Chapter XI: Section 9

Obs. ii. The mandarin 中 chóng, {inside}, is found in some compounds; e.g. 空中 k’óng tsóng, {in the air}.

258. Forms borrowed from other parts of speech, compensate for the absence of several prepositions.

1. {Of}, the particle of the genitive case is compensated for either by juxtaposition, or by the particle 個 kú‘.

中國規矩 Tsúng kóh kwé ’kü, {custom of China}.
別人個事體 {p}ih niun kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {what concerns others}.

2. {With}, (instrumental) by, are expressed by 担 ta{n}, and peh ’la or peh.

担篙子撐 ta{n} kau ’tsz t’sáng, {pole the boat with the bamboo}.

3. {Except} is expressed by the verb 除脫 dzû t’eh, usually with 以外 ’í ngá‘, or 外頭 ngá‘ deu, ending the clause.

除脫之儂個外頭就是我 dzû t’eh tsz nóng‘ kú‘ ngá‘ deu, dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú,
{excepting you, there is only myself}.

4. {Beside} is expressed by, 勿算 veh sö{n}‘, at the end of the clause.

小末勿算共總有一百 ’siau meh veh sö{n}‘, {k}óng‘ ’tsóng ’{y}eu ih páh,
{without counting the small, there are 100 in all}.

5. {Beyond} takes 過去 kú‘ k’í‘, or 外頭 ngá deu.

廣東過去 ’Kwong tóng kú‘ k’i‘, {beyond Canton}.

6. {Through} or {pass by} is expressed by kiung kú‘ or kú‘ alone.

路上經過去杭州 lú‘ long‘ kiung kú‘ {H}ong-tseu, {go through Háng-cheú on
the way}.

7. {Towards} is expressed by the verbs 朝, 望, 對 zau, mong‘, té‘.

朝西轉灣朝南 zau sí ’tsé{n} wa{n} zau né{n}, {go to the west, and turn
to the south}.
朝第邊走 zau dí‘ píe{n} ’tseu, {go this way}.
望之第邊走 mong‘ tsz dí‘ píe{n} ’tseu, {ib}.
對故塊走 té‘ kú‘ k’wé‘ ’tseu, {go that way}.

Obs. Some of these prepositions in English, are easily reduced to verbs and substantives. The author of the Diversion of purley would readily find an etymology for them all. In common English grammars, such words as {regarding} and {respecting}, are set down among the prepositions, without a word to tell the juvenile student, how it is that prepositions come to be formed by the termination {ing}.

{Section} 9. {On Adverbs}.

{Quality}. 259. Adverbs of manner are formed by affixing zé{n}, {h}ú, nung and ’lí, to repeated adjectives.

隱隱然 ’yung ’yung zé{n}, {not clearly}.
興興然 h’iung h’iung zé{n}, prosperously.
約約乎 yáh yáh {h}ú, {indistinctly}.
幾幾乎 ’kí ’kí {h}ú, {very near}.
稀稀能 h’í h’í nung, {seldom met with}.
險險能 ’h’ie{n} ’h’ie{n} nung, {dangerously}.
快快裏 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ ’lí, {quickly}.

Obs. i. Zé{n} and {h}ú, are found in book phrases transferred to the dialect. Expressions formed with nung and ’lí, are pure colloquial, and are very numerous.

Obs. ii. Kiau‘ is used in one instance 慢慢敎 ma{n}‘ ma{n}‘ kiau‘, {slowly}.

Obs. iii. Long adjective groups are more frequently used as adverbs than as adjectives. They do not take the formative particles zé{n}, nung etc. 走路一門心思 ’tseu lú‘ ih mun sing sz, {he walks eagerly}.

260. The numerals 一 ih, 兩 ’liáng, combine with certain words, principally adjectives, to form adverbs.

一直 ih dzuh, {straight}.
一連 ih líe{n}, {joined together}.
一氣 ih k’í‘, {together}.
兩氣 ’liáng k’í‘, {separate}.
一樣 ih {y}áng‘, {the same}.
兩樣 ’liáng {y}áng‘, {different}.
一向 ih h’iáng‘, {hitherto}.
一齊 ih dzí, {together}.
一切 ih t’sih, {the whole}.
一淘 ih dau, {ib}.
一般 ih pé{n}, {the same}.

Obs. These may be shown by examples to be adverbs. 放拉兩起個 fong‘ ’lá ’liáng k’í‘ kú‘, {place them apart}; 當伊父母一般 tong‘ í ’vú ’mú ih pé{n}, {treats him in the same way that he does his parents}.

261. Repeated adjectives standing before verbs, are used as adverbs.

早早來 ’tsau ’tsau lé, {come early}.
慢慢走 ma{n}‘ ma{n}‘ ’tseu, {walk slowly}.

Obs. Sometimes the adjective is not repeated, as in 慢去 ma{n}‘ k’í‘, {be slow to go, good bye}, In 走好 ’tseu ’hau, {walk carefully}, the adverb follows the verb as in English.

262. Repeated forms imitative of natural sounds are in frequent use.

丁冬了冬 ting tóng ting tóng, {sound of drum} (’kú).
鎟鋃鎟鋃 song long song long, {ib. horse bells} (ling).
帖塌帖塌 t’ih t’ah t’ih t’ah, {sound of shoes}.
結怪結怪 kih kwá kih kwá, {calling of crows}.
刮臘刮臘 kwah lah kwah lah, {wind blowing on reeds}.
兵兵浜浜 ping ping páng páng, {noise of beating ice}.
以列以列 ’í lih ’í lih, {braying of asses}.
以挨以挨 ’í á ’í á, {creaking of doors}.
胡盧胡盧 {ú} lú {ú} lú, {sound of piping}.
㷸爆㷸爆 pih póh pih póh, {sound of splitting bamboo as by fire}.

Obs. Words of this sort occur so frequently in conversation, that at the risk of their being thought too amusing for a serious book they are here noticed. The second and third tones scarcely occur in these onomatopœia. The forms used in other dialects differ from these.

263. Adverbs of manner applied to qualify actions, and not reducible to the heads already given are such as,—

白白裏 {p}áh báh ’lí, {in vain}; or, {p}áh alone, e.g. {p}áh sóng‘ t’éh.
特特裏 {t}uh duh ’lí, {on purpose}.
特意 {t}uh í‘, {intentionally}.
偷伴子 t’eu bé{n} ’tsz, {secretly}.
假佯頭 ’ká {y}áng deu, {falsely}.
倖喜 {y}ung‘ ’h’í, {luckily}.
造化 ’zau hó‘, 恰好 hah ’hau, {fortunately}.

