Chapter X: Part II: {on the Parts of Speech} (3)

Obs. ii. While these words are given as substitutes for the pronouns, it should be remembered that the tendencies of the language are against the introduction of the pronouns, whether there be a substitute or not. Thus instead of asking, “Is your eye better?” The Chinese say 眼睛好點否 ’nga{n} tsing ’hau ’tíe{n} ’vá, {eye better, eh?} So, for “what is your name?” 姓啥 sing‘ sá‘, {name, what?} While the pronoun is thus entirely omitted, room is left for the speaker to introduce whatever terms of adulation or humility he may think fit. Those of the former kind are for convenience taken to mean {you} and {your}, while their opposites are {I} and {mine}.

Obs. iii. Many other phrases of the same kind are used in letters, but as they do not occur in conversation they are here omitted. Many of them are collected in Gutzlaff’s “Notices of Chinese Grammar.”

{Section}. 7. {On the verb}, 活虛字.

211. Pih Hwa-tsun says, “One use of verbs is to connect the parts of proposition” 活虛字之用, 一以聯綴上下, “Thus if it be said, books instruct mankind,” 如云文傳世 (lit. writings delivered down to mankind); “the word books is the subject, mankind the predicate, and instruct the copula.” 文爲主字, 世爲賓字, 而以傳字, 聯綴上下也. “Another use is to express actions.” 一以寫出人事. “Thus if it be said, write a book, or correct an essay,” 如云作文評文之類. “write and correct are both actions;” 作字,評字,皆人事也. “for both these uses, verbs are indispensable.” “Verbs are very numerous; of those in constant use, there are about two thousand.” “There are also verbs of two inseparable characters; e.g. 婆娑 {p}ú sú, {move confusedly}, and 盤桓 {p}é{n} {w}é{n}, {to linger}.”

Where our author speaks of 2,000 verbs, he means from among the single characters commonly used in writing. Many of these are, in colloquial dialects, expressed only in a dissyllabic form; thus, 慕 mú‘, {to desire}, is only used in common conversation in such compounded forms, as 愛慕 é‘ mú‘, {to love}. The number of inseparable compounds is thus rendered greater in the colloquial than in the written style. With regard to monosyllabic verbs, there are many in the books which are not in the colloquial, and vice versâ. For examples of verbs found in written colloquial mandarin, v. page 63.

Verbs will be treated (1.) according to their modes of grouping; (2.) according to their most general nature, as transitive, intransitive, or substantive (voice); (3.) according to the particular modes in which their sense may be conveyed (moods); (4.) according to time (tenses).

(1.) {Grouping of verbs}.

{Simple and compound verbs}. 212. Examples of verbs of one word have been already given. A few more will be sufficient here.

放 fong‘, {let go}. 鑽 tsû{n}, {to bore}.
切 t’sih, {cut in pieces}. 修 sieu, {to prune}.
刋 t’síe{n}, {cut away}. 鑤 {p}au‘, {to plane}.
剸 tsa{n}, {chop small}. 搭 tah, {pitch tents}.
砟 tsoh, {to reap}. 拆 t’sáh, {pull down}.
挖 wah, {scoop out}. 撞 dzong‘, {meet}.

213. Many combinations of two words consist of verbs similar in meaning, but with no reason except custom for the order in which they are employed.

埋葬 má tsong‘, {to bury}. 哀憐 é líe{n}, {to pity}.
遮瞞 tsó mé{n}, {conceal}. 禱告 ’tau kau‘, {to pray}.
咒罵 tseu‘ mó‘, {revile}. 保庇 ’pau pí‘, {protect}.
調換 tiau {w}é{n}, {exchange}. 指點 ’tsz tíe{n}, {point to}.
加添 ká t’íe{n}, {add}. 煩勞 va{n} lau, {importune}.
話壞 {w}ó‘ {w}á‘, {calumniate}. 稱讚 t’sung tsa{n}‘, {to praise}.

Obs. i. The tautology existing in examples of this sort is no objection whatever to their use. Thus, 埋 má and 葬 tsong‘, may be used separately or together, as the speaker pleases. There is an advantage to the foreigner in using the compounded forms, because a mispronunciation of the tone of a single word is nearly compensated by the repetition of the idea. So also for natives speaking different dialects.

Obs. ii. The principle of antithesis may be noticed in some of these dissyllabic combinations; e.g. 往來 ’wong lé, {go and come}; 買賣 ’má má‘, {buy and sell}.

214. In many instances the first verb governs the second, as a verb does a substantive.

惹笑 ’zá siau‘, {cause to laugh}.
怕打 p’ó ’táng, {fear being beaten}.
怕死 p’ó ’sí, {fear dying}.
開講 k’é ’kong, {begin speaking}.

Obs. In these examples, were the language one that admitted grammatical forms, the second verb in each case would become either a substantive, or an infinitive, (i.e. they would be always substantives, infinitives as destitute of time, person and number, being not true verbs). In reality 笑, 打 siau‘, ’táng, etc. are according to the principles of classical grammar, neither verbs nor substantives, not being able to take the necessary changes of form. They are bare roots, and their grammatical sense is determined by position. Verb however, is the most convenient denomination for them, because when taken alone, they are necessarily translated as verbs.

215. In some of these dissyllabic forms, the first verb qualifies the second; as in other languages, participles and adverbs qualify verbs.

歸去 kü k’í‘, {return home} (lit. {return go}).
跑來 {p}au lé, {come running}, (lit. {run come}).
殺來 sah lé, {come fighting}.
抄寫 t’sau ’siá, {to copy in writing} (lit. {copy write}).

Obs. i. The verb of more general meaning 去 k’í‘, {go}, is limited by that which precedes, 歸 kü, to the sense of returning home. If the idiom be compared with the English phrase {go back}, 歸 kü is the adverb placed before instead of after its verb. In 轉來 ’tsé{n} lé, {come back}; the verb ’tsé{n} is also best translated in English, as an adverb {back}.

Obs. ii. Substantives sometimes by ellipsis stand for verbs, as qualifying the following verb. 馬來呢轎子來 ’mó ({horse}) lé ní, giau‘ ’tsz ({sedan}) lé, {did you ride or come in a chair?}

216. The order of the words in many of these phrases, may also properly be referred to priority and sequence in time. That is, two actions are successively expressed.

打敗 t’áng bá‘, {fight and be defeated}.
敲開 k’au ({to beat}) k’é ({to open}), {to knock open}.
咬破 ’ngau p’u‘, {break by biting}.
請坐 ’t’sing ’zú, {please sit down}.
寫完 ’siá {w}é{n} {finish writing}.
做停 tsú‘ ding, {finish making}.
吊死 tiau‘ ’sí, {die by strangling}.

Obs. The English verb {open}, which is an adjective, verb, or adverb, like the Chinese, has evidently nothing to indicate to which part of speech it belongs, but position. It is on the principle of position, that in such phrases as {an open door}, {knock open a door}, and {to open a door}, the word is referred to its proper place in the parts of speech. There is this difference; (1) that in k’au k’é 敲開, the latter word is still a verb, while in the corresponding English example, it becomes a true adverb; (2) the Chinese word cannot be used as an adjective. The qualifying notion contained in the adjective, is expressed as a separate proposition; e.g. {for an open door}, 門開拉 mun k’é ’lá, {the door is open}.

217. In verbs of two syllables, many auxiliary words occur, which have nearly or quite lost their primary meaning as independent verbs. In the following examples, it will be observed, that these enclitics or proclitics, as they may be termed, often add nothing to the meaning of the principal verb. They are 得 tuh, 脫 t’eh, 打 ’táng, 見 kíe{n}‘, 着 záh, 住 dzû‘.

