Chapter II: Short Vowels (3)
II. The second division of this conjugation comprises all trisyllabic roots ending in =ta=, =tä= preceded by a short vowel. Such are =lupata=, _to promise_; =hakkata=, _to strike_; =pelkätä=, _to fear_, etc.
In these verbs the following changes occur:—
A. In the present the =t= of the syllable =ta= (=tä=) is lost, and if the preceding vowel is =a= or =ä=, a long vowel is formed. That is, =lupata=, =pelkätä= become =lupaa=, =pelkää=. If the preceding vowel is =o=, =ö=, or =e=, the vowels may be assimilated into one long vowel or remain as they are. =Putota=, =putoa=, _or_ =putoo=; =kerketä=, =kerkeä=, _or_ =kerkee=; but if the vowel of the penultimate syllable is =u=, =y=, or =i=, such assimilation rarely occurs.
B. In the imperfect the final vowel is lost and =t= becomes =s= before the =i= which characterizes this tense; =lupasin=, etc.
C. The root is closed in the concessive, and the final =t= assimilated to the =n=; =lupata-nen= becomes =luvat-nen= (=34=), and then =luvannen= (=30=).
D. In the conditional the last syllable of the root is generally completely lost; =lupaisi= for =lupata-isi=; but a trace of it remains in such forms as =kokoaisi= (alternative for =kokoisi=) representing =kokotaisi=.
V. Similarly infinitives I, II, and the passive are formed from the closed root, and as the _formative_ syllable =ta= is closed by the breathing, =tt= becomes =t=; that is to say, the full root =lupata= becomes the closed root =luvat=; to this is added the closed syllable =taʻ=, and =luvattaʻ= becomes =luvata=. Similarly the passive =luvataan=.
_Examples._
Division I. Roots =tule=, _to come_; closed form =tul=. =Nouse=, _to rise_; closed form =nous=.
_Present._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =tulen= =tulemme=
2. =tulet= =tulette=
3. =tulee= =tulevat=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =en tule= =emme tule=
2. =et tule= =ette tule=
3. =ei tule= =eivät tule=
_Imperfect._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =tulin= =tulimme=
2. =tulit= =tulitte=
3. =tuli= =tulivat=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =en tullut= =emme tulleet=
2. =et tullut= =ette tulleet=
3. =ei tullut= =eivät tulleet=
_Perfect._ _Affirmative._
1. =olen tullut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en ole tullut=, etc.
_Pluperfect._ _Affirmative._
1. =olin tullut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en ollut tullut=, etc.
_Concessive._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =tullen= =tullemme=
2. =tullet= =tullette=
3. =tullee= =tullevat=
_Negative._
1. =en tulle=, etc.
_Comp. Concess._ _Affirmative._
1. =lienen tullut=
_Negative._
1. =en liene tullut=
_Conditional._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =tulisin= =tulisimme=
2. =tulisit= =tulisiitte=
3. =tulisi= =tulisivat=
_Negative._
1. =en tulisi=, etc.
_Compound Conditional._ _Affirmative._
1. =olisin tullut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en olisi tullut=, etc.
_Imperative._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =tulkaame=
2. =tule= =tulkaa=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =älkäämme=
2. =älä tule= =älkää tulko=
_Optative._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
2. =tullos= ——
3. =tulkoon= =tulkoot=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
2. =ällös tulko= ——
3. =älköön tulko= =älkööt tulko=
_Infinitives._
I. =tulla=
_Transl._ =tullakse(ni)=
II. =tulle=
_Ines._ =tullessa=
_Instr._ =tullen=
III. =tuleman=
IV. _Nom._ =tuleminen=
_Part._ =tulemista=
V. =tulemaisilla(ni)=
_Participles._
I. =tuleva=
II. =tullut=
_Passive._
_Pres._ _Aff._ =tullaan=,
_Neg._ =ei tulla=
_Impf._ _Aff._ =tultiin=
_Neg._ =ei tultu=
_Conc._ _Aff._ =tultaneen=
_Neg._ =ei tultane=
_Comp. Conc._ _Aff._ =lienee tultu=
_Neg._ =ei liene tultu=
_Cond._ _Aff._ =tultaisiin=
_Neg._ =ei tultaisi=
_Cond. Comp._ _Aff._ =olisi tultu=
_Neg._ =ei olisi tultu=
_Opt._ _Aff._ =tultakoon=
_Neg._ =älköön tultako=
_Participles._
I. =tultava=
II. =tultu=
* * * * *
_Present._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =nousen= =nousemme=
2. =nouset= =nousette=
3. =nousee= =nousevat=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =en nouse= =emme nouse=
2. =et nouse= =ette nouse=
3. =ei nouse= =eivät nouse=
_Imperfect._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =nousin= =nousimme=
2. =nousit= =nousitte=
3. =nousi= =nousivat=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =en nousnut= _or_
=noussut=[12] =emme nousneet=
2. =et nousnut= =ette nousneet=
3. =ei nousnut= =eivät nousneet=
_Perfect._ _Affirmative._
1. =olen nousnut=, _or_ =noussut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en ole nousnut= _or_ =noussut=, etc.
_Pluperfect._ _Affirmative._
1. =olin nousnut= _or_ =noussut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en ollut nousnut= _or_ =noussut=, etc.
_Concessive._ _Affirmative._
1. =nousnen= _or_ =noussen= =nousnemme= _or_ =noussemme=
2. =nousnet= _or_ =nousset= =nousnette= _or_ =noussette=
3. =nousnee= _or_ =noussee= =nousnevat= _or_ =noussevat=
_Negative._
1. =en nousne= _or_ =nousse=, etc.
_Compound Concessive._ _Affirmative._
1. =lienen nousnut= _or_ =noussut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en liene nousnut= _or_ =noussut=, etc.
_Conditional._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =nousisin= =nousisimme=
2. =nousisit= =nousisitte=
3. =nousisi= =nousisivat=
_Negative._
1. =en nousisi=, etc.
_Compound Conditional._ _Affirmative._
1. =olisin nousnut= _or_ =noussut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en olisi nousnut= _or_ =noussut=, etc.
_Imperative._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =nouskaamme=
2. =nouse= =nouskaa=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =älkäämme nousko=
2. =älä nouse= =älkää nousko=
_Optative._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
2. =nouseos= ——
3. =nouskoo= =nouskoot=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
2. =ällös nousko= ——
3. =älköön nousko= =älkööt nousko=
_Infinitives._
I. =nousta=
_Transl._ =noustakse(ni)=
II. =nouste=
_Ines._ =noustessa=
_Instr._ =nousten=
III. =nouseman=, etc.
IV. _Nom._ =nouseminen=
_Part._ =nousemista=
V. =nousemaisilla(ni)=
_Participles._
I. =nouseva=
II. =nousnut=, _or_ =noussut=
_Passive._
_Pres._ _Aff._ =noustaan=
_Neg._ =ei nousta=
_Impf._ _Aff._ =noustiin=
_Neg._ =ei noustu=
_Conc._ _Aff._ =noustaneen=
_Neg._ =ei noustane=
_Comp. Conc._ _Aff._ =lienee noustu=
_Neg._ =ei liene noustu=
_Cond._ _Aff._ =noustaisiin=
_Neg._ =ei noustaisi=
_Cond. Comp._ _Aff._ =olisi noustu=
_Neg._ =ei olisi noustu=
_Imp._ _Aff._ =noustakoon=
_Neg._ =älköön noustako=
_Participle._
I. =noustava=
II. =noustu=
Roots =lupata=, _to promise_; =kokota=, _to collect_.
_Present Indicative._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =lupaan= =lupaamme=
2. =lupaat= =lupaatte=
3. =lupaa= =lupaavat=
_Negative._
_Sing._
1. =en lupaa=
2. =et lupaa=, etc.