264. There is a large number of primitive adverbs, applied to qualify adjectives.

{а}. 更 kung‘, 還 {w}a{n}, 又 {i}‘, 再 tse‘, signify {more}. They precede their word, and form the comparative degree, v. Art. 177.

{b}. 頂 ’ting, 最 tsûe‘, 極 {k}iuh, 蠻 ma{n}, 怪 kwá‘, 好 ’hau, 狠 ’hun, {very}. These words precede their word and form the superlative. v. Art 178.

{c}. 些 ’sí, 煞 sah, 極 {k}iuh, 野 ’yá, come after their word and form a superlative.

{d}. 忒 t’uh, gives to adjectives the sense of {too}; e.g. 忒大 t’uh dú‘, {too large}.

Obs. i. These words which in English qualify only adjectives, sometimes qualify verbs whether construed as participles or not. 頂愛拉 個 ’ting é‘ ’lá kú‘, {the most beloved}; 蠻會做 ma{n} {w}é‘ tsú‘, {extremely well able to do it}; 話煞 {w}ó‘ sah, {say decisively}; 極有文 理 {k}iuh ’{y}eu vun ’lí, {has very (great) literary beauty}; or {it has extreme beauty}.

Obs. ii. The mandarin intensitive particle 好 ’hau is found only in the phrase 好幾 ’hau ’kí, {very many}.

Obs. iii. It has been seen in illustrating the comparison of adjectives, that some verbs, single and grouped with the auxiliaries tuh and lé, (得, 來,) are applied to adjectives. In addition to the examples there given, may be noticed 熱勿過 nyih veh kú‘, {unbearably hot}.

{Correlative Adverbs}. 265. The questions how? how much? how many? why? when? and where? are formed by interrogative pronouns with the most general words for manner, place and time, and a mere particle for the rest.

那能 ná‘ nung, {how?} 幾時 ’kí zz, {when?}
幾許 ’kí hó‘, {how much?} {how many?} 那裏 ’{á} ’lí, {where?}
„ {how many?} 啥所 sá‘ sü, „
啥咾 sá‘ lau, {why?} Also 為啥 {w}é‘ sá‘, 有啥 ’{y}eu sá‘.

Obs. i. {How may parts in ten?} is 十分裏幾分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ’kí vun‘. The answer might be 十分裏有三分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ’{y}eu sa{n} vun‘, {three tenths}. Questions and replies may be framed in the same way with any numerals.

Obs. ii. For other examples, see section on pronouns, to which etymologically these words belong.

Obs. iii. {How much more used as a logical particle}, is expressed by 何况於 {h}ú hwong‘ ü.

266. The adverbs corresponding to these, {thus, however, whenever, wherever} are expressed in various ways.

什蓋能 {s}eh ké‘ nung, {thus}, {s}eh ké‘, {ib}.
隨便那能 zûe bíe{n}‘ ná‘ nung, {which ever way you please}.
勿論幾許 veh lun‘ ’kí hó‘, {however much}.
勿拘那裏 veh kü {á} ’lí, {wherever you please}.
要那能就那能 yau‘ ná‘ nung dzieu‘ ná‘ nung, {however you want it, it
shall be so}.
我那能做勿要問 ’ngú ná‘ nung tsú‘ veh yau‘ mun‘, {do not ask how I do
it}.

Obs. i. Other examples may be seen in the section on pronouns. The answers to {when? where? how many?} will be found among the adverbs of time, place and number. {Why?} is answered by any direct statement, with or without the conjunction 因爲 yung {w}é‘.

Obs. ii. Dzûe bíe{n}‘, veh lun‘, veh kü, are properly verb combinations. They mean {following your convenience, without regarding, not constraining}.

{Quantity}. 267. The forms for {about, enough, much, little, together}, etc. are such as follow:—

{a}. {About}, is expressed by pó, kwong ’kiung, after their word, and yáh, {t}eu, before.

約歸一百 yáh kwé ih páh, {about a hundred}.
約畧, 約摸 yáh liáh, yáh máh, both signify {about}.
約數幾許 yáh sú‘ ’kí ’hau, {about how many?}
里巴 ’lí pó, {about a le}.
尺巴 t’sák pó, {about a foot}.
步巴 {p}ú pó, {about a step}.
寸巴 t’sun‘ pó, {about an inch}.
桶巴 ’{t}óng pó, {a bucket-ful}.
本巴 ’pun pó, {about a volume}.
半夜巴 pé{n}‘ {y}á pó, {about midnight}.
半托巴 pé{n}‘ t’ok pó, {two arms length} (t’ok, {stretch out both arms}).
頭二百 {t}eu ní‘ páh, {about two hundred}.
約百錢 yák páh díe{n}, {about 100 cash}.
約有二十 yáh {y}eu ní‘ seh, {there are about 20}.
一千光景 ih t’síe{n} kwong ’kiung, {about 1000}.

Obs. A very common form is 差勿多 t’só veh tú, {not far wrong}, which is used in the same sense as the above words.

{b}. {Enough} and {not enough} are expressed by keu‘, veh tsóh, veh kû{n} zz‘, k’iöh ’sau and some verbs with the negative.

彀哩, 干事者 keu‘ ’lí, kû{n} zz‘ ’tsé, {enough}.
勿彀, 勿干事 veh keu‘, veh kû{n} zz‘, {not enough}.
有哩 ’{y}eu ’lí, {it is enough}.
勿足 veh tsóh, {not enough}.
勿到三十 veh tau‘ sa{n} seh, {not so many as 30}.
勿滿三十 veh ’mé{n} sa{n} seh, {ib}.
勿缺少個 veh k’iöh ’sau kú‘, {not insufficient}.
第個裏少一錢 {t}i‘ kú‘ ’lí ’sau ih die{n}, {this is deficient one cash}.
第籃桶子裡缺十隻 {t}i‘ la{n} kiöh ’tsz ’lí k’iöh seh tsáh, {this basket
of oranges in ten short}.

Obs. These words might be divided between adjectives and verbs, and no place reserved for them here, were it not that their equivalents in English and other languages are adverbs.