{a}. 得 tuh, {get, may}.

聽得 t’ing tuh, {hear}. 曉得 ’hiau tuh, {know}.
記得 kí‘ tuh, {remember}. 認得 niung‘ tuh, {be acquainted}.

Obs. This term, though here it has no meaning, will be seen to be a very important word among the mood particles, as giving a permissive sense to the principal verb. Such is its most common signification is such phrases as 做得 tsú‘ tuh, {it may be done}.

{b}. 脫 t’eh, {let go, escape, remove out of the way}.

去脫 k’í‘ t’eh, {remove}. 除脫 dzû t’eh, {to remove}.
滅脫 mih t’eh, {destroy}. 放脫 fong‘ t’eh, {let go}.
漏脫 leu t’eh, {to leak}. 走脫 ’tseu t’eh, {escape}.
踢脫 t’ih (or t’iuh) t’eh, {kick away}. 卸脫 {s}iá t’eh, {flow away}.
斷脫 dö{n}‘ t’eh, {sweep away}. 奪脫 {t}öh t’eh, {rob of}.

Obs. This word may be regarded as forming a derivative verb. Its primary meaning is seen in 脱衣裳 t’öh í zong, {take off one’s clothes}, where the book sound t’öh is employed.

{c}. 打 ’táng, {to beat, apply one’s-self to}.

打掃 ’táng ’sau, {to sweep}. 打聽 ’táng t’ing, {to inquire}.
打發 ’táng fah, {to send}. 打扇 ’táng sé{n}‘, {to fan}.
打算 ’táng sö{n}‘, {consider}. 打結 ’táng kih, {tie a knot}.

Obs. The primary meaning of 打 ’táng, is seen in such phrases as 打樁 ’táng tsong, {drive piles}; 打火 ’táng ’hú, {strike a light}.

{d}. 見 kíe{n}‘, indicates a single act of perception.

看見 k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘, {see}.
聽見 t’ing kíe{n}‘, {to hear}.
望見 mong‘ kíe{n}‘, {see}.

{e}. 着 dzáh. This word expresses that the object implied in the verb is effected.

碰着 {p}áng‘ záh, {to meet}.
遇着 nü záh, {ib}.
捉着 tsoh záh, {catch}, or {succeed in catching}.
擒着 {k}iun záh, {ib}.
摸着 móh záh, {rub}, or {can be rubbed}.
奪着 döh záh, {succeed in robbing}.
得着 tuh záh, {succeed in getting}.
買着 ’má záh, {succeed in buying}.

Obs. i. In these examples, this meaning of the auxiliary is preserved, and must be regarded as additional to the sense of the principal verb, except in the first two instances.

Obs. ii. In 想着 ’siáng záh, {think of}, the word 着 záh limits 想 think to the sense of {think of some particular thing}. In 覺着 koh záh, {become aware of}, the verb 覺 koh, cannot in our dialect be used separately. It is however found in 勿知勿覺 veh tsz veh koh, {not be aware of}.

{f}. 殺 sah, {to kill}.

勿話殺 veh {w}ó‘ sah, {he did not say decisively}.

{g}. 住 dzû‘, {resist, take firm hold}. This word always preserves its meaning, but it occurs so frequently in union with verbs of resistance and interruption, that it deserves a place with the preceding enclitics.

阻住 ’tsú dzû‘, {resist}.
鎖住 ’sú dzû‘, {prevent motion by locking up}.
縛住 vóh dzû‘ {ib. by tying up}.
咬住 ’ngau dzû‘, {hold with the teeth}.
揑住 niah dzû‘, {hold in the hand}.
揪住 t’sieu dzû‘, {hold with the hand}.

{h}. 到 tau‘, {arrived}.

用到 {y}úng‘ tau‘, {employ to the utmost}.
做到 tsú‘ tau‘, {do to perfection}.
走到 ’tseu tau‘, {complete a journey on foot}.
昨日跑到 dzoh nyih {p}au‘ tau‘, {he arrived yesterday}.

218. In many cases a substantive follows the verb, when it is unnecessary in English.

走路 ’tseu lú‘, {to walk}. 織布 tsuh pú‘, {to weave}.
射箭 zok tsie{n}‘, {to shoot}. 紡紗 ’fong só, {to spin}.
搖船 {y}au zé{n}, {to scull}. 活命 {w}eh ming‘, {to live}.

Obs. i. So also 話說話 {w}ó‘ seh {w}ó‘, {to speak}. The words seh {w}ó‘, {words}, are as to sense superfluous. Yet many of these examples may be closely translated; e.g. 領路 ’ling lú‘, {lead the way}; 燒飯 sau va{n}‘, {to boil rice, to cook}.

Obs. ii. When the substantive comes under the government of another verb its usual companion is frequently appended; e.g. 尋飯吃 dzing va{n}‘ k’iuh, {seek for food}, where 吃 is superfluous.

Obs. iii. When the sense does not require a substantive, the reason of its introduction must be sought in the rhythmical construction of sentences, peculiar and essential to the Chinese language.

219. Compound verbs are formed by the apposition of a transitive verb and adjective.

加長 ká, ({add}) dzáng ({long}), {to lengthen}.
親近 t’sing ({to make near}) ’giun, ({near}), {become near, to approach
closely}.
掘深 {k}iöh, ({dig}) sun ({deep}), {to deepen}.
減輕 ’ka{n} ({subtract}) k’iung ({light}), {subtract from}.
填高 {t}íe{n} ({place layers}) kau ({high}), {raise by layers}.
話大 {w}ó‘ ({speak}) dú‘ ({great}), {speak highly of}.
佈滿 ’pú ({to cover}) ’mé{n} ({full}), {fill up}.
教差 kau‘ ({instruct}) t’só ({wrong}), {teach wrong}.
改正 ’ké ({change}) tsung‘ ({correct}), {to correct}.
捉牢 tsoh ({catch}) lau ({firm}), {catch and retain}.

Obs. i. The word 好 ’hau, {good}, is found appended to many verbs, giving to them the sense of completeness, 做好 tsú‘ ’hau, {complete the making of}.

Obs. ii. These examples shew how in Chinese, compensation is made for that class of words called derivatives in languages possessing a system of terminations. Instead of a formation like {prolongare}, {to lengthen}, from {longus} or {long} in Latin, or {lengthen} from {length} in English, we have a separate word prefixed to the adjective {dzáng}, {long}. Many English phrases are compounded in the same manner; e.g. {rub smooth, rub dry}, which are equivalent in sense and grammatical construction to the Chinese forms, 磨光 mú kwong, 揩乾 k’á kû{n}.

Obs. iii. 差 t’só, {wrong}, is found after many other verbs; e.g. 懂 ’tóng, {understand}; 聽 t’ing, {to hear}; 待 {t}é‘ {treat any one}. In every case, it is predicated of the action, that it is wrong.

220. In some dissyllabic verbs used transitively, one of the constituent words is a substantive.

囘頭 {w}é ({turn}) deu ({head}), {to answer, to tell}.
弄神 lóng‘ ({trick}) zun ({spirits}), {to deceive}.
到手 tau‘ ({reach to}) ’seu ({hand}), {have in possession}.
算計 sö{n}‘ ({calculate}) kí‘ ({a plan}), {to plan}.

Obs. These may be seen to be transitive, in such sentences as 勿好弄 神朋友 veh ’hau lóng‘ zun báng ’{y}eu, {you should not deceive friends}; 就來囘頭我 dzieu lé {w}é deu ’ngú, {come at once and tell me}.