_Imperfect._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =lupasin= =lupasimme=
2. =lupasit= =lupasitte=
3. =lupasi= =lupasivat=
_Negative._
1. =en luvannut=, etc.
_Concessive._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =luvannen= =luvannemme=
2. =luvannet= =luvannette=
3. =luvannee= =luvannevat=
_Negative._
1. =en luvanne=, etc.
_Conditional._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =lupaisin= =lupaisimme=
2. =lupaisit= =lupaisitte=
3. =lupaisi= =lupaisivat=
_Compound tenses._
_Perfect._ _Affirmative._
1. =olen luvannut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en ole luvannut=, etc.
_Pluperfect._ _Affirmative._
1. =olin luvannut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en ollut luvannut=, etc.
_Concessive._ _Affirmative._
1. =lienen luvannut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en liene luvannut=, etc.
_Conditional._ _Affirmative._
1. =olisin luvannut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en olisi luvannut=, etc.
_Futures._ _Affirmative._
I. =olen lupaava=
II. =olin lupaava=
III. =lienen lupaava=
IV. =olisin lupaava=
_Negative._
=en ole lupaava=, etc.
_Imperative._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =luvatkaamme=
2. =lupaa= =luvatkaa=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =älkäämme luvatko=
2. =älä lupaa= =älkää luvatko=
_Optative._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =luvatkoon=
2. =luvatkos= =luvatkoot=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =älköön luvatko=
2. =ällös luvatko= =älkööt luvatko=
_Infinitives._
I. =luvata=
=luvatakse(ni)=
II. =luvatessa=
=luvaten=
III. =lupaama=, etc.
IV. =lupaaminen=
=lupaamista=
V. =lupaamaisilla=
_Participles._
=lupaava=
=luvannut=
_Passive._
_Ind. Pres._ _Aff._ =luvataan=
_Neg._ =ei luvata=
_Imp._ _Aff._ =luvattiin=
_Neg._ =ei luvattu=
_Conc._ _Aff._ =luvattaneen=
_Neg._ =ei luvattane=
_Cond._ _Aff._ =luvattaisiin=
_Neg._ =ei luvattaisi=
_Imp._ _Aff._ =luvattakaan=
_Neg._ =älkään luvattako=
_Opt._ _Aff._ =luvattakoon=
_Neg._ =älköön luvattako=
_Infinitives._
II. =luvattesa=
III. =luvattaman=
_Participles._
_Present_ =luvattava=
_Past_ =luvattu=
* * * * *
_Present Indicative._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =kokoan= _or_ =kokoon= =kokoamme= _or_ =kokoomme=
2. =kokoat= _or_ =kokoot= =kokoatte= _or_ =kokootte=
3. =kokoaa= _or_ =kokoo= =kokoavat= _or_ =kokoovat=
_Negative._
1. =en kokoa= _or_ =en kokoo=
2. =et kokoa= _or_ =et kokoo=
3. =ei kokoa=
_Imperfect._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =kokosin= =kokosimme=
2. =kokosit= =kokositte=
3. =kokosi= =kokosivat=
_Negative._
1. =en koonnut=, etc.
_Concessive._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =koonnen= (=28=) =koonnemme=
2. =koonnet= =koonnette=
3. =koonnee= =koonnevat=
_Negative._
1. =en koonne=, etc.
_Conditional._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =kokoaisin= or =kokoisin= =kokoaisimme= or =kokoisimme=
2. =kokoaisit= or =kokoisit= =kokoaisitte= or =kokoisitte=
3. =kokoaisi= or =kokoisi= =kokoaisivat= or =kokoisivat=
_Negative._
1. =en kokoaisi= or en =kokoisi=, etc.
_Compound tenses._
_Perfect._ _Affirmative._
1. =olen koonnut= (=28=), etc.
_Negative._
1. =en ole koonnut=, etc.
_Pluperfect._ _Affirmative._
1. =olin koonnut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en ollut koonnut=, etc.
_Concessive._ _Affirmative._
1. =lienen koonnut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en liene koonnut=, etc.
_Conditional._ _Affirmative._
1. =olisin koonnut=, etc.
_Negative._
1. =en olisi koonnut=, etc.
_Futures._ _Affirmative._
I. =olen kokoava=
II. =olin kokoava=
III. =lienen kokoava=
IV. =olisin kokoava=
_Imperative._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =kootkaamme=
2. =kokoa= _or_ =kokoo= =kootkaa=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =älkäämme kootko=
2. =älä kokoa= _or_ =kokoo= =älkää kootko=
_Optative._ _Affirmative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =kootkoon=
2. =kootkos= =kootkoot=
_Negative._
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. —— =älköön kootko=
2. =ällös kootko= =älkööt kootko=
_Infinitives._
I. =koota=
=kootakse(ni)=
II. =kootessa=
=kooten=
III. =kokoama= _or_ =kokooma=, etc.
IV. =kokoaminen= _or_ =kokoominen=
=kokoamista= _or_ =kokoomista=
V. =kokoamaisilla= _or_ =kokoomaisilla=
_Participles._
_Present_ =kokoava= _or_ =kokoova=
_Past_ =koonnut=
_Passive._
_Indic. Pres._ _Aff._ =kootaan=
_Neg._ =ei koota=
_Impf._ _Aff._ =koottiin=
_Neg._ =ei koottu=
_Conc._ _Aff._ =koottaneen=
_Neg._ =ei koottane=
_Cond._ _Aff._ =koottaisiin=
_Neg._ =ei koottaisi=
_Imp._ _Aff._ =koottakaan=
_Opt._ _Aff._ =koottakoon=
_Neg._ =älköön koottako=
_Infinitives._
II. =koottaessa=
III. =koottaman=
_Participles._
_Present_ =koottava=
_Past_ =koottu=
Other examples: root =rohkene=, _to dare_.
_Pres._ =rohkenen=, =rohkenet=, =rohkenee=
_Impf._ =rohkenin=
_Conc._ =rohjennen=, =rohjennet=
_Cond._ =rohkenisin=
_Imp._ =rohkene=, =rohjetkaa= (=45=)
_Inf._ =rohjeta=, =rohjete=, =rohkenema=, =rohkenemisen=,
=rohkenemaisillani=
_Part._ =rohkeneva, rohjennut=
_Pass._ =rohjetaan=
Root =alene=, _to sink_.
_Pres._ =alenen=
_Impf._ =alenin=
_Conc._ =alennen=
_Cond._ =alenisin=
_Imp._ =alene=, =aletkaa= (=45=)
_Inf._ =aleta=, =alete=, =alenema=, =aleneminen=, =alenemaisellani=
_Pass._ =aletaan=
Root =syökse=, _to cast_.
_Pres._ =syöksen=
_Imp._ =syöksin=
_Conc._ =syösnen= (=1=)
_Cond._ =syöksisin=
_Imp._ =syökse=, =syöskää=
_Inf._ =syöstä= (=1=), =syöste=, =syöksemä=, =syökseminen=,
=syöksemäisilläni=
_Part._ =syöksevä=, =syösnyt=
_Pass._ =syöstään=
Root =säkenöitse=, _to glitter_.
_Pres._ =säkenöitsen=
_Imp._ =säkenöitsin=
_Conc._ =säkenöinnen= (=1= & =44=)
_Cond._ =säkenöitsisin=
_Imp._ =sökenöitse=, =säkenöitkää=
_Inf._ =säkenöitä= (=1=), =säkinöite=, =säkinöitsemä=,
=säkenöitseminen=, =säkenöitsemäisilläni=.
_Part._ =säkenöitsevä=, =säkenöinnyt=
_Pass._ =säkenöitään=
Root =näke=, _to see_.