{c}. {Much, more, many} are all expressed by the adjective 多 tú. If tú precedes it is {more} (adv.): if it follows its word, it is {much} or {many} (adj.) Other words for {more} are 還 {w}a{n}, 越 yöh, and the verbs ká, t’íe{n}, ’tíe{n}, etc.

多撥點 tú peh ’tíe{n}, {give more}.
第袋米多二斤 {t}i‘ dé‘ ’mi tú ni‘ kiun, {this bag of rice is two catties
more} (or {over}).
人多個 niun tú kú‘, {the men are many}.
越加勿好 {y}öh ká veh ’hau, {much worse}.
加點, 添點 ká ’tíe{n}, t’íe{n} ’tíe{n}, {give more}.
一錢勿加 ih díe{n} veh ká, {I will not give one more cash}.
勿罷一百 veh bá‘ ih páh, {there are more than a hundred}.
也勿罷 ’{á} veh bá‘, {and more too}.
銅錢還要 {t}óng díe{n} {w}a{n} yau‘, {I want more cash}.

Obs. For examples of such forms as 好幾 ’hau ’kí, 多許 tú hau‘, {many}. See section on pronouns. The only words here adduced that can claim to be adverbs are 越 {still more}, 也 {too}, and {w}a{n} 還. {Too} is an adverb in English, but its equivalent 也 becomes by its position a conjunction, and {w}a{n} when it is not an adverb of time {still}, may often fairly be considered a conjunction.

{d}. {Less, few} are represented by 少 ’sau, standing before its word, and by such borrowed phrases as veh siau, {not necessary, less}: ’{y}eu {h}ie{n}‘ k’ú‘, {few, not much}.

兩日勿消 ’liáng nyih veh siau, {in less than 2 days}.
少吃點 ’sau k’iuh ’tíe{n}, {eat less}.
減脱點 ’ka{n} t’eh ’tíe{n}, {take less, subtract a little}.
勿能減少 veh nung ’ka{n} ’sau, {cannot take less}.
人有限個 niun ’{y}eu {h}íe{n}‘ kú‘, {of men there are few}.

{e}. {A little, any}, are used sometimes adverbially in English. Their representatives in our dialect are liák sü, ’sau {w}é, sü ’sau with the auxiliary substantive forms ih ’nga{n}, ’tíe{n}, etc.

畧須曉得 liák sü ’h’iau tuh, {know it a little}.
須為明白 sü {w}é ming báh, {understand it a little}.
須稍懂得 sü ’sau ’tóng tuh, {ib}.
些須加點 ’sí sü ká ’tíe{n}, {add a little}.
稍為要個 ’sau {w}é yau‘ kú‘, {I want it a little}.
稍為便宜點 ’sau {w}é bie{n}‘ ni ’tíe{n}, {a little cheaper}.
脚有一眼酸 kiáh ’{y}eu ih ’nga{n} sû{n}, {my feet are a little tired}.
有點怕個 ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} p’ó‘ kú‘, {he is a little afraid}.
一點點 ih ’tíe{n} ’tíe{n}, {a very little}.
有點𨅓跎 ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} sá dú, {I am a little tired}.
有點會飛 ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} {w}é‘ fí‘, {can fly a little}.

Obs. ’Tíe{n}, ih ’nga{n}, when they follow an adjective, while placing it in the comparative degree, preserve their own sense {a little}; e.g. 好一眼多謝 ’hau ih ’nga{n} tú zia‘, {a little better thank you}; 快點走 k’wá‘ ’tíe{n} ’tseu, {walk a little faster}.

{f}. {Not very, very much, too much} are expressed by the derivative adverb, veh da‘ ’lí, and the forms {s}eh ní‘ fun, kú‘ vun‘, t’uh kú‘ vun‘.

勿大哩要 veh da‘ ’lí yau‘, {he does not much want it}.
勿大哩多 veh da‘ ’lí tú, {not very many}.
十分要 {s}eh fun yau‘, {wants it very much}.
十二分好 {s}eh ní‘ fun ’hau, {very good}.

{g}. {Not at all, not in the least}, are translated in several ways.

一無用頭 ih vú {y}úng‘ deu, {of no use}.
萬無好處 va{n}‘ vú ’hau t’sû‘, {of no use at all}.
絲毫勿對 sz {h}au veh té‘, {not in the least agreeing}.
嘸啥蹉跎 {m} sá‘ sá dú, {not at all tired}.
一眼勿差 ih ’nga{n} veh t’só, {just so, not at all wrong}.

{h}. To {altogether} correspond ’lóng ’tsóng, {k}óng ’tsóng, tseu sun, ’lóng ’t’óng.

共總二百 {k}óng‘ ’tsóng ni‘ páh, {in all two hundred}.
週身幾許 tseu sun ’kí hau‘, {in all how many?}
盡行勿好 dzing‘ {y}ung veh ’hau, {altogether wrong}.
一氣賣完 ih k’í‘ má‘ {w}é{n}, {altogether sold off}.
攏統三萬 ’lóng ’t’óng sa{n} ma{n}‘, {altogether 30,000}.

{i}. {Mostly, chiefly}, are expressed by pronominal forms, which have been already partially illustrated.

大一半, {t}ú‘ ih pé{n}‘, {the greater part}.
大凡人勿懂 {t}á‘ va{n} niun veh ’tóng, {men mostly do not understand}.
大槩百姓 {t}á ké pák sing‘, {most people}.
大凡人什蓋寫個多, {t}a‘ va{n} niun seh ké ’sia kú‘ tú, {most persons
write it thus}.
第能貸色是好個多 {t}i‘ nung hú‘ suh ’zz ’hau kú‘ tú, {articles of this
kind are mostly good}.
吃鴉片烟個人勿牢寔個多 k’iuh {á} p’ie{n} ye{n} kú‘ niun veh lau zeh kú‘
tú, {opium smokers are for the most part dishonest}.

{j}. {Half} is sometimes used in English as an adverb; so also it is in Chinese, as in the following phrases.

半死半活 pé{n}‘ ’sí pé{n}‘ {w}eh, {half dead half alive}.
半假半眞 pé{n}‘ ’ká pé{n}‘ tsun, {half false half true}.
半推半愛 pé{n}‘ t’é pé{n}‘ é‘, {refuse and yet wish for}.
半吞半吐 pé{n}‘ t’un pé{n}‘ t’ú‘, {cease from saying a thing when half
through it}.