221. Some colloquial verbs, with examples of the manner in which they combine with other words, are here inserted.

踛上去 lóh ’zong k’í, {go up} (M. 升 shíng, 足 p‘a).
跑出來 {p}au‘ t’seh lé, {walk out} (M. 走 ’tseu).
搿住拉 geh dzû‘ ’lá, {held by the arm} (M. 挾 hieh).
碰着 {p}áng‘ záh, {meet} (M. 遇 ü‘ and p‘eng choh).
挬輔 {p}eh ’tsé{n}, {turn around} (M. 囘 hwei).
担到此地 ta{n} tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘, {bring here} (M. 拿 ná 端 twan).
甩脱 hwah t’eh, {throw away} (M. 扔下 jeng‘ hia‘).
孛相 {p}eh siáng‘, {to ramble} (M. 遊桄 yeu kwang‘).
坍銃 t’a{n} t’sóng, {to be ashamed}.
撥拉我 peh ’lá ’ngú, {give it me} (M. 給 ki‘, ’kei).
做唆 tsu‘ sú‘, {to deceive}.

Obs. At Súng-kiáng ’pun, is used for peh, in the sense of {give}. 跑 has two pronunciations, ’{p}au {run}, and pau‘ {walk}.

222. Some adverbs enter into combination with verbs.

預備 {ü}‘ ({before}) bé‘ ({prepare}), {to prepare}.
相打 siáng ({mutually}) ’táng ({beat}), {to fight}.
相罵 siáng （{mutually}) mó‘ ({rail}) {rail at one another}.

Groups of three. 223. Propositions and words equivalent to them combine with 來 lé, {come}, and 去 k’i‘, {go}, to express the direction of the action of verbs.

敲進去 k’au tsing‘ k’í, {knock in}.
担上來 ta{n} ’zong lé, {bring forward}.
走下來 ’tseu ’{a}u lé, {walk down}.
殺前去 sah zíe{n} k’í‘, {fight on before}.
踛起來 lók ’k’í lé, {stand up}.
坐下來 ’zú ’{a}u lé, {sit down}.
做進去 ’zú tsing‘ k’í, {sit farther up}.
飛出來 fí t’seh lé, {fly out}.
走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, {come through}.
拉過去 ’lá kú‘ k’í‘, {drag past}.
掇起來 töh ’k’í lé, {lift up}.
縮轉來 sók ’tsé{n} lé, {turn back}.
丟下來 {k}wa{n}‘ ’{a}u lé, {throw down}.
走開來 ’tseu k’é lé, {walk away}.

Obs. i. Thus we have an idiom similar to the English, except that the verbs of motion are added. The common prepositions annexed to verbs (and therefore sometimes called adverbs), follow the verbs in both instances. Of the Chinese five are verbs, which are all used as prepositions, 出 t’seh, {to go out, outward}; 進 tsing‘, {to go in, inward}; 起 ’k’í, {to raise up, upward}; 過 kú‘, {to pass, through, across}; 轉 ’tsé{n}, {to return, back}; 開 k’é, {to open, away}. Of the prepositions 上 ’zong, {forward}, 下 ’{a}u {backward, downward}, 前 zíe{n}, {before}, the two former are also frequently employed as verbs in the dialect as well as in books; e.g. 上蘇州 ’zong Sú-tseu, {go to Sú-cheú}; 下船 ’{a}u zé{n}, {to enter a boat}.

Obs. ii. In the classical languages, the prepositions were put before the verbs instead of after them, as in the derived words {ascend}, {descend}; and another numerous class of terms belonging to our western tongues, is thus seen to have its equivalent compound form in the Chinese language.

224. The {beginning} and {completion} of an action are expressed by appending, 起來 ’k’í lé, {begin} and 成功 zung kóng, {complete} to the verb 起 ’k’í is also used alone, and the words 完, 停, {w}é{n}, ding, {finish}, and 好 ’hau, {well}, stand for {completion}.

寫起來 ’siá ’k’í lé, {begin writing}.
做成工 tsú‘ zung kóng, {to finish making}.
畫成工 {w}ó zung kóng, {finish painting.}
今朝做起 kiun tsau tsú ’k’í, {begin to-day}.
幾時做完 ’kí zz tsú‘ {w}é{n}, {when will you finish?}
勿曾話停 veh zung {w}ó ding, {has not done speaking}.
造好者 ’zau ’hau ’tsé, {finished building}.

Obs. i. In examples with 起, ’k’í, we have an equivalent to that class of Lat. derivative verbs called Inchoative or Inceptive; e.g. calesco, {I grow warm}, from {calco}.

Obs. ii. 起 ’k’í is sometimes omitted e.g. 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, {do a thing badly}. But then the sense of {beginning} is lost also.

Obs. iii. This form is also assumed by adjectives, as 熱起來 nyih ’k’í lé, {becomes hot}; 熱來話勿得 nyih lé {w}ó veh tuh, {it is excessively hot}. In the dialects west of Shánghái 熱得來 nyih tuh lé, is used for {it is hot}.

Obs. iv. The substantive governed is place between 起 ’k’í and 來 lé; e.g. 動起手來 ’{t}óng ’k’í ’seu lé, {to move ones hand}. The same thing occurs with some of the other groups. 挬輔身體來 peh ’tsé{n} sun ’t’í lé, {turn one’s body round}: 担出洋錢來 ta{n} t’seh {y}áng díe{n} lé, {bring out dollars}.

225. Collective and separating verbs are formed by 攏 ’lóng, {collect}, and 開 k’é, {open}.

聚攏來 dzü ’lóng lé, {collect together}.
幷攏來 ’ping ’lóng lé, {add together}.
散開來 sa{n} k’é lé, {scatter}.
拆開來 t’sáh k’é lé, {undo}.
分開來 fun k’é lé, {divide}.
解開來 ’ká k’é lé, {untie}.

226. Reflexive action is expressed by placing 自 zz‘ before and after the verb.

自嚇自 zz‘ háh zz‘, {frighten one’s-self}.
自騙自 zz‘ p’ie{n}‘ zz‘, {deceive one’s-self}.

Obs. In examples of this sort, the constituent words are pronounced closely together and might be written with hyphens. They correspond in their sense, to the Hithpahel conjugation of Hebrew verbs, and the middle voice of Greek and Sanscrit. In a monosyllabic agglutinating language, no nearer approach, could well be made to an equivalent of those forms, than is exhibited in such groups as these.

{Groups. Affirmative and negative}. 227. The groups formed by help of the affirmative and negative particles are very numerous, so much so, that they constitute of themselves a feature of the language. The Chinese colloquial idiom is very much indebted to them, for the force and precision which it is acknowledged to possess.

In these groups 得 tuh and 勿 veh (不 púh M.), take the centre, and certain auxiliary words, with some adjectives and verbs stand last. The sense of the principal verb is thus limited and modified in various ways. 得 tuh and 勿 veh being opposite in sense, the modifications they produce in the sense of the verb must be opposed also. They may be reduced to the following pairs of terms.

1st. It is predicted of the {agent}, that he is {able} or knows how to effect the action of the verb and the contrary; e.g. 做得來 tsú‘ tuh lé, {able to do or make}; 做勿来 tsú‘ veh lé, {unable to do or make}.

2nd. It is predicated of the agent, that circumstances allow him to effect the action and the contrary. Thus, 當得起 tong tuh ’k’í, {in circumstances to bear}; 讀勿起 {t}óh veh ’k’í, {cannot afford to learn to read}; 拖勿起 t’ú veh ’k’í, {not strength to drag}.

3rd. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or does {succeed}, and the opposite; e.g. 尋得着 zing tuh záh, {can find} (尋 zing {seek}); 打勿着 ’táng veh záh, {it did not}, or {cannot hit}.

4th. It is predicated of the action, that it can, or cannot be performed in a particular {direction}; e.g. 走勿進 ’tseu veh tsing‘, {cannot go inside}.