_Pres._ =näen= (=28=), =näet=, =näkee=, =näemme=, =näette=, =näkevät=
_Inf._ =näin=, =näit=, =näki=, =näimme=, =näitte=, =näkivät=
_Conc._ =nähnen= (=41=)
_Cond._ =näkisin=
_Imp._ =näe= (=28=), =nähkää= (=41=)
_Inf._ =nähdä=, =nähde=, =näkemä=, =näkeminen=, =näkemäisilläni=
_Part._ =näkevä=, =nähnyt=
_Pass._ =nähdään= _Part._ =nähty=
_Reflexive Verbs._
Under this name are comprised a great number of verbal forms, formed by adding certain suffixes to the simple transitive root, many of which are not used in ordinary written and spoken Finnish.
A. Reflexive verbs are formed by adding to the root the suffixes =utu=, =yty=, or =untu=, =ynty=. For instance, =anta=, _to give_, makes =antautua= or =antauntua=; =teke=, _to do_, =tekeytyä= or =tekeyntyä=. The =u= or =y= may be assimilated to the last vowel of the root, which gives us forms like =antaantua=, =tekeentyä=. These verbs are conjugated quite regularly.
B. This suffix is also found in the shorter form =u=, =y=. =Antaa=, =antauta=; =löytää=, _to find_, =löytyä=, _to be found_; =muuttaa=, _to change_ (_act_), =muuttua=, _to change oneself_.
These verbs generally present some peculiarities in their conjugation.
(1) They usually have the old ending =pi= in the 3d sing. indicative present; =antauupi=, but =antau= is also found.
(2) The imperfect ends in =si=; =antausin=, =antausit=, =antausi=, etc. This =s= is the remains of an original =t=, showing that the termination =u= is only short for =utu=.
(3) The same =t= is preserved in the infinitive and passive—=antauta=, =antautaan=.
C. In the Kalevala and the Karelian dialect are found a great quantity of more or less irregular reflexive forms, which are often explained by supposing that the reflexive pronoun =itse= is added to the verb, and then weakened in various ways to =ihe=, =ite=, =ik=, =k=, etc. But this explanation is very doubtful.
For example. From =muuttaa=, _to change_, comes the form =muuttain=, _I change myself_.
_Sing._ _Plur._
1. =muuttain= =muuttaimme=
2. =muuttait= =muttaitte=
3. =muuttaikse=, _or_ =muuttaihe= =muuttaivat=
The termination =kse= or =ihe= for the third person sing. is characteristic of these verbs. We also find the termination =me= for the first person sing., =te= for the second, and =se= or =set= for the third.
The concessive is =muuttainnen=, and the conditional is =muuttaisisin=, etc. The imperative and optative =muuttaitkaan=, =muuttaitkoon=[13].
_The Formation of Verbs._
Verbs are either primitive, that is to say, they consist of a simple root, to which are added the various modal and personal terminations, or they are derivative, that is to say, besides these terminations some formative syllable is added to the root, such as =ta=, =ele=, =aise=. It is not easy to assign a precise meaning to all of these terminations, particularly to the commoner, which are used in many and not very definite senses.
Simple roots are either transitive or intransitive in their meaning.
Derivative transitive verbs are formed with the following suffixes, which, however, are sometimes also found in verbs of neuter signification.
(1) =ta=, =tä=, which must not be confounded with the =ta= of the first infinitive, is added to verbal roots ending in =e=, which is rejected.
=päästää=, _to let go_, but =päästä=, intransitive. (N.B. The first verb is for =päästätä=, the second for =pääsetä=, so that the =t= of the latter belongs to the termination of the infinitive, but the =t= of the latter to the stem). =Paksuntaa=, _to thicken_, but =paksuta=, _to grow thick_; =peljättää=, _to frighten_, but =peljätä=, _to fear_; =viertää=, _to roll down_, transitive or intransitive, but =vierrä= only intransitive.
(2) =tta=, =ttä=, is added chiefly to roots ending in =u= or =y= which are not rejected. =Juottaa=, _to give to drink_ (=juoda=, _to drink_); =käyttää=, _to use_ (from =käydä=); =menettää=, _to cause to go or lose_ (=mennä=, _to go_); =näyttää=, _to show_ (=nähdä=, _to see_); =tuottaa=, _to cause to bring, to get_ (=tuoda=, _to bring_); =kuolettaa=, _to kill_ (=kuolla=, _to die_).
(3) =utta=, =yttä=, is added mostly to polysyllabic roots: =kävelyttää=, _to make walk_; =epäilyttää=, _to make doubt_; =huomauttaa=, _to make observed_; =liikuttaa=, _to move_, trans. (=liikkua=, intrans.).
Reflexive neuter verbs (_vide_ p. 109) are formed with the following suffixes:—
(1) =u= or =y=, added chiefly to dissyllabic roots ending in =a= and =e=, which are rejected, and to polysyllables in =ta= and =oitse=:—=löytyä=, _to be found, to exist_ (=löytää=, _to find_); =tuntua=, _to be felt_ (=tuntea=, _to feel_); =muuttua=, _to change_, intransitive (=muuttaa=, _to change_, trans.); =täytyä=, _to be sufficient_ or _necessary_ (=täyttää=, transitive); =rakastua=, _to be in love with_ (=rakastaa=, _to love_, transitive); =kuulua=, _to be heard_ (=kuulla=, _to hear_).
(2) =untu=, =ynty=, shortened into =utu=, =yty=:—=antauntua=, =antautua=, or =antauta=, _to give oneself up_ (=antaa=, _to give_); =jakauntua=, =jakaantua=, =jakautua=, or =jakauta=, _to be divided_ (=jakaa=, _to divide_); =kääriytyä=, _to be involved_ (=kääriä=); =vetäytyä=, _to retire_ (=vetää=).
There is also a suffix =pu=, =py=, used to form a few words of intransitive signification:—=joupua=, _to get drunk_ (=juoda=, _to drink_); =syöpyä=, _to eat one’s fill_ (=syödä=, _to eat_); =jääpyä=, _to remain behind_ (=jäädä=, _to remain_); =saapua=, _to arrive_ (from =saada=, cf. ‘se rendre’). =Luopua=, =vaipua=, and =viipyä= seem to be formed with the same suffix.
Frequentative verbs are formed with the suffixes =ele=, =ksi=, and =nta=, either separately or combined. It is often hard to determine the exact force of these suffixes. Sometimes they signify a repeated or prolonged action, sometimes they form a kind of verbal diminutive, expressing an action slightly or gently performed, sometimes there is no real difference between the meanings of the original and derived verbs.
(1) =ele= is added mostly to dissyllabic roots ending in =a=, which is lost before the suffix. The first infinitive ends in =ella=, and the verb is conjugated after the third conjugation, e.g. =kysellä=, _to ask often_ (Russian =спрашивать=), from =kysyä=, _to ask_ (Russian =спросить=); =katsella=, _to observe, or regard_, from =katsoa=, _to look_; =ellellä=, _to live_, from =elää=; =hypellä=, _to jump_ (=попрыгивать=), from =hypätä= (=прыгать=).
(2) =ksi= is added to the dissyllabic roots, especially to those ending in =e=. =a= and =ä= become =e= before this suffix. =kuljeksia=, _to wander_, from =kulkea=, _to go_; =eleksiä=, _to live_, from =elää=; =anneksia=, from =antaa=, _to give_.
The termination =nta= is rarely found alone, but =ksenta=, =ksentele=, and =ntele= occur, and =ksele= is a frequentative form. =Käyskellä=, _to wander_, from =käydä=, _to go_; =saneskella= (=поговорить=) from =sanoa=, =kuljeskella=, from =kulkea=.
Instantaneous or semelfactive verbs. These, when they have their strict significance, denote an action done once or suddenly, and correspond to Russian forms in =-нуть=. The terminations which have this sense are—
(1) =ahta=, added to dissyllabic verbs which lose their last vowel. =Kilijahtaa=, _to give a cry_ (=воскликнуть=); =liikahtaa= (=liikkua=), _to make a movement_ (=двинуться=); =elähtää=, _to come to life_ (but also _to live_, _to grow old_).