Obs. The other proportional parts, such as 四分裏一分 si‘ vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, {a quarter}; 十分裏一分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, {one tenth}, are much too long to enter into such groups.

{k}. {only, alone} are represented by {tseh}, {t}ók, ta{n}, {t}a{n}‘ and forms into which they enter.

只得一眼 tseh tuh ih ’nga{n}, {only a little}.
獨一干 {t}ók ih kû{n}, {only one}.
獨干子 {t}ók kû{n} ’tsz, {alone}.
勿但一個 veh da{n}‘ ih kú‘, {not only one}.
惟獨兩個人 ví‘ dóh ’liáng kú‘ niun, {only two men}.
勿獨之一個 veh dók tsz ih kú‘, {not only one}.
一干子 ih kû{n} ’tsz, {alone}.
單單一個 ta{n} ta{n} ih kú‘, {a single one}.
不過一個 pih ({should be} peh) kú‘ ih kú‘, {only one}.
獨獨哩我會做 {t}óh dóh ’lí ’ngú {w}é‘ tsú‘, {only I can do it}.

Obs. i. Ta{n}, is also an adjective, as in the question, 花單個呢雙個 hwó ta{n} kú‘ ní song kú‘, {is the flower single or double?} {T}óh and {t}a{n}‘ are both conjunctions, when joined to ’zz, as 但是, 獨是 {t}a{n}‘ ’zz, {t}óh ’zz, {but}.

Obs. ii. The numeral adverbs {once, twice}, etc. translated by 一次 ih t’sz‘, etc. may be seen in section 4. on auxiliary substantives, Art. 163.

{Negative and Affirmative}. 268. One of the most common negative particles is 嘸 {m}, to which 沒 meh, the same in meaning is frequently appended. 嘸 {m} is properly a verb {not to have}.

嘸啥事體 m sá‘ zz‘ t’í, {it is nothing}.
嘸形嘸踪 m {y}ung m tsóng, {there is no trace of him}.
嘸沒啥話頭 m meh sá‘ {w}ó‘ deu, {there is nothing to say}.
嘸憂嘸慮 m yeu m lü‘, {having no grief or care}.

269. The literary word that corresponds to this particle is 無 vú, which is also in common use in colloquial phrases derived from the books or formed on book models.

無財無勢 vú dzé vú sz‘, {having no riches or influence}.
無親無戚 vú t’sing vú t’sih, {having no relations}.
無冬無夏 vú tóng vú ’{y}á, {having neither winter nor summer}.

270 The negative particle in most general use is 勿 veh. It is not prohibitive as in the books, but simply denies like 不 peh in mandarin.

勿會度日 veh {w}é‘ dú‘ nyih, {I cannot live on}.
勿三勿四 veh sa{n} veh sz‘, {neither this nor that}.
勿聲勿嚮 veh sung veh ’h’iáng, {he said nothing}.
勿薦拉儂 veh tsíe{n}‘ ’lá nóng‘, {I shall not recommend him to you}.
勿是, 勿個 veh ’zz, veh kú‘, {it is not so} (or veh alone).

271. The particles 惟 ví, 不 peh and 非 fí, are used in a few combinations.

惟獨 ví dóh, {only}.
惟我一人 ví ’ngú ih zun, {only I}.
不止一人 peh ’tsz ih zun, {not one man only}.
不知下落 peh tsz ’{y}á loh, {do not know where he is}.
眼不能見 ’nga{n} peh nung kíe{n}‘, {not to be seen}.
非獨之我 fí dók tsz ’ngú, {not only I}.

272. The simplest affirmative is 是 ’zz; certain auxiliary particles are often appended or prefixed.

是個, 是拉個 ’zz kú‘, ’zz ’lá kú‘, {it is so}.
就是, 是者 dzieu‘ ’zz, ’zz ’tsé, {ib}.

273. When some quality is affirmed, an adjective of opposite meaning, with the negative particle prefixed, is often employed.

勿孬 veh k’ieu, {that is good}.
倒勿對 ’tau veh té‘, {but that is wrong}.
勿差 veh t’só, {you are right}.

274. The emphasis of positive certainty is conveyed by phrases such as tsun tsung‘, {s}eh zé‘, etc., and the double negation 無非 prefixed to the proposition affirmed.

眞正嘸沒 tsun tsung‘ m meh, {certainly there is none}.
畢竟勿曾到 pih kiung‘ veh zung tau‘, {certainly he has not come}.
實在有個 {s}eh zé ’{y}eu kú‘, {there certainly is}.
斷斷乎是個 tö{n}‘ tö{n}‘ ú ’zz kú‘, {it certainly is so}.
果然勿差 ’kú ze{n} veh t’só, {it is certainly right}.

Obs. The interrogative final {mó}, is often used to express the same sense with these words, 小囝蠻麽 ’siau nö{n} ma{n} mó, {the boys are wild indeed}.

275. Some phrases imply a moral certainty or necessity ({must}), and with the negative, the absence of that necessity ({need not}).

柴總有個 zá ’tsóng ’yeu kú‘, {there must be fire wood}.
銀子一定有 niung ’tsz ih ding‘ ’{y}eu, {there must be silver}.
總要解說個 ’tsóng yau‘ ’ká seh kú‘, {you must explain it}.
必定要去 pih ding‘ yau‘ k’i‘, {you must go}.
板定要來者 ’pa{n} ding‘ yau‘ lé ’tsé, {he must necessarily come}.
板要做個 ’pan yau‘ tsu‘ kú‘, {you must do it}.
善终有善報 ’zé{n} tsóng ’yeu ’zé{n} pau‘, {virtue will surely have a
good reward}.
做生意總要用心 tsú‘ sang i‘ ’tsóng yau‘ yúng‘ sing, {in transacting
business you must apply the mind}.

276. There are several phrases to express that the thing affirmed is naturally so, and that nothing else ought to be expected.

本來什蓋能 ’pun lé {s}eh ké‘ nung, {it is originally so}.
本者來自家要來 ’pun ’tsé lé zz‘ ka yau‘ lé, {he originally wished to
come himself}.
自然者 zz‘ zé{n} ’tsé, {as might be expected}.
自然而然 zz‘ zé{n} rh zé{n}, {spontaneously}.
原來嘸啥 niö{n} lé {m} sá‘, {it is really nothing}.
本者乎勿肯 ’pun ’tsé {ú} veh ’k’ung, {by nature unwilling}.
良心本底子有個 liáng sing ’pun ’tí ’tsz ’{y}eu ku‘, {conscience belongs
to us by nature}.