5th. Of verbs of {motion}, {resistance} and {destruction}, it is predicated, with the help of auxiliary verbs cognate in meaning, that the act they represent, can or cannot take place. 走得動 ’tseu tuh ’dóng {can walk}; 阻勿住 ’tsú veh dzû‘, {unable to resist}; 解勿脫 ’ká veh t’eh, {cannot get rid of}.

6th. It is predicated of a verb followed by an adjective, that the act is or can be performed, to the extent indicated the adjective or the contrary; e.g. 醫得好 í (cure) tuh ’hau (good) {can be cured}; 填勿滿 {t}íe{n} veh ’mé{n} {cannot be filled by layers}.

228. Of the auxiliary words, used in affirmative and negative groups, verbs are the most numerous.

{a}. 來 lé, {come}, 出 t’seh, {go out}, express {able to}.

寫勿來 ’siá veh lé, {do not know how to write}.
聽勿來 t’ing veh lé, {have not the power to hear}.
呌勿出 kiau‘ veh t’seh, {know not what to call it}.
講得出 ’kong tuk t’seh, {can discourse on it}.

Obs. A group of four is sometimes made by introducing an adverb.

聽大勿出 t’ing dá‘ veh t’seh, {I do not hear very well}.

{b}. 起 ’k’í, {rise}, expresses {in circumstances to}.

板勿起 ’pa{n} veh ’k’í, {it is not for me to look angry}.
睏勿起 k’wun‘ veh ’k’í, {afraid to sleep}.
染勿起 ’níe{n} veh ’k’í, {will not bear to be dyed}.
印勿起 {y}un‘ veh ’k’í, {will not bear impressions}.
見勿起 kíe{n}‘ veh ’k’í, {do not dare meet him}.

{c}. 着, 出, 見, záh, t’seh, kíe{n}‘, express success in any single action; verbs of striking and seeking take záh; while verbs of thinking and perception take t’seh and kíe{n}‘.

呌得着 kiau‘ tuh záh, {succeed in calling him}.
殺勿着 sah veh záh, {not succeed in killing}.
懂勿出 ’tóng veh t’seh, {cannot understand}.
看勿出 k’ö{n}‘ veh t’seh, {I do not} (or {cannot}) {see it}.
看勿見 k’ö{n}‘ veh kíe{n}‘, {ib}.

{d}. 進, 出, 落, 過, 轉, 開, express {direction} as in the examples.

進得進 tsing‘ tuh tsing‘, {able to enter}.
行勿出 {h}áng veh t’seh, {cannot pass out}.
吃勿落 k’iuh veh loh, {cannot swallow} or {eat}.
跑勿過 pau‘ veh kú‘, {cannot pass by}.
縮勿轉 sóh veh ’tsé{n}, {cannot return}.
打得開 ’táng tuh k’é, {can beat open}.
睏勿落 k’wun‘ veh loh, {cannot lie down (either through pain or want
of room)}.

{e}. 脱, 動, 住, t’eh, ’{t}óng, dzû‘, express {destruction}, {motion}, and {resistance}. e.g.

滅勿脱 mih veh t’eh, {cannot destroy}.
做勿動 tsú‘ veh ’dóng, {disabled from work}.
跑勿動 {p}au veh ’dóng, {unable to walk}.
免勿脱 ’mie{n} veh t’eh, {unable to avoid}.
立勿住 lih veh dzû‘, {not able to stand}.
當得住 tong tuh dzû‘, {able to resist}.

{f}. 得 tuh, expresses {permission} and {prohibition}.

動勿得 {t}óng veh tuh, {may not do it}.
去得 k’i‘ tuh, {may go}.
逃走勿得 {t}au ’tseu veh tuh, {may not flee}.

{g}. 停, 完, express the {cessation} of an act.

呌勿停 kiau‘ veh ding, {not cease to call}.
哭勿停 k’óh veh ding, {not cease to weep}.
用勿完 {y}úng‘ veh {w}é{n}, {cannot exhaust by using}.
痛勿停 t’ong‘ veh ding, {not cease to pain}.

{h}. 成功, 盡, 到, express {perfection} of an act.

做勿成功 tsú‘ veh dzung kóng, {cannot complete}.
走得到 ’tseu tuk tau‘, {can walk to}.
想勿到 ’siáng veh tau‘, {cannot reach in thought}.
及勿到 {k}ih veh tau‘, {cannot come up to or equal}.
報答勿盡 pau‘ tah veh dzing‘, {unable to shew sufficient gratitude}.

{i}. 及 {k}ih or {k}í, expresses {there is time for}.

抄勿及 t’sau veh gí, {not time to copy}.
追得及 tsûe tuh gí, {time to overtake}.
來勿及 lé veh gí, {not time for it}.

{j}. 落 loh, expresses {room for}.

擱得落 koh tuh loh, {room to pack}.
安勿落 ö{n} veh loh, {not room to place}.
坐勿落 ’zú veh loh, {not room to sit}.

{k}. 過 kú‘, indicates that the verb it qualifies will give superiority.

打也打伊勿過, 話也話伊勿過, ’táng {’á} ’táng í veh kú‘, {w}ó‘ {’á} {w}ó‘ í
veh kú‘, {cannot conquer him by beating, nor by using the tongue}.
敵得過 {t}ih tuh kú‘, {can oppose him successfully}.

{l}. 理 ’lí, {to control}, ’long, {bring together}, 殺 sah, {kill} and 應 {y}ung‘, {answer}, add their own sense to the verb.

話勿理 {w}o‘ veh ’lí, {not attend to what is said}.
喊得理 ha{n}‘ tuh ’lí, {will come when called}.
合勿攏 {h}eh veh ’lóng, {cannot agree together}.
呌勿應 kiau‘ veh {y}ung‘, {not answer a call}.

Obs. i. In some instances, the sense of the auxiliaries varies from that assigned to them here; e.g. 看勿起 kön‘ veh ’k’i, {to despise}; 買勿動 ’má veh ’dóng, {not succeed in buying}; 相信勿過 siáng sing‘ veh kú‘, {incredible}; 意勿過 í‘ veh kú‘, {cannot but pity}; 罷勿得 {p}á‘ veh tuh, {indispensable}.

Obs. ii. 有 ’{y}eu, {have} and 嘸 {m}, {not to have}, form with {tuh} a few groups; e.g. 有得吃 ’{y}eu tuh k’iuh, {have something to eat}; 嘸得着 {m} tuh tsáh, {have nothing to wear}.

Obs. iii. Examples are rare in the case of 見, 脱, 動, 應 and 理, The rest are all extensively used.

229. Prepositions similarly employed in these negative and affirmative groups are rare. Those that are used may also be construed as verbs.

{a}. 前 zíe{n} {before}.

殺勿前 sah veh zíe{n}, {does not go forward fighting}.

{b}. 上 ’zong, {forward}.

踛勿上 lóh veh ’zong, {cannot be climbed}.
鎖勿上 ’sú veh ’zong, {(key) cannot be turned (cannot lock.)}
門關勿上 mun kwa{n} veh ’zong, {door will not shut}.

{c}. 下 ’{a}u, {down}.

踛勿下 lóh veh ’{a}u, {cannot climb down}.
吃勿下 k’iuh veh ’{a}u, {cannot swallow}.

230. Several adjectives are found in these combinations; e.g. 全, 直, 多, 好, 滿, 完, 全, 通, 明 白, etc.

讀勿全 {t}óh veh dzíe{n}, {cannot be read through}.
伸勿直 sun veh dzuh, {cannot stretch out straight}.
差勿多 t’só veh tú, {differs little}.
話得好 {w}ó‘ tuh ’hau, {well spoken}.
補得滿 ’pú tuh ’mé{n}, {can be filled up}.
走勿通 ’tseu veh t’óng, {no thoroughfare}.
話勿明白 {w}ó‘ veh ming báh, {cannot be made to understand}.

