth infinitive) expresses a continuous action, or an action in an abstract sense. =Laulaminen=, _singing_, =eläminen=, _living_.

=-nto=, =-nta= (chiefly poetical), =-nti= (added to monosyllabic roots) express an action or a state arising from an action. =Luonto=, _nature_ (from =luo=, _to create_), =uskonto=, _religion_ (“believing,” from =uskoa=, _to believe_), =tuonti=, _bringing to_, or _importation_, =vienti=, _bringing away from_, or _exportation_, =laulanta=, _singing_.

=o= (=ö=) and =u= (=y=) (before which the last vowel of the root is rejected) form abstract nouns denoting action. =Muisto=, _memory_, =makso=, _payment_, =tulo=, _arrival_, =lähtö=, _departure_, =luku=, _reading_, =itku=, _weeping_, =maksu=, _payment_.

=-okse= or =-ukse= (nominative =-os= or =-us=) also form abstract nouns expressing an action, and are specially added to trisyllabic verbs ending in =-ta=. =Valmistus=, _preparation_, =harjoitus=, _practice_, =vastaus=, _answer_. The same suffix is sometimes found in combination with =-ma= (=-ma + ukse= = =mukse=) =juopumus=, _drunkenness_.

=-io= has the same meaning. =Huomio=, _attention_, =palkkio=, _a reward_.

=-ee= (original stem =ehe=, closed form =eʻ=) expresses action or the product of action: =puhe=, _conversation_, =kanne=, _accusation_.

=-ime= (nominative =-in=) expresses the instrument with which an action is performed. =Avain=, _a key_ (‘the opener’), =uistin=, _a fishhook_, =viskain=, _anything used to throw things away_, e.g. _a bucket_; =viskin= is also found.

II. The following suffixes are used to form derivative nouns from other nouns.

=-se=, =-ise= (nominative =-nen=, =-inen=) are used to form family names, like the Russian terminations =-овъ=, =-евъ=, =Peltonen=, =Koskinen=, =Karhunen=, etc.

=-ttare= (nominative =-tar=) is a similar affix for feminine names. =Karhutar=, =Ilmatar= (_daughter of the air_), =Manalatar= (_daughter of death_).

=-laise= (nominative =-lainen=) is used to form designations of nationality. =Suomalainen=, _a Finn_; =Ruotsalainen=, _a Swede_; =Venäläinen=, _a Russian_; =Englantilainen=, _an Englishman_.

The following suffixes are used to form diminutives—

=-se= (nominative =-nen=), or =ise= (nominative =-inen=). =Kirjanen=, =emonen=, =poikanen=.

=-lo.= =Purtilo=, =kotelo=.

=-ue=, =ye= (originally =ute=, =yte=; nominative =-ut=, =-yt=). =Poiut=, =kuuhut=, =päivyt=, =päähyt=.

=-kka=, =-kaise= (nominative =kainen=). =-kkee= (original form =-kkehe=, nominative =keʻ=). =Annikka=, =mullikka=, =lapsukainen=, =silmäke=.

The following terminations have a local significance—

=-kko= or =-ikko= indicates a place where anything is found in a quantity; =rapakko=, _a muddy place_; =kivikko=, _a heap of stones_; =koivikko=, _a birchwood_; =kuusikko=, _firwood_.

=-la=, added to the name of a person, expresses the place where that person lives; =pappila=, _a priest’s house_; =setälä=, _uncle’s house_; =tuonela=, _the house of death_.

=-nko= or =-nte= is used to form local substantives. =Alanko=, _a low-lying place_ (=Alankomaat=, _the Netherlands_), =ylänkö=, _a height_; =tasanko=, _a plane_.

Suffixes denoting a collection of objects are—

=-sto=, generally used of inanimate objects; =kirjasto=, _a library_; =laivasto=, _a fleet_; =hongisto=, _pinewood_.

=-uee= (original form =uehe=, nominative =-ueʻ=), generally used of animate objects; =matkue=, =laivue=, =seurue=.

III. Names of abstract qualities are formed from adjectives with the suffix =-ute=, =-yte= (nominative =-us=, =-ys=). Before this suffix =a=, =ä=, =e= are changed to =u= or =y=, and form a long vowel; =hyvyys=, _virtue_ (=hyvä=); =rakkaus= (from stem =rakkaa=); =arkuus=, _cowardice_; =turhuus=, _vanity_. If a root ends in =i= or =ii= this vowel generally becomes =e= in dissyllabic roots, and =u= in polysyllabic. =Kalleus=, but =naapuruus=, =kumppanuus=.

ADJECTIVAL TERMINATIONS.

The commonest adjectival suffix is =-ise= (nominative =-inen=), which is added usually to nouns. =Aamu=, _morning_, =aamuinen=, _early_; =kulta=, _gold_; =kultainen=, _golden_. This suffix is sometimes added to cases, especially the essive; =yksinäinen=, =ominainen=, =luonteinen=. Similarly the very common suffix =-llise= (nominative =-llinen=) is the result of adding =ise= to the adessive or allative—=maallinen=, =rahallinen=, =vihollinen=.

=-ttoma= (nominative =ton=) is a caritive suffix signifying without or deprived of (cf. the English _-less_); =isätön=, _fatherless_; =rahaton=, _moneyless_. It is frequently added to the third infinitive of verbs, e.g. =kuolematon=, _immortal_.