277. Different words are usually appropriated to the affirmative and negative forms of assertions. Thus (1) absolute certainty in the negative is expressed by,—

並勿是 {p}ing‘ veh ’zz, {certainly it is not}.
决勿好做 kiöh veh ’hau tsu‘, {it ought surely not to be done}.
切勿可以 t’sih veh ’k’ó ’í, {you certainly may not}.

(2). The denial of necessity (need not) is conveyed in such expressions as the following.

勿必得去 veh pih tuh ’k’í, {you need not go}.
勿必多 veh pih tú, {do not need many}.

Obs. The Imperative also, as in 勿要去 veh yau‘ k’í‘, {do not go}; 去 末者 k’í‘ meh ’tsé, {go} has distinct auxiliary words for the affirmative and negative forms.

278. There are some adverbs appropriated to express affirmative and negative propositions in the interrogative form.

豈勿是頂好 ’k’i veh ’zz ’ting ’hau, {how is it not admirable}.
難道儂勿曉得我 na{n} dau‘ nóng‘ veh ’h’iau tuh ’ngú, {it can hardly be
that you do not know me}.
有啥勿識字 ’{y}eu sá‘ veh suh zz‘, {why should I not know how to read}.

Obs. i. The final interrogative 麽 mau, or 呢 ní, is appended frequently to any sentences of this sort.

Obs. ii. Affirmative questions implying a strong denial are also occasionally asked by these particles; e.g. 豈有此理 k’í ’{y}eu ’t’sz ’lí, {how can this be?} 難道我哄騙儂否 na{n} dau‘ ’ngú hóng‘ p’ie{n}‘ nóng‘ ’vá, {could I deceive you?}

{Adverbs of place}. 279. Demonstrative adverbs are derived from pronouns, as adverbs of manner from adjectives. Thus {here and there}, are translated by compounds formed from the three pronouns {t}í‘, kú‘, í.

第塊, 第搭, 第頭, {t}í‘ k’wé‘, {t}í‘ tah, {t}í‘ deu, {here}.
故塊, 故搭, 故頭, kú‘ k’wé‘, kú‘ tah, kú‘ deu, {there}.
伊塊, 伊搭, 伊頭, í k’wé‘, í tah, í deu, {there}.

Obs. From 此 ’t’sz is formed 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, {here}; 堂 {t}ong, also forms {t}í‘ dong, {here}, etc.

280. {On this}, and {on that side} are formed in a similar manner with the auxiliaries míe{n}‘, {face}, and píe{n}, {side}.

第面, 第邊, {t}í‘ míe{n}‘, {t}í‘ píe{n}, {on this side}.
第半爿, {t}í‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {ib}.
故面, 故邊, kú‘ míe{n}‘, kú‘ píe{n}, {on that side}.
故半爿, 伊半爿, kú‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, í pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {ib}.
伊面, 伊邊, í míe{n}‘, í píe{n}, {ib}.

281. The postpositions or case particles corresponding to our locative prepositions enter into similar forms.

上面, 上頭 ’zong míe{n}‘, ’zong deu, {above}.
上邊, 上半爿 ’zong píe{n}, ’zong pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {on the upper side}.
上首, 上肩, 上底頭 ’zong ’seu, ’zong kíe{n}, ’zong ’tí deu, {on the
upper side}.
前面, 前頭, 前底 zíe{n} míe{n}‘, zíe{n} deu, zíe{n} ’tí, {before}.
後面, 後頭, 後首 ’{h}eu míe{n}‘, ’{h}eu deu, ’{h}eu ’seu, {behind}.
後底, 後底頭 ’{h}eu ’tí, ’{h}eu ’tí deu, {behind}.
裏頭, 裏厮, 裏面 ’lí deu, ’lí sz, ’lí míe{n}‘, {inside}.
裏向, 裏邊 ’lí h’iáng‘, ’lí píe{n}, {ib}.
裏半爿 ’lí pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {ib}.

Obs. i. 下 ’au forms the same compounds as 上 ’zong, with one other 下底 ’au ’tí, all of them with the sense {below}. 外 ngá‘, forms the same compounds as 裏 ’lí (excepting that with 向 h’iáng‘), in the sense of {outside}.

Obs. ii. For similar groups of nouns, with the points of the compass, see Art. 152.

282. The adjectives ’tsú {y}eu‘, {right and left}, form some groups.

右邊, 右半爿, {y}eu‘ píe{n}, {y}eu‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {on the right-hand}.
左邊, 左半爿, tsí‘ (ú) píe{n}, tsí‘ pé{n}‘ ba{n}, {on the left-hand}.

283. The adverbs of place and direction that remain are few.

週圍, 四週圍, tseu {w}é, sz‘ tseu {w}é, {all round}.
當中 tong tsóng, {in the middle}.
空中 k’óng tsóng, {in the air}.
橫肚裏 {w}áng ’tú ’lí, {obliquely}.
射角 dzák kok, {obliquely}.
對直 té‘ dzuh, {straight before}.
那裏那裏堂 ’{á} ’lí, ’{á} ’lí dong, {where?}
各處, 處處, 到處, kok t’sû‘, t’sû‘ t’sû‘, tau‘ t’sû‘, {everywhere}.
各道落處 kok tau‘ lok t’sû‘, {everywhere}.

284. {W}áng and ’zû form with verbs many groups of four characters, in which the action is said to be done in various ways, literally {across and perpendicularly}.

橫做𥪡做 {w}áng tsú‘ ’zû tsú‘, {do this and that}.
橫勿是𥪡勿是 {w}áng veh ’zz, ’zû veh ’zz, {wrong in this and in that}.

Obs. In weaving, the cross thread is 芉紗 ü‘ só, the other 經紗 kiung só; here ü‘ is used for wei 緯.

285. The adverbs {in and out, up and down, here and there}, etc. are translated in Chinese by repeated verbs.

飛進飛出 fí tsing‘ fí t’seh, {fly in and out}.
跳上跳下 t’iau‘ ’zong t’iau‘ ’{a}u, {jump up and down}.
搖來搖去 {y}au lé {y}au k’í‘, {row about}.

{Adverbs of time}. 286. The following are the primitive adverbs of time employed in the dialect.