Obs. In the third and fourth examples, and others like them such as 跑得快 pau‘ tuk k’wá‘, the proposition is not one of possibility, {he can walk fast}, but of fact, {he walks fast}.

{Repetition and Antithesis}. 231. These occur extensively among the verbs. The meaning of the word repeated remains unaffected.

{а}. Many single intransitive verbs, or verbs used intransitively are repeated.

坐坐 ’zú zú‘, {sit down}. 看看 k’ö{n}‘ k’ö{n}‘, {look}.

{b}. Transitive verbs are repeated before the word they govern.

寫寫字 ’siá ’sia zz‘, {write}.
種種田 tsóng‘ tsóng‘ díe{n}, {work in the fields}.
候候儂 {h}eu‘ {h}eu‘ nóng‘, {I come to see you}.

{c}. k’ö{n}‘, {see}, occurs after a repeated verb, in a metaphorical sense.

睃睃看 sú sú k’ö{n}‘, {see what it is}.
聽聽看 t’ing t’ing k’ö{n}‘, {listen to it and see}.
試試看 sz‘ sz‘ k’ö{n}‘, {try it and see}.
做做看 tsú‘ tsú‘ k’ö{n}‘, {make it as a trial}.

Obs. K’ö{n}‘ also follows other groups, as 念起來看 nia{n}‘ ’k’í lé k’ö{n}‘, {read and let me hear}.

{d}. The components of dissyllabic verbs are often repeated.

談談說說 {t}a{n} da{n} söh söh, {conversing}.
啼啼哭哭 {t}í dí k’óh k’óh, {weeping}.
來來去去 lé lé k’í‘ k’í‘, {coming and going}.

{e}. Some dissyllabic verbs repeat themselves, not their component parts.

攀談攀談 p’a{n} da{n} p’a{n} da{n}, {talking}.
恭喜恭喜 kúng ’h’í, kúng ’h’í, {I congratulate you}.

{f}. When a dissyllabic from consists of a verb and its subject, a group of four is formed by repeating the former, and supplying the place of the latter by a synonymous or contrasted word.

嘸邊嘸岸 {m} píe{n} {m} ngö{n}‘, {not having a shore}.
動手動脚 ’{t}óng ’seu ’dóng kiáh, {move hands and feet}.
有憑有據 ’{y}eu bing {y}eu kü‘, {there is evidence}.

{g}. Sometimes both the verb and its object are varied by synonymous or contrasted words.

求天拜地 {k}ieu t’íe{n} pá‘ dí‘, {pray to heaven and worship earth}.
幷心竭力 {p}ing‘ sing gih lih (or liuh), {employ one’s whole mind and
strength}.

{h}. Some verbs are repeated with a pair of antithetical verbs in alteration.

跑来跑去 ’{p}au lé ’{p}au k’í‘, {walking about}.
搖進搖出 {y}au {t}sing‘ {y}au t’seh, {row in and out}.

232. The verb is repeated with the intervention of 個 kú‘, or of 一 ih to represent {a little} of the act in question.

走一走 ’tseu ih ’tseu, {walk a little}.
等一等 ’tung ih ’tung, {wait a little}.
待個待 {t}é‘ kú‘ dé‘, {wait}.
做個做 ’zú kú‘ ’zú, {sit down}.

Obs. Sometimes auxiliary substantives supply the place of the repeated verb; e.g. 加一倍 ká ih bé‘, {make it as large again}. Other auxiliaries are 次, 燙, 囘, t’sz‘, t’ong‘, {w}e‘, applied to any verb in the sense of {times}. For going round in a circle 轉 ’tsé{n} with the numeral expresses the number of times. For beating 記 kí‘ expresses the number of blows. See Art. 163.

(2.) {Different kinds of verbs}.

{Substantive verb}. 233. The verb {to be} used as a copula is often omitted.

我你讀書個 ’ngú ’ní {t}ók sû kú‘, {we are persons of education}.
第個人長 {t}í kú‘ niun dzáng, {this man is tall}.
今朝最冷 kiun tsau tsûe‘ ’láng, {to-day it is very cold}.

234. The words 是[1] ’zz and 做 tsú‘ are employed as substantive verbs, and 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí when existence in place is spoken of. They are put in the negative by prefixing 勿 yeh.

是儂個否 ’zz nóng‘ kú‘ ’vá, {is it yours?}
是個勿是個 ’zz ku‘, veh ’zz ku‘, {it is; it is not}.
我做裁縫 ’ngú tsú‘ dzé vóng, {I am a tailor}.
做兒子要孝 tsú‘ ní ’tsz yau‘ h’iau‘, {he who is a son should be filial}.
勿勒拉此地 veh leh ’la ’t’sz di‘, {he is not here}.

Obs. i. The verb 呌 kiau‘, {to call} is sometimes so used that is may be translated as a substantive verb; e.g. í {y}áng‘ ’{t}au ’lí veh kiau‘ ’hau, 伊樣道理勿呌好 {that mode of action is not good}, or {is not what may be called good}.

Obs. ii. The words 當, 爲, and 作 are used in fixed phrases, from which they cannot be disengaged. 自家作主 zz‘ ká tsok ’tsû, {be your own master}; 改惡爲善 ’ké oh {w}é ’zé{n}, {repent and be virtuous}; 强盜作反 {k}iáng dau‘ tsok ’fa{n}, {the robbers are rebelling}; 當兵 tong ping, {to be a soldier}.

Obs. iii. 做 is also used as a transitive verb {make} or {do}, which is its primary meaning.

Obs. iv. 有 {to have} when no object follows affirms existence and is to be translated by the impersonal substantive verb in English; e.g. 魚有否 {ng} ’{y}eu ’vá, {are there any fish?} 豈有此理 ’k’í ’{y}eu ’t’sz ’lí, {how can this be?} ({It snows now}, is 落雪者 lok sih ’tsé.) Its negative is 嘸 {m} or 嘸沒 {m} meh.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. The substantive verb either simply affirms 是 ’zz or it
affirms action 做 tsú‘ or it affirms existence in {place} 在
’zé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, or it affirms {existence} 有 ’{y}eu.
-----------------------------------------------------------------

235. Transitive verbs take the object after them, while the nominative precedes.

官府刻薄百姓 kwé{n} ’fú k’uh bóh pák sing‘, {the mandarins exact from
the people}.
兵搶物事 ping ’t’siáng meh zz‘, {the soldiers commit robberies}.

236. When there are two objects as in verbs of {giving}, the nearer comes next to the verb, and the more remote stands last, usually with 拉 ’lá.

送禮物拉儂 sóng‘ ’lí veh ’lá nóng‘, {present you with gifts}.
撥飯拉儂吃 peh va{n}‘ ’lá nóng‘ k’iuh, {give you rice}.

Obs. This is the same as Remusat’s rule, “Dans les verbes à double rapport’ le complément direct se place après le verbe, et est suivi du complément indirect” 天子能薦人於天 t’íe{n} ’tsz nung tsíe{n}‘ zun ü t’íe{n}, {the emperor can propose a person to Heaven}; the order is not however confined to this one form; e.g. 送拉儂個物事 sóng‘ ’lá nóng‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, {I bring you a present}, is the same as, sóng‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng‘; 送儂兩個物事 sóng‘ nóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ {I bring you a few things}, is just as proper as sóng‘ ’liáng kú‘ meh zz‘ ’lá nóng.