(2) =aise=, added to dissyllables in =e=, =i=, =o=, and =u=, which fall out before the termination. =kiljaista=, _to give a cry_; =puraista=, _to give a bite_ (=purra=, _to bite_); =halkaista=, _to split_.
Verbal suffixes are also added to nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, the verbs so formed having various meanings which can be easily illustrated from English, where verbs are often formed from substantives or adjectives with or without a suffix being added. In Finnish such derived verbs have been divided into a variety of categories; such as—(1) Instructive, which imply the provision of something with the object denoted by the noun, cf. the English _to butter_, _to arm_. (2) Factive, denoting the conversion of something into the object or quality denoted by the original word, cf. English _to blacken_. (3) Operative, implying the use or action of the substantive, cf. English _to drop_, _to boat_. (4) Essive, denoting the existence or activity of something in the capacity of the noun, cf. English _to idle_.
These classes of verbs are not denoted by special suffixes, but the syllables =ta=, =i=, =itse=, =tta=, =sta= are added to form verbs which may have any of these significations.
=Ta= is added to monosyllables and roots which are susceptible of being closed, likewise to trisyllables ending in =ra=, =la=, =na=. Many of the verbs formed with this affix end in =sta=; but the =s= belongs to the root, not to the suffix. Examples—=perustaa=, _to found_ (=perus=, _a foundation_), =vaatettaa=, _to clothe_ (=vaate-=); =veistää=, _to cut_ (=veitse=, _a knife_); =poistaa=, _to drive away_ (=pois=); =yltää=, _to reach_ (=yli=); =kumartaa=, _to bow_ (=kumara=); =kiirehtää=, _to hurry_ (=kiire=); =sairastaa=, _to be ill_ (=sairas=).
This termination sometimes becomes =a=, the =t= being lost, e.g. =harjata=, _to comb_; =kullata=, _to gild_. Here the =ta= is of course the termination of the infinitive.
Roots ending in =eʻ= with the aspiration generally suffix =ti= and not =ta=, though sometimes both forms are found. The aspiration becomes =h= before the =t=, =vaatehtia=, _to clothe_; =kiirehtiä=, _to hurry_; =tervehtiä=, _to salute_, etc.
The termination =i= is added to dissyllables ending in =ä=, =e=, =i=, and also to such dissyllables ending in =a= as have =o= or =u= as their first vowel, whereas dissyllables in =a= with =a=, =e=, or =i= for their first vowel, suffix =o=. This rule is analogous to no. =7=, and is prompted by a desire to avoid the repetition of the same in succeeding syllables. In all cases the final vowel of the stem is elided before the termination. Examples—=kukkia=, _to flower_ (=kukka=); =sotia=, _to fight_ (=sota=); =munia=, _to lay eggs_ (=muna=); =huolia=, _to care_ (=huoli=); but =sanoa=, _to speak_ (=sana=); =neuloa=, _to sew_ (=neula=); =leipoa=, _to bake_ (=leipä=).
The termination =itse= is added chiefly to trisyllabic roots, but also to dissyllables. In trisyllabic words the final =a= and =ä= of stems always become =o= and =ö= before =i=; in dissyllables the final vowel sometimes undergoes this change and is sometimes rejected. The verbs so formed are conjugated according to conjugation III, so that the infinitive ends in =oita= for =oitse=. This termination is closely related to the termination =i=, so much so that almost all the words formed with it have double forms. For example, from =satula=, _a saddle_, is formed either the verbal stem =satuloi=; infinitive =satuloida=; present =satuloin=; or the stem =satuloitse=; infinitive =satuloita=; present =satuloitsen=.
Examples of verbs: =iloita=, _to be glad_ (=ilo=); =hedelmöitä=, _to give fruit_ (=hedelmä=); =askaroita=, _to work_ (=askere=); =jumaloita= (=jumala=), _to deify_; =palmikoita=, _to twine_ (=palmikko=).
=tta=, =itta=. These terminations are added to monosyllables, to dissyllables ending in =i=, =o= (=ö=), and =u= (=y=), and trisyllables in =a= (=ä=) (which always changes to =o=) and =e=. Dissyllabic and polysyllabic words prefer the termination without =i=. This suffix is the same as that used to form transitive verbs from intransitive, and a large proportion of the verbs which are derived from nouns by its addition are factitive. =Päättää=, _to finish_ (=päättyä=, _to end_, intransitive); =jäättää=, _to freeze_; =kirjoittaa=, _to write_; =lahjoittaa=, _to make a present_; =hyvittää=, _to use well_; =syyttää=, _to accuse_; =kunnioittaa=, _to honour_.
=sta= or =ista= is added generally to dissyllabic stems, whose final vowel is lost before =i=, though =a= sometimes becomes =o=. =Metsästää=, _to hunt_; =kärjestää=, _to sharpen_; =kalastaa=, _to fish_; =ylistää=, _to extol_; =yhdistää=, _to unite_; =äänestää=, _to express an opinion_, _to vote_.
Another class of verbs are called translative, and express a change to the state denoted by the noun from which the verb is formed.
Such are formed with the following terminations:—
(1) =ne= is added chiefly to dissyllables, also to trisyllables in =ea= (=eä=), whose final =a= (=ä=), and sometimes =o=, changes to =e=. The verb so formed is conjugated according to the third conjugation, and the syllable =ne= altogether disappears in the infinitive, which ends in =eta=. =Aleta= (present =alenen=) _to sink down_; =musteta=, _to become black_; =lähetä=, _to draw near_; =pimetä=, _to grow dark_.
(2) =a= or =ä= is added mostly to dissyllabic roots ending in =i=, which changes to =e=; if added to roots ending in =a=, this vowel generally becomes =o=. It is also added to trisyllables in =ea= (=eä=). =Soeta=, _to become blind_ (=sokea=).
A small number of verbs are formed from adjectives by the addition of the suffix =ksi= or =ksu=, before which =a= and =ä= are often changed to =e=. These verbs, sometimes called _censitive_, express the light in which something is regarded. =Halveksia=, _to hold cheap_ (=halpa=); =hyveksiä= _or_ =hyväksyä=, _to find good_, _to approve_; =pahaksua= _or_ =paheksia=, _to find bad_, _to be angry at_; =väheksiä= _or_ =vähäksyä=, _to find small or despise_.
POSTPOSITIONS.
The place of prepositions in other languages is supplied by postpositions, that is to say, by words which follow a substantive (mostly in the genitive or partitive case). These words are not, however, really analogous to the indeclinable prepositions of other languages; they are cases of substantives, some of which are found used in the nominative case. For instance, =ali= (not used as a substantive) means a place under something else. From this are formed the cases =alla=, =alle=, =alta=, etc., which are used as prepositions, e.g. =kissa on pöydän alla=, _the cat is in the place under the table_, that is, _under the table_; =kissa meni pöydän alle=, _the cat went to the place under the table_, that is, _under the table_; =kissa tuli pöydän alta=, _the cat came from the place under the table_, or _from under the table_. A list of these substantives, which are mostly fragmentary in their declensions, is given in the Syntax. A few of them precede the substantive which they govern and can hence be called prepositions. Such words mostly require that the substantive which they govern should be in the partitive, whereas postpositions follow a word in the genitive.
In these words we may distinguish two classes:—
A. Those which are used as postpositions only in one case, and which have become more or less petrified. Such are =ennen=, _before_; =ilman=, _without_; =kanssa=, _with_; =varten=, _for_.