曾 zung, {already}; 勿曾 veh zung, {not yet}.
向 h’iáng‘, 一向 ih h’iáng‘, {hitherto}; (it embraces the whole of the
past time), 向來 h’iáng‘ lé, 向係 h’iáng‘ {í}‘, {ib}.
已 ’í, {already}; e.g. 已經 ’í kiung, {already}.
昨 zoh (zóh, zog), in 昨日 zoh nyih, {yesterday}.
先 síe{n}, {first}; 第個先要做 {t}í‘ kú‘ síe{n} yau‘ tsú‘, {this must be
done first}.
暴 {p}au‘, {at first}; e.g. 暴時 {p}au‘ zz, {at first}; 暴時間 {p}au‘ zz
ka{n}, {ib}.
預 ü‘, {beforehand}; 預先防備 ü‘ síe{n} bong bé‘, {guard against
beforehand}. (防 {guard against}; M. {fang}; S.R. {vong}).
初 t’sú, {at first}, is only found as an adverb in the phrase 當初 tong
t’sú, {formerly}.
今 kiun, {now}; e.g. 目今 mók kiun, 刻今 k’uk kiun, 現今 {h}íe{n}‘ kiun,
{now}; 今朝 kiun tsau, {to-day}; 今曰 kiun nyih, {ib}.; 今月 kiun niöh,
{this month}; 今年 kiun níe{n}, {this year}.
難 na{n}, {now}; 難故歇 na{n} kú‘ h’ih, {at the present moment}; 難朝後
na{n} dzau ’eu, {from this time forward}; 難下來 na{n} ’{a}u lé,
{ib}.; 難末 na{n} meh, {then}.
正 tsung‘, (or 淮 ’tsung) {just}; 正勒拉 tsung‘ leh ’lá, {just while};
貼正 t’ih (or t’eh) tsung‘, {just at the moment}.
現 {h}íe{n}‘ {now}; 現在 {h}íe{n}‘ dzé‘, {now}; 現時 {h}íe{n}‘ zz, {ib}.
暫 dza{n}‘, {temporarily}; e.g. 暫時 dza{n}‘ zz, {for a short time}; 暫為
dza{n}‘ {w}e‘, {ib}.
將 tsiáng, {about to be}; 將來 tsiáng lé, {it will happen that}.
卽 tsiuk (tsih) just; 隨卽 zûe tsiuk, {just}; 卽刻 tsih k’uh, {ib}. 卽鉛
tsih k’a{n}, {ib}.
再 tsé‘, {again}; 再會 tsé‘ {w}é‘, {we shall meet again}.
鉛 k’a{n} {just}; 鉛鉛 k’a{n} k’a{n} {ib}.; 鉛起始 k’a{n} ’k‘í ’sz, {at the
beginning}.
又 {í}‘, 又來者 {í}‘ lé ’tsé, {come again}.
還 {w}a{n}, {still}; 還要來 {w}a{n} yau‘ lé, {come again}.
就 dzieu‘, {immediately}; 就轉來 dzieu‘ ’tsé{n} lé, {return directly} 就此
dzieu‘ ’t’sz, {immediately}.
一 ih followed by 就 dzieu‘ {the moment that}; 一睏就覺 ih k’wun‘ dzieu‘
kau‘, {the moment he went to sleep he awoke}.

Obs. i. Of these words, only 難, 將, 再, 又, 還, 就, na{n}, tsiáng, tsé‘, {í}‘, {w}a{n}, dzieu‘, are separable from the groups in which they are found. 未 as in 未哩 mí‘ ’lí, {not yet}, is a negative adverb of time.

Obs. ii. All these adverbs are book words, except {p}au‘, na{n}, and k’a{n}.

287. The demonstrative pronouns 第, 伊, 故, {t}í‘, í, kú‘, and some other words combine with the substantives 歇, 刻, 時, h’ih, k’uh, zz, {a short time}, to form adverbs of time.

第歇故歇 {t}í‘ h’ih, kú‘ h’ih, {at this moment}.
故歇頭上 kú‘ h’ih deu long‘, {at that time}.
伊歇頭上 í h’ih deu long‘, {ib}.
一時頭上 ih zz deu long‘, {all at once}.
立刻 lih k’uh, {immediately}.
立時立刻 lih zz lih k’uh, {ib}.
立時三刻 lih zz sa{n} k’uh, {ib}.

歇 h’ih, also helps to form 大歇 tá h’ih, 爽歇 zong h’ih, {after a little time}; 少歇 ’sau h’ih, {ib}.

288. Several adjectives and prepositions are borrowed to form compound adverbs of time.

{a}. 明 ming, {bright}. 明朝 ming tsau, {to-morrow}; 明日 ming nyih, {ib}.; 明天 ming t’íe{n}, {ib}.; 明年 ming níe{n}, {next year}.

{b}. 早 ’tsau, {early}; 早早 ’tsau ’tsau, {early}; 老早 ’lau ’tsau, {early}.

{c}. 古 ’kú {ancient}. 古時間 ’kú zz ka{n}, {in ancient times}; 古時節 ’kú zz tsih, {ib}.; 古來 ’kú lé, {from ancient times}.

{d}. 新 sing, {new}. 新年 sing níe{n}, {new year}; 從新 dzóng sing, {afresh}.

{e}. 近 ’{k}iun, {near}. 近年 ’{k}iun níe{n}, {of late years}; 近時 ’{k}iun zz, {lately}; 近來 ’{k}iun lé, {ib}. 近今 ’{k}iun kiun, {ib}. 近世 ’{k}iun sz‘, {in modern times}.

{f}. 舊 ’{k}ieu, {old}. 舊年 ’{k}ieu níe{n}, {last year}; 仍舊 zung ’gieu, {as before}; 照舊 tsau‘ ’gieu, {ib}. 依舊 í‘ ’gieu, {ib}.

{g}. 常 dzáng, {constant}. 常庄 dzáng tsong, 打常 ’táng dzáng, 常常 dzáng dzáng 不常 peh dzáng, {always}; 常時 dzáng zz, {sometimes}; 日常 nyih dzáng, {daily}.

{h}. 前 zíe{n}, {former}. 前日子 zíe{n} nyih ’tsz, {day before yesterday}; 目前 móh zíe{n}, {now}. 前年 zíe{n} níe{n}, {year before last}. 從前 dzóng zíe{n}, {formerly}. 以前 ’í zíe{n}, {before}; 前代 zíe{n} dé‘, {the former dynasty}. 前朝 zíe{n} zau, {ib}.; 前世 zíe{n} sz‘, {in a former life}.