237. The object is made to precede the transitive verb, by the use of the auxiliary 担 ta{n}, which is also the sign of the instrument.

担蠟燭火吹隱 ta{n} lah tsóh ’hú t’sz ’yun, {blow out the candle}.
担竹爿來打 ta{n} tsók {p}a{n} lé ’táng, {strike with a bamboo}.
担門關子 ta{n} mun kwa{n} tsz, {shut the door}.

238. Intransitive verbs when not followed by a preposition or another verb, prefer the last place.

此地坐 ’t’sz dí‘ ’zú, {sit here}.
第頭跑 {t}í‘ deu pau‘, {walk here}.
幾時來 ’kí zz lé, {when did you come}.
我船上來 ’ngú zé{n} long‘ lé, {I come from the boat}.

Obs. When a preposition is employed to connect an intransitive verb with a substantive, the verb may precede or follow; e.g. 到此地來 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé, {come here} is equivalent to lé tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘. So also 坐拉第搭, ’zú ’lá {t}í‘ tah, {sit here}, is the same as ’lá {t}í‘ tah ’zú.

239. The passive is formed by prefixing the auxiliary verb 撥 peh, {give}, with the substantive that represents the agent, to the transitive verb.

撥別人打 peh bih niun ’táng, {was beaten by others}.
撥伊做唆我 peh í tsú sú ’ngú, {I was deceived by him}.

Obs. i. This auxiliary particle 撥 peh, {give}, has in all four uses:— Active, 撥三兩個銅錢拉伊 peh sa{n} ’liang kú‘ {t}óng die{n} ’lá í, {give him two or three cash}. Passive, 撥拉父母責備 peh ’lá ’vú ’mú tsah bé‘, {he was rebuked by his parents}. 我個帽子撥拉人偷之去者 ’ngú kú‘ mau‘ ’tsz peh ’lá niun t’eu tsz k’í‘ ’tsé, {my hat has been stolen by some one}. Causative, 撥拉伊死 peh ’lá í ’sí, {cause him to die}; 伊撥拉我喫虧者 í peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh k’ü (k’wé) ’tsé, {he has caused me to suffer}. (M. 使 shï‘ 呌 kiau‘, chiau‘.) Permissive, 啥人肯撥拉別人欺負呢 sá‘ niun ’k’ung peh ’lá bih niun c‘hi vú‘ ni? {who is willing to allow others to insult him?} 勿要撥拉別人哄騙儂 veh yau‘ peh ’lá bih niun hóng‘ p‘ien‘ nóng‘, {do not allow others to deceive you}.

Obs. ii. In mandarin it is not the common word to {give}, that is chosen for the passive auxiliary, but a word set apart for this purpose 被 pei‘.

Obs. iii. ’Zeu 受 {to receive}, is often used as a passive, e.g. 勿肯受 別人罵 veh ’k’ung ’zeu bih niun mó‘, {unwilling to be spoken ill of by others}. K’iuh 吃 is found in combination as in the next examples. When separated from the groups where it is the sign of the passive, it recovers its transitive sense {to eat}.

240. Verbs are made causative By prefixing kau‘, {to call}, or peh, {to give}.

呌我吃虧 kau‘ ’ngú k’iuh k’ü, {causing me to suffer loss}.
勿要呌吾白送脫 veh yau‘ kaú ngú báh sóng‘ t’eh, {do not cause me to give
it away} (or {say it}) {in vain}.
呌水勿要滾 kiau‘ ’sz veh yau‘ ’kwun, {prevent the water from boiling}.
撥拉我吃官司 peh ’lá ’ngú k’iuh kwé{n} sz, {causing me to be the subject
of a lawsuit}.

Obs. i The English auxiliary verb {must} is expressed by ’tsóng, as in 總要牢實’tsóng yau‘ lau zeh, {you must be upright}.

Obs. ii. The derivative verbs which have been already illustrated are the following:— Inchoative, 提起筆來 {t}i ’k’í pih lé, {take up the pen}; Reflexive, 自怨自 zz‘ yö{n}‘ zz‘, {be one’s own enemy}; Collective, 合攏來 {h}eh ’lóng lé, {combine together}; Separative, 折開 來 t’sák k’é lé, {pull open}; Completing, 造完 ’zau wé{n}, {finish building}; Resisting, 擋住 tong dzû‘, {stand against}; Destroying, 丢脫 tieu t’eh, {throw away}. There are also forms for the various directions indicated by prepositions, v. Art. 223.

(3.) {Modes of verbs}.

241. In very many cases the mood is determined entirely from the sense, and has no particular sign.

我去買 ’ngú k’í‘ ’má, {I will go and buy}. (Indicative.)
是儂去還便當 ’zz nóng‘ k’í‘ wa{n} bíe{n}‘ tong‘, {if you should go, it
would be more convenient}. (Subjunctive.)
儂去買 nóng‘ k’í‘ má, {do you go and buy}. (Imperative.)
買是容易 ’má ’zz yúng {í}‘, {to buy is easy}. (Infinitive).

Obs. Here the four principal moods of Latin grammar are exemplified without any distinctive sign.

242. The particle 者 ’tsé and 末 meh, at the end of the clause often mark {indicative} and {conditional} prepositions respectively.

現在落雨末年世好者 {h}íe{n}‘ ’dzé loh ’{ü} meh, níe{n} sz‘ ’hau ’tsé,
{should it now rain, it will be a good year}.
年紀大末勿要者 níe{n} ’kí dú‘ meh veh yau‘ ’tsé, {if old, they are not
wanted}.

Obs. i. The conditional clause always precedes.

Obs. ii. These particles may in many cases be omitted without affecting the sense. 勿落雨百姓要苦惱 veh loh ’{u} pák sing‘ yau‘ ’k’ú ’nau, {if it does not rain, the people must suffer}.

Obs. iii. In any two connected clauses, whether the former be conditional or not, these particles are frequently used; e.g. k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘ tsz ’t’au va{n}‘ kú‘ meh, dzieu‘ ’táng ’k’í lé ’tsé. 看見之討飯 個末就打起來者 {when he saw the beggars, he began beating them}. Both these clauses are in the past time.

Obs. iv. An indicative clause standing alone often takes 者 ’tsé. Thus 來者 lé ’tsé, {I am come}, or {I come}; 去者 k’i‘ ’tsé, {I go}.

243. Another particle found in conditional sentences, is 之 tsz, appended to the verb. This marks the past participle of the verb.

吾吃之飯就來者 ngú k’iuh tsz va{n}‘ dzieu‘ lé ’tsé, {having dined I came
at once}.

244. A {potential} mood is formed by many of the groups already illustrated. Both kinds of ability, absolute or natural, and limited or moral, are found in them. For examples of the former kind:—

寫勿來 ’siá veh lé, {I cannot write}.
講究得來 ’kong kieu‘ tuh lé, {I can discuss it}.
彎勿轉 wa{n} veh ’tsé{n}, {cannot turn round}.

Obs. 會 {w}é‘, prefixed to verbs makes them potential 念勿來 nia{n}‘ veh lé, {I cannot read}, is equivalent to veh {w}é‘ nia{n}‘.

245. The limited potential mood is formed by 起’k’í, e.g.

當勿起 tong veh ’k’í, {I do not deserve to receive it}.
牽勿起 k’íe{n} veh ’k’í, {not able to pull}.
磨勿起 mú veh ’k’í, {will not bear rubbing}.
吃勿起 k’iuh veh ’k’í, {cannot afford to eat it}.
打勿起 ’táng veh ’k’í, {cannot bear beating}.
手硬勿起 ’seu ngáng‘ veh ’k’í, {could not use my hand roughly}.

246. A {permissive} and {prohibitive} mood is formed by, —

{a}. 得 tuh.