B. Those which are used in several cases. Some of these are ordinary substantives used in the nominative and other cases. The postpositional usage of such words corresponds to such English phrases as ‘in the middle of.’ Such are =joukko=, _a crowd_; (=joukossa=, =joukkoon=); =jälki=, _a footstep_ (=jälessä=, =jälestä=, =jälkeen=); =kohta=, _a place_ (=kohdalla=, =kohdalta=, =kohdalle=, =kohtaan=); =puoli=, _a half_ (=puolessa=, =puolesta=, =puolella=, =puolelta=, =puoleen=); =pää=, _a head_ (=päässä=, =päästä=, =päähän=, =päällä=, =päälle=, =päältä=).
Others, though clearly substantives in their form, are not used except as particles:—=yli=, =ylitse=, =yllä=, =ylle=, =yltä=; =ympäri=, =ympärillä=, =ympäriltä=, =ympärille=; =alla=, =alta=, =alle=; =edessä=, =edestä=, =eteen=, =edellä=, =edeltä=, =edelle=; =luota=, =luona=, =luo=; =ohessa=, =ohesta=, =oheen=, =ohitse=; =myötä=, =myöten=, and others.
THE ADVERB.
There are two classes of adverbs in Finnish: (1) Independent adverbs, (2) Adverbial suffixes.
The independent adverbs are often cases of nouns which differ from postpositions only in this, that they are used absolutely, and not in connection with another word. Thus in =käydä kaupungin ympäri=, _to go round the town_, =ympäri= may be described as a postposition, while in =käydä ympäri=, where it stands alone and absolute, it is an adverb. Similarly in =kulkea puutarhan ohitse=, _to pass by the garden_, =ohitse= is a postposition, but in =pian se menee ohitse=, _it will soon be over_, it is an adverb.
These independent adverbs are formed in different ways:—
A. Some are primitive words, whose grammatical formation is not clear, e.g. =nyt=, _now_; =heti=, _soon_; =aina=, _always_; =vielä=, _yet_; =koska=, _when_.
B. A second class is formed by the addition of certain suffixes.
(1) Adverbs are formed from adjectives by the addition of =sti=, perhaps related to the suffix of the elative, =sta=, e.g. =hywä=, _good_, =hywästi=, _well_; =tietty=, _known_; =tietysti=, _certainly_. =lti= is also found (cf. ablative =lta=); =laajalti=, _widely_, e.g. =se on laajalti tunnettu=, _he is widely known_; =paksulta=, _much_ or _thickly_; =syvältä=, _deeply_.
(2) =ten= or =ti= (cf. prolative =tse=) is added to pronouns. =Täten=, _so_; =miten=, _how_; =siten=, _so_; =muuten=, _otherwise_; =peräti=, _entirely_.
(3) =isin= (instructive) is added to nouns. =Maisin=, _by land_; =takaisin=, _back_.
(4) =nne= is added to pronouns, and forms adverbs of direction. =Sinne=, _thither_; =tänne=, _hither_; =minne=, _whither_; =jonnekunne=, _to somewhere or other_.
(5) =tusten=, =tuksin=, =ksuttain=, =kkain=, are used to form adverbs expressing a mutual relation. =Rinnatusten=, _side by side_; =käsityksin=, _hand in hand_; =peräksyttäin= _or_ =peräkkäin=, _one behind the other_.
(6) =oin=, or sometimes =ain= (probably from =ajoin=, =aika=, _time_), is added to the adessive case of pronouns to form temporal adverbs. =Silloin=, _then_; =milloin=, _when_; =muinoin=, _formerly_.
C. Various cases of nouns are used as adverbs:—
_Nominative_—E.g. =kohta=, _soon_; =kyllä=, _enough_.
_Accusative_ or _genitive_—=kauan=, _long_; =paljon=, _much_.
_Partitive_—=ulkoa=, _outside_; =salaa=, _secretly_.
_Inessive_—=tässä=, _here_; =missä=, _where_; =yhdessä=, _together_; =pystyssä=, _straight, upright_.
_Elative_—=tästä=, _hence_; =mistä=, _whence_; =ainoastaan= _or_ =ainoastansa=, _only_.
_Illative_—=yhteen=, _together_; =tarkkaan=, _accurately_.
_Adessive_—=tuolla=, =siellä=, _there_; =kaikkialla=, _everywhere_.
_Ablative_—=kaikkialta=, _from all sides_; =muualta=, _from another place_.
_Allative_—=uudelleen=, _anew_; =verkalleen=, _gradually_.
_Essive_—=ulkona=, _outside_; =kotona=, _at home_; =huomenna=, _to-morrow_; =kaukana=, _far_.
_Translative_, where =kse= is generally abbreviated to =s=,—=alas=, _below_; =ulos=, _without_; =myös=, _also_.
_Abessive_, where =tta= becomes =ti=,—=ääneti=, _silently_; =huoleti=, _without care_.
_Instructive_—=niin=, _so_; =kuin=, _how_; =tosin=, _truly_; =harvoin=, _rarely_; =kaksittain=, _two at a time_.
The second infinitive is also used adverbially in the instructive, =nimittäin= (for =en=), _that is to say_.
Adverbs are also found in the comparative and superlative degree, and are then in the essive, partitive, and translative cases, or adessive, ablative, and allative. The termination =ksi= of the translative often sinks to =s=, or merely the aspirate. =Likempänä=, _nearer_; =likempää=, =likemmäksi= (=-mmäs= _or_ =-mmaʻ=), =likemmällä=, =likemmältä=, etc.
The adverbial suffixes are added to the end of other words. The principal are—
=Ko=, =kö=, which gives an interrogative meaning to the word to which it is affixed, like =ли= in Russian.
=Han=, =hän=, =pa=, =pä=, have a strengthening or affirmative force.
=Ki=, =kin=, have a copulative sense,—=minäkin=, _I too_.
CONJUNCTIONS.
According to their signification conjunctions may be divided into—
(_a_) _Copulative_—=ja=, =ynnä=, and =sekä=, _also_; =sekä ... että=, _both ... and_; =ka=, =kä= (enclitic), _and_.
(_b_) _Disjunctive_—=eli=, =tahi=, =tai=, =taikka=, _or_; =joko ... tai=, _either ... or_.
(_c_) _Adversative_—=mutta=, =vaan=, _but_; =kuitenkin=, =toki=, _however_.
(_d_) _Inferential_—=sentähden=, =siksi=, _therefore_; =siis=, =niin-muodoin=, _consequently_; =niin=, _so, accordingly_.
(_e_) _Causal_—=sillä=, _for_; =kun=, =koska=, _because_.
(_f_) _Comparative_—=kuin=, _than_; =ikäänkuin=, _as, if_.
(_g_) _Temporal_—=kun=, _when_; =jahka=, =heti kuin=, _as soon as_; =ennenkuin=, _before that_; =sittenkuin=, _after that_.
(_h_) _Final_ and _Consecutive_—=että=, =jotta=, _that_.
(_i_) _Conditional_—=jos=, _if_.
(_j_) _Concessive_—=vaikka=, =jos=, =kohta=, _even if_.
(_k_) _Interrogative_—=ko=, =kö= (enclitic), =tokko=, =josko=, =vai=, _is it ... or_ (like the Latin ‘utrum’ ... ‘an’).
It will be noticed that these conjunctions are in great part merely cases of pronouns or adjectives, e.g. =sentähden=, =kuin=, =sillä=. =Ynnä= appears to be a contracted essive from =yksi=; and =ja= and =toki= to be borrowed words.
INTERJECTIONS.
1. _Of joy_—=aha=, =ahaa=, =hei=.
2. _Laughter_—=haha=, =hihi=.
3. _Grief_—=ai=, =aiai=, =voi=, =oi=, =voivoi=.
4. _Mockery_—=ähä=, =kutti=, =piti=, =piti-piti=.
5. _Astonishment_—=no=, =noh=, =ha=, =kah=, =kas=.
6. _Disgust_—=hyi=, =hyihyi=, =ui=, =uiui=.