{i}. 後 ’{h}eu, {after}. 後來 ’{h}eu lé, 以後 ’í {h}eu‘, {after}; 後月 ’{h}eu niöh, {next month}; 後年 ’{h}eu níe{n}, {year after next}; 後日 ’{h}eu nyih, {day after to-morrow}.

{j}. 下 ’{h}au, 目下 móh ’{h}au, {at present}.

{k}. 多 tú, 日多 nyih tú, {daily}.

Obs. Zie{n} deu, ’{h}eu deu, {before}, {after}, and the cognate adverbs of place are used also for time.

289. Sometimes verbs take the place of what in English are adverbs. They are 來, 過, 歇, 隔 lé, kú‘, h’ih, káh.

自古以來 zz‘ ’kú ’í lé, {from ancient times till now}.
周朝以來 Tseu dzau ’í lé, {from the Cheú dynasty till now}.
歇之兩日 h’ih tsz ’liáng nyih, {after two days}.
隔之幾十年 kák tsz ’kí zeh níe{n}, {after several tens of years}.
再過一月 tsé‘ kú‘ ih niöh, {after another month}.

290. There are some provincial adverbs of time, whose etymology is uncertain, or at least not referable to words of time.

做慣 tsok (kwa{n}‘) kû{n}‘, {constantly (in the habit of)}.
只管 tseh ’kwé{n}, {ib}. or {my only concern is}, etc. (M.)
冷陌生頭 ’láng mák sáng deu, {suddenly}.
難板 na{n} ’pa{n}, {seldom (difficult to fix)}.

291. The adjective pronouns combine with substantives of time to form common phrases, which are often used as adverbs.

多 tá, {several}; 多歇 tá h’ih, {after a little time}; 多日 tá nyih,
{after some days}; 多年 tá níe{n}, {after some years}; 多時 tá
zz, {a considerable time} (多 {tú} in this sense is generally
pronounced {tá}.)
幾 ’kí, {several}; 連幾日 líe{n} ’kí nyih, {during several days}.
多 tú, {many}; 介多 ká‘ tú, {mutually}.
逐 dzóh, {each}; 日逐 nyih dzóh, {daily}; 逐點逐點高 dzók ’tíe{n} dzók
’tíe{n} kau, {gradually growing higher}.

292. Substantives of time, when repeated, are adverbs.

日日 nyih nyih, {daily}.
年年 níe{n} níe{n}, {yearly}.
時時刻刻 zz zz k’uh k’uh, {constantly}.
歇歇 h’ih h’ih, {ib}.
出出變, 囘囘變 t’seh t’seh pie{n}‘, {w}é {w}é pie{n}‘, {constantly
changing}.

Obs. Succession in time is frequently represented in English by repetition of a noun with an adverb inserted. Thus, {day by day} corresponds to 日日 nyih nyih. Such phrases as {year after year, one after another} are other examples, and have their Chinese equivalents in the next article.

{Order and Succession}. 293. Succession of periods of time is represented by repetition, and the intervention of the verb 過 kú‘, {pass} (English adverb {after}).

一世過一世 ih sz‘ kú‘ ih sz‘, {age after age}.

294. The particles {and}, {after}, {by}, in {one by one}, {two and two}, {in rows}, etc. are not represented, succession being expressed by mere repetition of the numeral and its particle.

一個一個出去者 ih kú‘ ih kú‘ t’seh k’i‘ ’tsé, {one after another they went
out}.
要種個一行一行個 yau‘ tsóng‘ kú‘ ih {h}ong ih {h}ong kú‘, {plant them in
rows}.

Obs. For the repetition of verbs, in phrases such as 站一站 dza{n}‘ ih dza{n}‘, {stand waiting a little}; 研一研 níe{n} ih níe{n}, {rub a little ink}; 冷個冷 ’láng kú‘ ’láng, {cool it a little}; 調個調 diau kú‘ diau, {stir it a little}; 淘個淘 dau kú‘ dau, {wash it} (of rice); 净個净 zing‘ kú‘ zing‘, {wash it} (of clothes); 我要辨個辨清爽 ’ngú yau‘ bíe{n}‘ kú‘ bíe{n}‘ t’sing ’song, {I wish to distinguish clearly}; see also Art. 232.

295. Gradual increase by little and little, is expressed by repeating the auxiliary phrases ih ’nga{n}, ih ’tíe{n}, with the adjective in the centre. When the gradual change is in time, words of time form similar phrases.

一眼高一眼 ih ’nga{n} kau ih ’nga{n}, {to become gradually higher}.
一點大一點 ih ’tíe{n} dú‘ ih ’tíe{n}, {grow gradually greater}.
一歇大一歇 ih h’ih dú‘ ih h’ih, {greater every moment}.
一日小一日 ih nyih ’siau ih nyih, {grow less every day}.

296. Many adverbial phrases are formed by verbs and other words. Thus, the adverb {when} is often supplied by a noun of time following the verb with the connecting particle 個 kú‘.

覺個辰光 kau‘ kú‘ zun kwong, {when you awake}.
出門個時候 t’seh mun kú‘ zz {h}eu‘, {when on a journey}.

297. {Never}, is expressed by 一向 ih h’iáng‘, with a negative phrase following it.

一向勿曾讀書 ih h’iáng‘ veh zung {t}ók sû, {I have never gone to school}.

298. The questions why? and how? are often asked by verbs with the pronoun {what?} thus rendering an adverb unnecessary.

昨日想啥咾勿來 zóh nyih ’siáng sá‘ lau veh lé, {why (thinking of what) did
you not come yesterday?}.
聽之啥咾曉得個 t’ing tsz sá‘ lau ’h’iau tuh kú‘, {how (having heard what)
do you know?}

{Adverbs of Similarity and Reciprocity}. 299. The adverb 恰 hah, and adjective 像 {s}iáng‘, {like}, assist in forming several compound phrases in the sense {like}.

恰像 hah ziáng‘, 恰替 hah t’í‘, {like}.
好像 hau ziáng‘, {very like}.
恰得小囝能個 hah tuh ’siau nö{n} nung kú‘, {like a child}.
倒像 ’tau ziáng‘, {or rather it is like}.