看得 k’ö{n}‘ tuh, {you may look at}.
看勿得 k’ö{n}‘ veh tuh, {you may not look}.

{b}. 好 ’hau, and 可以 ’k’ó ’í, also give a permissive sense.

好進去杏 ’hau tsing‘ k’i‘ ’vá, {may I enter?}
勿好出去 veh ’hau t’seh k’i‘, {you must not go out}.
可以吃得 ’k’ó ’í k’iuk tuh, {you may eat it}.

247. An {optative} mode of the verb is formed by pó veh tuh, and {h}ng‘ veh tuh. (恨 {h}ng‘, west of Shánghái {h}ung‘).

我巴勿得快點到 ’ngú pó veh tuh k’wa‘ ’tíe{n} tau‘, {would that I could
arrive quickly}.
恨勿得做好 {h}ng‘ veh tuh tsú‘ ’hau, {I wish I could do it}.

248. The {imperative} (1) in its negative form takes 要 yau‘, {want}, with the common negative particle 勿 veh.

勿要閙 veh yau‘ nau‘, {do not be noisy}.

(2.) The affirmative form of the {imperative} is expressed by the verb alone, or by 末者 meh ’tsé, or 罷 {p}á‘ appended sometimes to a few verbs.

走末者 ’tseu meh ’tsé, {go}. 去罷 k’í bá‘, {go}.

Obs. All the verbs single and grouped, except those with the affirmative and negative, may be used as imperatives without a particle. 走過來 ’tseu kú‘ lé, means either {I am passing you} or {pass over to me}.

249. the {Infinitive} it may be remarked, (1.) that it stands first in many negative groups not potential. v. Art. 228. g.

念勿停 nia{n}‘ veh ding, {does not cease io recite}.
吵閙勿停 t’sau nau‘ veh ding, {does not cease to be noisy}.

(2) That when a verb is made the subject of a proposition, while the predicate follows with a copula, the verb is translated in the infinitive, e.g.

去是容易 k’í‘ ’zz yóng í‘, {it is easy to go}.

250. When a verb takes a case particle, it is construed as a present participle or gerund.

物事勒拉來 meh zz‘ leh ’lá lé, {the things are coming}.
吃飯個辰光 k’iuh va{n}‘ kú‘ zun kwong, {time for dining}.
我拉寫字 ’ngú ’lá ’siá zz‘, {I am writing}.
吃個物事 k’iuh kú‘ meh zz‘, {things to eat}

Obs. The supine {in order to} has no sign, 買點啥去者, ’má ’tíe{n} sá‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, {he is gone (in order) to buy something}; 我來望望㑚 ’ngú lé mong‘ mong‘ ná‘, {I come to see you}. v. 252. f.

251. The forms of interrogation are of two kinds.

1. By the interrogative particles ma{n}‘ and ’vá.

飯好曼 va{n}‘ ’hau ma{n}‘, {is dinner ready?}
去否 k’í‘ ’vá, {will you go?}

2. By putting the question in the form of an affirmative and negative, side by side. The particle ní is often placed between.

肯去勿肯去 ’k’ung k’í‘ veh ’k’ung k’í‘, {will you or not?}
曉得勿曉得 ’h’iau tuh veh ’h’iau tuh, {do you know?}
買呢勿買 ’má ní veh ’má, {will you buy?}

Obs. After ní, the second clause is sometimes supplied by sa‘; e.g.

要打呢啥 yau ’táng ní sá, {do you want to fight, or what is it you want
to do?}

(4) {Particles of time, forming tenses of verbs}.

252. For the expression of present time, no auxiliary word is necessary.

我勿做啥 ’ngú veh tsú‘ sá‘, {I am doing nothing}.
來呢勿來 lé ní veh lé, {is he coming or not?}
懂勿懂 ’tóng veh ’tóng, {do you understand or not?}
怕冷否 p’ó‘ ’láng ’vá, {do you fear cold?}
勿能勿怕冷 veh nung veh p’o‘ ’lang; {I cannot but fear cold}.

Obs. Instead of considering the rest of the tenses in their order, it will be better to take the particles in succession, and show what tenses they may be used for.

{a}. 歇 h’ih, {a moment}; this particle gives a past sense to the phrases in which it occurs, and is perhaps most accurately designated an {aorist}.

看歇戲否 k’ö{n}‘ h’ih h’í‘ ’vá, {have you seen the play?}
去歇兩囘 k’í‘ h’ih ’liáng {w}é‘, {I have gone twice}.

{b}. 者 ’tsé, 哩 ’lí; these particles express that the action is completed, or determined on. M. 了 ’liaú. Their English grammatical equivalent is usually the passive participle joined with the auxiliary verb {to be}.

買好拉者 ’má ’hau ’lá ’tsé, {they are bought}.
賣脱者 má‘ t’eh ’tsé, {it is sold}.
我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, {I am going}.

{c}. 過 kú‘, {past}; this particle has the sense of the preterite tense.

到過兩囘 tau‘ kú‘ ’liáng {w}é‘, {I have gone twice}.
花種過多少 hwó tsóng‘ kú‘ tú ’sau, {how many flowers have you planted?}
路跑過幾化里 lú‘ pau‘ kú‘ ’ki hó‘ ’li, {how many miles of road have we
walked?}

Obs. 有 ’{y}eu and 可 ’k’ó, employed in some dialects as signs of the past, are never so used in this.

{d}. 歇者 h’ih ’tsé or h’ih ’lá ’tsé, express perfect time.

認得過歇者 niung‘ tuh kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, {have known him}.
忒伊話歇者 t’eh í {w}ó‘ h’ih ’tsé, {have told him}.
鐘敲歇拉者 tsóng k’au h’ih ’lá ’tsé, {bell has rung}.
托撥歇者 t’ok peh h’ih ’tsé, {have entrusted to him}.

{e}. 過歇 kú‘ h’ih, form a perfect farther in the past than the above.

來過歇者 lé kú‘ h’ih ’tsé, {I have come formerly}.
勿曾去過歇 veh zung k’i‘ kú‘ h’ih, {I have yet gone}.
學過歇拉者 {h}ok kú‘ h’ih ’lá ’tsé, {I have learnt it before}.

{f}. 要 yau‘ expresses future time; sometimes {tsiáng} precedes. 要 may often be translated {in order to} (supine).

要落雨者 yau‘ loh ’{ü} ’tsé, {it will rain}.
明朝要去 ming tsau yau‘ k’í‘, {I will go to-morrow}.

{g}. 將 tsiáng, is frequently used for the future.

將有閙事 tsiáng ’yeu nau‘ zz‘, {there will be a disturbance}.

Obs. These particles give the affirmative future. The form for the negative is different as is shown below.

{h}. 之 tsz; this particle appended to a verb, gives it the time of a past participle. English auxiliary participle {having}.

看之書末曉得者 k’ö{n}‘ tsz sû meh, ’h’iau tuh ’tsé, {when you have read it,
you will know}.
懂之末好講 ’tóng tsz meh ’hau ’kong, {when you understand it, you can
explain it}.
做之兵咾打帳去者 tsu‘ tsz ping lau ’táng tsáng‘ k’í‘ ’tsé, {having
become a soldier, he has gone to fight}.

Obs. As a relative tense particle, this word may be used in past or future time. In the former case, it is the sign of the narrative participle; e.g. 看見之山高咾走上去者 k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘ tsz sa{n} kau lau, ’tseu ’zong k’í‘ ’tsé, {seeing the hill was high, he went up}. In the latter case it forms a future perfect, such as is introduced in English with “when,” 寫好之撥拉我看 ’sia ’hau tsz peh ’lá ’ngú k’ö{n}‘, {when you have written it, let me see it}. The conditional particle 末 meh, is frequently introduced at the end of the first clause.