SYNTAX.
Finnish sentences are formed of the same elements as those found in other European languages—subjects, predicates, objects, attributes, etc.; but, as the simplest phrases offer certain peculiarities, it is well, before analysing the use of the various forms, to give some general rules.
_The Subject._
I. The Subject is in the nominative case if it is _total_, that is to say, if something is predicated of the whole of the subject. Thus, =ihmiset kuolevat=, _men die_, because the verb applies to the whole race of men; =lapset tulevat=, _the children come_, that is to say, _all the children in question_. Personal pronouns and a substantive in the singular always are in the nominative, when subject to a sentence. In other words, the subject is put in the nominative, (1) when the proposition is universal. =Ihmiset kuolevat=, _men die_; =linnut lentävät=, _birds fly_. (2) When it is preceded by the definite article or other determinative adjective in English. =Sotamiehet läksivät=, _the soldiers set out_; =nämät pojat olevat ahkerat=, _these boys are industrious_. (3) When the subject is a single definite substantive or pronoun, which is really the same as the case of an universal proposition.
II. But the subject is put in the partitive case, if something is predicated, not of its whole extent, but of part of it. Thus, one says =viini on hyvää=, _wine is good_; =viini on pöydällä=, _the wine is on the table_; but =viiniä on pöydällä=, _there is some wine on the table_. Similarly, =miehet tulevat=, _the men are coming_; but =miehiä tulee=, _some men are coming_.
It is to be noticed—
(1) That in negative phrases, where the verb is =ei ole=, =ei näy=, =ei kuulu=, =ei tunnu=, etc. (which are generally rendered in English by such phrases as ‘there is no,’ or ‘there is not’), the subject is always in the partitive, e.g. =siellä ei ole ketään=, _there is nobody there_; =tässä joessa ei ole kaloja=, _there are no fish in this river_.
(2) The partitive can only be the subject to an intransitive verb, because the mere fact of any word being the subject to a transitive verb implies that the whole or a definite part of the subject is regarded as acting. Thus, one can say, =varkaita tuli talooni=, _some thieves came into my house_; but _some thieves stole my things_ must be rendered by =varkaat= (_or_ =jotkut varkaat=) =varastivat tavarani=.
The subject can be altogether omitted if it is a pronoun of the first or second person, and also in certain impersonal expressions, like =tuulee=, _it is windy_. In such sentences as =on mahdotonta tehdä sitä=, _it is impossible to do this_, the verbal noun is to be regarded as the subject.
Such sentences as _one says_, or _people say_, where the subject is indefinite, are expressed in Finnish either by the passive verb (_v._ p. 181), or by the third person plural, no noun or pronoun being employed to represent the subject. =Sanovat pääskysten jo tulleen=, _they say the swallows have already come_; =Venäjällä hakkaavat paljo metsää=, _they cut a great deal of wood in Russia_.
The third person sing. is also used in this sense: =kesällä elää vaikka ilmalla=, _in summer one can live easily_ (literally, _on air_); =tekee minkän jaksaa=, _one does as much work as one can_.
The second person sing. is also used in this impersonal sense, much as in Russian. =Kävelet kadulla, et näe mitään, mutta yht’äkkiä putoat kuopaan=, _one walks along the street, sees nothing, and suddenly tumbles into a hole_.
_The Predicate._
The verb of a sentence usually agrees in number with the subject, if the latter is in the nominative. But
(1) If the subject is in the partitive, either sing. or plural, the verb is always in the sing. The real subject of the verb in such cases is not the partitive itself, but such a word as =joukko=, =paljo=, or =vähä= understood before it.
(2) If the subject is a noun with a numeral (which in Finnish requires the partitive after it), the verb is also in the singular.
(3) When the verb =olla= is used with the adessive in the construction rendered by the verb ‘have’ in English, it always remains in the 3rd sing., no matter what the subject may be.
(4) In proverbs, the Kalevala, and popular speech generally, a singular verb is very frequently found with a plur. nominative. Such an irregularity is clearly rendered much easier and less glaring by the analogy of the cases quoted above.
The verb =olla=, _to be_, is sometimes omitted, especially in proverbial phrases.
=Oma maa mansikka, muu maa mustikka=, _one’s own land is a strawberry, foreign lands are only blackberries_. =Ei pyyssä kahden jakoa=, _a partridge is not enough for two_.
If the predicate takes the form of an auxiliary with a noun or adjective, this latter may be put in several cases.
I. In the nominative, when the complement expresses a quality inherent in the subject, without any reference to other things.
II. But it is put in the partitive if the subject is regarded as referred to a class in common with which the subject shares the quality in question.
Thus, =veitset ovat terevät= means _these knives_, or _the knives are sharp_; but =veitset ovat teräviä= means _knives are sharp_, or _belong to the class of sharp things_. =Kivi on kova=, _the stone is hard_, i.e. not a soft stone; =kivi on kovaa=, _stone is a hard substance_.
It is noticeable that—
(_a_) If the subject is in the sing., and denotes a living being, the complement must be in the nominative; one must say =ihminen on kuolevainen=, not =kuolevaista=.
(_b_) If the subject denotes a part of the body, the complement must be also in the nominative: =Hiukset ovat mustat=, _the hair is black_. =Kädet ovat tarpeelliset=, _hands are necessary_.
III. The complement is put in the essive if it denotes the state in which a thing is at a given time. Thus, =isäni on kipeänä=, _my father is (now) ill_; =isäni on kipeä=, _my father is an invalid_. =Hän on pappi=, _he is a clergyman_; but =hän on jo kauan ollut pappina=, _he has long been a clergyman_. =Suomenmaa on osa Venäjän valtakuntaa=, _Finland is a part of the Russian empire_; but =tähän vuosisataan asti Suomenmaa oli osana Ruotsin valtakunnasta=, _till the beginning of this century Finland formed part of the kingdom of Sweden_. Often there is little difference between the nominative and essive. Thus one can say either =sydän on suruja täysi=, or =täynnä=, _the heart is full of woe_; but =täynnä= gives a more precise and literal idea of fullness than =täysi=.
IV. With the other auxiliaries, signifying to become, or pass into a state (=tulla=, =ruveta=, =muuttua=, etc.), the complement is put in the translative. =Ilma muuttuu lämpimäksi=, _the weather grows warm_. =Poika rupesi palvelijaksi=, _the boy began to be a servant_. =Ukko käy heikoksi=, _the old man gets weak_. =Hän joutui työmieheksi=, _he became a workman_.
Such sentences as _it is impossible to go_, or _it is necessary for you to go_, may be rendered in Finnish as =mahdotonta on mennä=, or =tarpeellista on että menette=; but in both cases the real subject is the infinitive, or the sentence with =että= which replaces it.
In such sentences the adjective, combined with the verb =olla=, can be put either in the partitive or in the nominative; but it is very hard, not only to give rules for the employment of the two cases, but even to state the exact difference of meaning between them. As has been seen above, =kivi on kova= means _the stone is hard_, but =kivi on kovaa=, _the stone belongs to the class of hard things_. The same distinction appears to prevail in the case under consideration, but, as the difference is very subtle, it is not surprising that it is often hard to trace. On the whole, the partitive is more usual, because the use of the nominative implies, strictly speaking, that the subject and the complement are co-extensive. But the nominative is more definite, inasmuch as it vaguely implies the existence of particular personal or temporal conditions. Thus, =parasta on mennä= is the equivalent of _it is best to go_; and it is perfectly logical to use the partitive, as clearly it is not meant that the terms _going_ and _best_ are co-extensive. But =paras on mennä= means rather _the best thing for us under the circumstances is to go_; and in this case the use of the nominative is also logical, because the two terms are co-extensive. It can be easily imagined that with so slight a distinction the nominative and partitive are used almost indifferently in most cases. Thus, it is equally correct to say =on surkea nähdä sinua tuossa tilassa=, or =on surkeata=, _it is sad to see you in this position_. But it is noticeable that—
(1) =Parempi= and =hyvä= are always used in the nominative. =Parempi on odottaa=, _it is better to wait_. =Hyvä on olla terveenä=, _it is good to be healthy_. In the case of =parempi=, at any rate, this is quite natural, as there can hardly be said to be a class of better things without reference to particular circumstances. But this point cannot be pressed, as other comparatives are used in the partitive.
(2) In such phrases as =on mahdotonta=, _it is impossible_; =onko luvallistra=, _is it allowable_; =onko mahdollista=, _is it possible?_ the partitive is nearly always used.
_The Object._
The object, like the subject, can be either total or partial. It is regarded as total when the whole of the object is represented as affected by the action of a transitive verb, and partial when only a part of it is affected by such action. Thus in =mies ampui linnut=, _the man shot the birds_, the object is total; but in =mies ampui lintuja=, _the man shot some birds_, it is partial, because in the first case no birds are thought of except those shot, who all come under the action of the verb, whereas in the second there is a vague reference to all existing birds, of which some only have been shot. Further, the object is regarded as partial whenever the action of the verb is continuous or incomplete, because the action is, so to speak, extending over the object, but has not yet embraced the whole of it. Thus, in =minä kirjoitan kirjettä=, _I am writing a letter_, the object is regarded as partial; but in =minä olen kirjoittanut kirjeen=, _I have written a letter_, it is total. The object of a negative verb is always in the partitive.
The object may be put—
1. In the accusative;
2. In the partitive;
3. In the nominative.
_By accusative is meant that case which corresponds in the singular with the genitive, and in the plural with the nominative._
I. The total object of an active finite verb, in any mood but the imperative, is put in the accusative, unless it is a cardinal number.
=Hän myi hevosen=, _he sold the horse_. =Veljeni panee rahat taskuun=, _my brother puts the money in his pocket_. =Ammuin pyyt metsässä=, _I shot the partridges in the wood_; but =ammuin viisi pyytä=, _I shot five partridges_.
II. The Object is put in the partitive if it is partial, whatever the verb may be. From what has been said above it will be seen that this implies that the partitive must be used:—
(1) When the object is strictly speaking partial and denotes a part of something, not a whole. =Antakaa minulle maitoa=, =teetä=, etc., _give me some milk_, _some tea_, etc. =Hän söi leipää ja voita=, _he ate some bread and butter_. =Isä antoi rahaa pojalle=, _the father gave the boy some money_.
(2) When the verb is negative. =En saanut kirjaa=, _I did not receive the book_. =Me emme tunne ystävääsi=, _we do not know your friend_. =Älä revi kirjaa=, _don’t tear the book_. =Lasta ei rakasteta=, _the child is not loved_.
(3) When the action of the verb is continuous and not finished. =Hän lukee kirjaa=, _he is reading the book_. =Seppä takoo rautaa=, _the smith is hammering the iron_. =Hän juuri toimittaa sitä asiata=, _he is just now doing the business_. Often there is a difference in the meaning of a verb, according as it is followed by the accusative or partitive; the former denoting that the action is more complete. =Han löi koiraa=, _he ~struck~ the dog_; but =hän löi koiran=, _he ~killed~ the dog_. =Hän repi kirjaa=, _he ~tore~ the book_; but =repi kirjan=, _he ~tore~ the book ~to pieces~_. A great many verbs never take a total object, because from the nature of their signification, their action cannot be definite and complete, but must be regarded as continuous. This is especially the case with verbs expressing a feeling. =Niin rakasti Jumala maailmaa=, _so God loved the world_. =Neuvoin ystävääni olemaan menemättä=, _I advised my friend not to go_. =Odotin häntä kaksi tuntia=, _I waited two hours for him_. =Seurasin häntä Helsinkiin asti=, _I followed him to Helsingfors_. =Vihatkaatte pahaa=, _hate evil_.
III. The object is also put in the nominative—
(1) If it is the total object of an imperative. =Anna leipä pojalle=, _give the boy the bread_. =Vie hevonen talliin=, _take the horse to the stable_.
(2) If it is the total object of an infinitive, which depends on an imperative, and sometimes in other cases (_vide_ p. 185). =Käske tuoda ruoka pyötään=, _order the food to be put on the table_. =Antakaa lähettää sähkösanoma=, _have a telegram sent_.
(3) If it is a cardinal number. =Maksoin kolme ruplaa=, _I paid three rubles_.
(4) As has already been stated, the so-called passive is an impersonal verb with its total object in the nominative and its partial object in the partitive. For a detailed explanation, _vide_ p. 181.
An intransitive verb can sometimes take an accusative after it to express the result of its action. =Äiti makasi lapsensa kuoliaaksi=, _the mother lay on her child and killed it_ (lit. _slept her child dead_). =Juoksi itsensä väsyksiin=, _he ran himself tired_. =Hän joi itsensä siaksi=, _he drank himself silly_. =Puhui suunsa puhtaaksi=, _he spoke out his mind_.
_Of the Agreement of Substantives and Adjectives with one another._
As a rule, an adjective agrees with a noun in case and number.
=Hyvä mies=, _a good man_; =hyvät miehet=, _good men_. =Näissä suurissa kaupungeissa=, _in these large towns_. =Köyhille lapsille=, _to the poor children_.
There are, however, a considerable number of exceptions.
(1) Adjectives, as well as substantives, from which they can hardly be distinguished, enter very readily into composition as the first member of a compound word, and then are not declined, e.g. =mustameri=, _the Black Sea_. =Isokyrö=, =Vähäkyrö=, names of villages. Cf. such expressions as =mennyt vuonna=, =rankka sateella=, =tuiskusäällä=, =pakkasilmalla=.
(2) Some adjectives are never declined: =aika=, =kelpo=, =oiva=, =ensi=, =viime=, =eri=, =joka=, =koko=, =nyky=, =pikku=.
=Ensi maanantaina=, _on next Monday_. =Kelpo miehelle=, _to the good man_. =Eri osat=, _separate parts_. =Joka paikassa=, _in every place_.
(3) A certain number of adjectives and pronouns, instead of following the regular construction, take after them an instructive plur. or a partitive sing., e.g. =olla pahoilla mielin=, _to be in a good temper_; =tulla hyville mielin=, _to get into a good temper_. =Samalla ajoin=, _at the same time_. =Kaikissa paikoin=, _everywhere_. =Omilla korvin= _or_ =silmin=, _with one’s own eyes_ or _ears_. =Näillä seuduin=, _in this part of the world_.
(4) The words =kulta=, _dear_; =parka=, =raiska=, =raukka=, =riepu=, _poor_, _wretched_; =vaivainen=, _poor_; =vainaja=, _dead_; =paha=, =pahanen=, =polo=, =polonen=, _poor_, though written separately, form a sort of compound with a substantive, which they may either precede or follow. Only the last of the two words is declined. Thus, =poika polosella oli kiire=, _or_ =polo pojalla=, _the poor boy had to hurry_. =Älä suututa äiti kultaani=, _or_ =kulta äitiäni=, _do not anger my dear mother_. =Minä en nähnyt lapsi parkaani=, _I have not seen my poor child_. =Woi minua mies parkaa=, _woe is me, poor man_.
As will be perceived from the rules given above (p. 124), an adjective predicated of a substantive does not always agree with the latter, but may be in the partitive, essive, or translative, when the substantive is in the nominative.
A substantive in apposition to another is usually in the same case.
It is to be noted that in such expressions as _the town of Petersburg_, _the Emperor Alexander_, the Finnish idiom conforms to the English in this respect, that if the object is inanimate, the proper name is put in the genitive. =Helsingin kaupunki=, _the town of Helsingfors_. =Suomenmaa=, _Finland_. In the case of a river either the nominative or genitive can be used. =Nevan joki= _or_ =Neva joki=, _the river Neva_.