{i}. 曾 zung; as 之 tsz expresses the past in affirmative sentences, so zung in those that are negative.

勿曾看歇 veh zung k’ö{n}‘ h’ih, {I have not seen it}.
勿曾來 veh zung lé, {he has not come}.

Obs. In a negative reply to a question, this particle is introduced, when in English the present tense is employed; 勿曾去 veh zung k’í‘, {he is not gone}.

253. Adverbs of time often render these particles unnecessary.

昨日去個 zoh (g) nyih k’í‘ kú‘, {he went yesterday}.
我後日去 ’ngú ’{h}eu nyih k’í‘, {I shall go on the day after
to-morrow}.

254. The particles for future time are not used in the negative form.

我勿去, ’ngú veh k’í‘, {I shall not go}.

Obs. i. If yau‘ 要 is employed in a negative sentence whose time is future, it is in the sense of {wish} or {must}; e.g. 我勿要去 ’ngú veh yau‘ k’í‘, {I do not wish to go}. 將 tsiáng, when it occurs, must stand first, so that when 勿 veh introduces the sentence, it cannot form a part of it.

Obs. ii. 勿見得 veh kíe{n}‘ tuh, {it is not likely}, is very commonly employed as a negative future; e.g. 勿見得落雨 veh kíe{n}‘ tuh loh ’{u}, {it is not likely to rain}, or {it will not rain}.

255. Examples of some verbs that require illustration are here appended.

{а}. 當 tong in combination {ought}, {receive}: tong‘ {regard as, to pawn}. N. B. The tone differs in the last two senses.

當之年撥草伊吃 tong‘ tsz nieu peh ’t’sau í k’iuh, {regard him as a
buffalo, and feed him on grass}.
輕個當之重個 k’iung kú‘ tong‘ tsz ’dzóng kú‘, {what is light regard as
heavy}.
該當個 ké tong kú‘, {ought}.
勿敢當 veh ’ké{n} tong, {not dare receive it}.
當衣裳去 tong‘ í zong k’í’, {am going to pawn clothes}.

{b}. 打 ’táng, {beat, set in operation}.

打官司 ’táng kwé{n} sz, {go to law}.
打官話 ’táng kwé{n} {w}ó‘, {speak mandarin}.
打秋風 ’táng t’sieu fóng, {make presents in hope of gain}.

{c}. 待 {t}é‘, {to treat, wait}.

待慢 {t}é‘ ma{n}‘, {treat contemptuously}.
待人接物 {t}é‘ niun tsih veh, {treat persons respectfully}.
待我來 {t}é‘ ’ngú lé, {wait till I come}.

{d}. 銷 siau, {consume, melt}.

開銷 k’é siau, {to expend}.
銷烊 siau {y}áng, {to melt}.

{e}. 對 té‘ (d) {correspond, opposite}.

總勿對境 ’tsóng veh té‘ ’kiung, {nothing pleases him}.
更加勿對 kung‘ ká veh té‘, {still more wrong}.
對面看起來 té‘ míe{n}‘ k’ö{n}‘ ’k’í lé, {on the other hand you see}.

{f}. 弄 lóng‘, {meddle with, play with}.

弄壞 lóng‘ {w}á‘, {spoil}.
作弄 tsoh lóng‘, {deceive}.
弄假成眞 lóng‘ ’ká zung tsun, {make-believe becomes truth at last}.
弄孛相 lóng‘ beh siáng‘, {amuse one’s-self with}.

{g}. 費 fí‘, {to expend}.

費用 fí‘ yúng‘, {expenses}.
費神 fí‘ zun, 費心 fí‘ sing, {may I trouble you}.

{h}. 是 ’zz, {it is, it is right, right}.

是非 ’zz fí, {right and wrong}.
是得極 ’zz tuh giuh, {very right}.
嘸啥勿是 {m} sá veh ’zz, {not at all untrue}.

{i}. 話 {w}ó‘, {say} (M. ’kiáng, or shwóh), in combination, {words}.

話勿轉 {w}ó‘ veh ’tse{n}, {will not listen to words, or he keeps his
words}.
話定當 {w}ó‘ ding‘ tong‘, {said decisively}.
啥話頭 sá‘ {w}ó‘ deu, {why use such words?}

{k}. 可 ’k’ó, {can, may}.

可恨 ’k’ó {h}ng‘, {a thing to be hated, hateful}.
實在可愛 {s}eh zé‘ ’k’ó é‘, {truly to be loved, (truly loveable.)}

Obs. These forms with ’k’ó, might also, if construed as dissyllables, be placed among the adjectives, as derivatives from verbs.

{l}. 倒 ’tau, {to overturn}.

推倒 t’é ’tau, {to turn over}.
推倒傅來 tíe{n} ’tau tsé{n} lé, {place upside down}.
倒勿是 ’tau veh ’zz, {and yet it is not}.

{m}. 生 sáng, {produce, be by nature, be born}.

耳𦖋生得好 ’ní ’tú sáng tuh ’hau, {has handsome ears}.
生來好看 sáng lé ’hau k’ö{n}‘, {naturally handsome}.
未生之前 ví‘ sung tsz zíe{n}, {before birth}.
生出果子來 sáng t’seh ’ku ’tsz lé, {bear fruit}.

{Section} 8. {Prepositions and Postpositions}.

256. The words that express the relations (cases) of nouns to one another are placed, some of them before and some after the governed substantive. The case particles that are used for the dative and ablative are prepositions, as also those that express {motion towards} and {substitution}.

打 ’tang, {from, by}. 對 té‘, {to, towards}.
從 zóng, {from}. 到 tau‘, {to arrive at}.
拉 ’lá (M. 於), {to}. 替 t’i‘, {to, with, instead of}.
搭 tah, {with}. 忒 t’eh, {to, for, with}.
同 {t}óng, {with}. 代 {t}e‘, {instead of}.
聯 líe{n}, {ib}. 由 {y}eu, {by}.

Obs. i. 勒拉 leh lá, a locative particle also precedes its noun. 在 zé‘, its M. equivalent is in our dialect only used in fixed collocations, as 實在 zeh zé‘, {certain}.

Obs. ii. 自 zz‘ is an inseparable preposition used in combination with zóng, {from}. 當 a locative preposition, preceding its noun, is also only found in fixed groups; e.g. 當初 tong t’sú, {formerly}.

Obs. iii. Several of these words are also used as verbs with a cognate sense, viz. 徒, 到, 對, 而, {to follow, to arrive at, to correspond, to take origin from}.

Obs. iv. 爲 {w}é‘, {on account of}, is found with the particles 之 tsz, or 着 záh; 搭 tah also very frequently takes 之 tsz.

Obs. v. 連 líe{n}, {together with}, is also used as a verb to {connect}. It frequently takes 搭 tah, after it; e.g. 連搭一家屋裏人 líe{n} tah ih ká óh ’lí niun, {together with all his family}.

257. The particles that are used for the locative case are postpositions.

裏 ’lí, {inside}. 前 zíe{n}, {before}.
外 ngá‘, {outside}. 後 ’{h}eu, {behind}.
上 long‘, {above}, R. ’zong. 下 ’{hau}, {below}.

Obs. i. 裏 ’lí, forms the compound 裏向 ’lí h’iáng, M. 中 chóng; 以 ’í, combines with 外 ngá‘, 前 zíe{n} and 後 ’heu, in the sense of {beside}, {before} and {after}, or {since}; e.g. 今朝以後 kiun tsau ’í ’{h}eu, {after to-day}. Numerous compounds of these words, which will be found among the adverbs, are also often used as prepositions. See