But if the proper name denotes an animate object, or a ship, it is put in the nominative, and remains in that case, even though the word in apposition to it is inflected. =Keisari Suuriruhtinas Georg Aleksandrovitschin kanssa=, _the Emperor with the Grand Duke George Alexandrovitch_. =Professori Alquistin kuolema on suuri vahinko Suomelle=, _the death of Professor Alquist is a great blow to Finland_.
When a word in apposition denotes the state of the subject at a given time, and not a general characteristic, it is put in the essive case. =Poikana hän oli sairas=, _as a boy he was ill_.
_The Article._
There is no article in Finnish. Sometimes =yksi= (_one_) is used to represent the indefinite article, and in poetry the definite article is frequently expressed by a pronoun, such as =tuo= _or_ =se=.
The rules given above will have made it clear, however, that under some circumstances Finnish can mark by the use of the cases the same distinction which we mark by the article. It may be said roughly that the nominative generally represents a substantive with the definite article in English (this would be still more true of French), and the partitive a substantive without an article. Thus, =linnut ovat puussa= means _the birds are in the tree_; but =lintuja on puussa=, _there are birds in the tree_. =Ammuin lintuja= is _I shot some birds_; =ammuin linnut=, _I shot the birds_. So, too, =kivet ovat kovat= means _the stones are hard_; while =kivet ovat kovia= means rather _stones are hard_. It would, however, be misleading to state such rules too dogmatically, as doubtless many instances could be found where the use of the nominative and partitive would not correspond to that of the article in English. Naturally, a language which has no articles and no gender is obliged to construct sentences differently from tongues which have these distinctions, and Finnish sentences, particularly in the older and simpler literature, are generally more precise than ours.
THE USE OF THE CASES.
The majority of the cases of the Finnish noun have, at any rate in their origin, a local meaning. Of these local cases two obvious groups are found, one called the interior local cases (inessive, elative, and illative), the other the exterior cases (the adessive, ablative, and allative). Another group is formed by the essive, partitive, and translative, which, however, do not hang together so closely as the cases above cited, inasmuch as the primary local meaning has in all of them been obscured by metaphorical uses. In all these groups the first member (inessive, adessive, essive) denotes originally rest in a position; the second (elative, ablative, partitive) motion from; the third (illative, allative, translative) motion to. From the original local meaning, all the cases, except the allative, come to indicate time. It may be roughly said that the first member denotes present time, the second past time, and the third future time. They are also used in a metaphorical sense, in which case the first members of the groups denote the state in which anything is, the second the state from which anything passes, and the third the state into which anything passes. In the first and second groups there is a close correspondence in the metaphorical use of the various members of the group: that is to say, if one member can be used metaphorically to express existence in a state, the others can be used to express a transition from or to it. Most of the cases have, however, in addition to these common uses, others which are peculiar to themselves and are not shared by the other members of the group.
The usage of the first and second group also shows many coincidences. It is generally said that the first group denotes local position with regard to the interior, and the second with regard to the exterior of the object. In the present state of the language, however, the distinction in this form is not very clearly observed, as will be seen by the examples given. The second group has a tendency to denote persons rather than things, whereas the first is used more of inanimate objects. The third group is mainly used in metaphorical senses. It is noticeable that there are many coincidences between the uses of the partitive and the elative.
Most of the other cases call for little comment. The instructive is used mostly adverbially, but plays a considerable part in the construction of sentences, and is likely to be troublesome to a beginner on account of its resemblance to the genitive in form. The prolative is rarely used. The comitative and abessive express respectively the presence and absence of an object. The former is not much used, but the peculiarities of the Finnish construction have caused the latter to in some ways take the place of a negative.
As has already been stated in the Accidence, it would appear that in some of the cases two forms have been merged in one. Thus it appears that the adessive represents (1) a local case, (2) an instrumental. So, too, the genitive represents (1) a case denoting the relation existing between objects, (2) a dative. The nominative is also used (1) as a real nominative, (2) as an accusative, having perhaps lost the termination in this latter case.
=To understand Finnish syntax it is of the greatest importance to remember that there is no real distinction between nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, infinitives, and participles. In fact, all the words of a sentence, except the forms of a finite verb (and a few particles which have become petrified) are nouns, and as such are susceptible of declension, so that the significance of the cases has an importance extending over almost the entire grammar.=
_Nominative._
Most of the uses of the nominative have already been indicated.
I. It is employed as the subject of a sentence if the subject is total. The subject of a transitive verb is always considered as total (_vide_ p. 122). =Ihmiset kuolevat=, _men are mortal_. =Seppä myi hevosen=, _the smith sold the horse_. =Mitä sijat maksavat?= _what do the places cost?_
II. It also is used in the predicate, under the conditions mentioned, page 123. =Silta on leveä=, _the bridge is wide_. =Ystäväni tytär on seitsemän vuotias=, _my friend’s daughter is seven years old_.
III. It is used as the direct object after an imperative, or an infinitive depending on an imperative (_vide_ p. 128). =Lyökämme käsi kätehen= (Kal. i. 21). =Päästä piika pintehestä= (Kal. i. 173). =Kun solmit ystäwyyttä, tee aina umpisolmu=, _when you tie the knot of friendship, make it hard to untie_. =Tuokaa minulle kahvi=, _give me the coffee_. =Pankaa tämä kirje postiin=, _post this letter_.
IV. When the passive form of the verb is used, the subject (or more properly object) is put in the nominative, if it is total. =Hän saatetaan kotia=, _he is conducted home_ (_vide_ p. 182).
V. The nominative is used as the vocative. =Oi ukko ylijumala!= =Weli kulta, weikkoseni, kaunis kasvinkumppalini!=
VI. The nominative absolute is frequently used. Kal. xvi. 192-3. =Tuonen hattu hartioilla, Manan kintahat käessä=, _the hat of death on thy head, and the gloves of death on thy hands_. =Ei vahinko tule kello kaulassa=, _misfortune does not come with a bell round his neck_. =Harvoin on se mies piippu poissa suusta=, _this man is rarely without a pipe in his mouth_. =Hän makaa ulkona pää paljaana=, _he sleeps out of doors with his head bare_.
_The Partitive Case._
The original meaning of this case seems to have been motion from a place, and traces of this signification are found in the forms =kotoa=, =ulkoa=, =kaukaa=, =takaa=, =tyköä=, and =luota=. =Tulla ulkoa=, _to come from out of doors_; =nähdä kaukaa=, _to see from far_. The partitive is also apparently used locally in such expressions as =tulkaa tätä tietä=, _come this way_; =minä käyn tietä=, _I go by the road_; =he kulkivat matkaansa=, _they went on their way_. Perhaps, however, these might be explained by supposing that the intransitive verbs =tulla=, =käydä=, etc. take a cognate object. The use of the partitive of the participle passive (p. 198) to denote ‘after’ is noticeable.
Hence the case passes not unnaturally to mean what is taken from, or forms part of a thing.
I. A substantive preceded by words which express a quantity or measure is put in the partitive. =Joukko ihmisiä=, _a crowd of men;_ =naula lihaa=, _a pound of meat_; =paljo rahaa=, _much money_; =vähä voita=, _a little butter_.
Similarly a cardinal number, if it is the subject of a sentence, is followed by the partitive sing. of the word which it qualifies. =Kolme poikaa=, _three boys_; =seitsemän veljeä=, _seven brothers_. In the same way we have, =kaksi kymmentä=, _two tens_ or _twenty_. But if the word qualified by the numeral would not be in the nominative in ordinary European languages, the two agree in case (_vide_ p. 172).
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A Finnish GrammarChapter II: Short Vowels (3)
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