Obs. 能 nung, is usually appended to the noun that follows these words, in the sense of {like}; 一樣 ih {y}áng‘, 一般 ih pé{n}, are also employed in the sense {in the same manner}.

300.The adverbs of reciprocity are 大介 {t}á‘ ká‘, 介家 ká‘ ká, 介多 ká‘ tú, {mutually, one to another}, and 相 in combination with verbs and adjectives; e.g. siáng ziáng‘, 相像 {like one another}.

Obs. {Together with}, is expressed by means of certain adverbs 一淘, ih dau, 一氣 ih k’í‘, following the preposition and its noun. 忒我一氣進 城 t’eh ’ngú ih k’i‘ tsing‘ zung, {go with me into the city}. v. Art. 140.

301. The primitive adverbs are not repeated, except in one or two instances. It is different with those that are derived. Some examples in addition to these already given are here appended.

自自在在 zz‘ zz‘ ’zé ’zé, {at ease}.
活的活的 {w}eh tih {w}eh tih, {constantly moving}.
什蓋什蓋 {s}eh ké‘ {s}eh ké‘, {thus}.
適適意意 suh suh í‘ í‘, {comfortably}.

Obs. It has been shown that adjectives, and also substantives of time, become adverbs by repetition.

302. Some verbs combine intimately with adverbs, so as to form compound adverbs.

加 ká, {add}, forms {y}öh ká, 越加; {í}‘ ká, 又加; kung‘ ká,
更加 {still more}.
發 fah, {produce}, forms 越發 {y}öh fah; {still more}.
隨 zûe, {follow}, 隨時 zûe zz, {always}; 隨處 zûe t’sû‘, {everywhere}.

303. It will be seen in the next section, that some words marked as adverbs are also conjunctions. The converse is also true. For some words, such as 越, 且, 如 {y}öh, ’t’síe, zû regarded in this work as primitive conjunctions, form adverbial phrases.

並且勿是 {p}ing‘ ’t’síe veh ’zz, {it certainly is not so}.
如同皇帝能 zû dóng {w}ong {t}í‘ nung, {like the emperor}.

304. The foregoing analysis shows that adverbs qualifying verbs, and expressive of place and quantity are for the most part derived. On the other hand, those adverbs that qualify adjectives, and express time are usually primitive. In our own language, the adverbs that qualify affirmations, e.g. assuredly, certainly, etc. are derived, while here they are primitive. The old division of this part of speech by western grammarians into two parts, viz. primitive and derivative, thus appears to be properly applicable to a language, that has been often supposed to present no resemblance in etymological development to the speech of the rest of mankind. The Romans made their adverbs of place out of demonstrative pronouns, and prepositions, in a manner very similar to the Chinese, (e.g. hic {here}, supra {above}, etc.) Adjectives with particular terminations supplied them with adverbs of manner, (cito, bene, omnino.) Nunc, jam, are examples of primitive adverbs of time, while the root stá {stand}, in statim, exactly corresponds to 立 lih, {stand}, in 立刻 lih k’uh, {immediately}. It may be added that zé{n}, {h}ú, etc. in Art. 259 form appendages to the root, of the same value as the terminations -{ly}, -{like}, to which we are accustomed. What is new, is the extensive use of repetitions, the great number of fixed phrases, and the peculiarities in the laws of grouping.

{Section} 10. {Conjunctions}.

305. The primitive conjunctions may be thus classed:—

{a}. Connectives, 咾 lau, 也 ’{á}, {and}; 且, ’t’siá, 而 rh. {and, further}.

{b}. Adversatives 但 da{n}‘. Forms like 但是 da{n}‘ ’zz 獨是 {t}óh ’zz, {but}, etc. are compounded of adverbs, verbs, etc.

{c}. Illative 故 kú‘, 蓋 ké‘ (keh), {therefore}.

{d}. Causal. 因 yung, 為 {w}é‘, {because}.

{e}. Conditional. 末 meh, 若 záh, 倘 ’t’ong.

{f}. Antithetical, 雖 sûe, 然 zé{n}, 或 {w}óh, 越 yöh, 也 ’{á}, 又 {i}‘.

Obs. The compounds formed by these words, and words and phrases used as conjunctions derived from other parts of speech, will most of them be found in the following articles.

{Connectives}. 306. The particle that connects words like the English {and}, is 咾 lau.

進咾出 tsing‘ lau t’seh, {going in and out}.
中牲咾窵咾魚 tsóng sáng lau ’tiau lau {n}g, {beasts, bird, and fishes}.

Obs. The preposition tah, t’eh, {with}, often serve the same purpose, e.g. 儂忒我 nóng‘ t’eh ’ngú, {you and I}; 日頭搭之月 nyih deu tah tsz niöh, {the sun and moon}.

307. Clauses are connected by 也 ’{á} and 還 {w}a{n}. They are also frequently used merely as introductory particles.

南京去過之末, 我也要上北京去 Né{n} kiung k’í‘ kú‘ tsz meh, ’ngú ’{á} yau‘
’zong Poh kiung k’í‘, {after going to Nanking, I also wish to go
to Peking}.
明朝我也要歸去 ming tsau ’ngú ’{á} yau‘ kü k’í‘, {to-morrow, I wish to go
home.} (introductory).
也要買否 ’{á} yau‘ ’má ’vá, {do you wish to buy?}

Obs. i. If the ’{á} or {w}a{n} is emphasized it means {also}. If pronounced without emphasis, it is simply introductory.

Obs. ii. The adverbs dzieu‘, niö{n}, are used as introductory particles to affirmative prepositions: 就是我 dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, 原是我 niön ’zz ’ngú, {it is I}.

308. Another circumstance to be considered, in addition to what has preceded, is introduced 而且 rh ’t’siá, {and further} 尙且 zong‘ ’t’siá, {and what is still more}.

今朝路勿好跑個而且我脚跑勿動 kiun tsau lú‘ veh ’hau pau‘ kú‘, rh ’t’siá
’ngú kiáh pau‘ veh ’dóng, {it is bad walking to-day, and besides
I am lame}.
有個朋友話昨日來, 尙且勿曾來 ’{y}eu kú‘ báng ’{y}eu {w}ó‘ zóh nyih lé,
zong‘ ’t’siá veh zung lé, {a friend told me he would come
yesterday, and still he has not yet come}. (adverbial).
前頭借過歇銅錢, 而且勿曾還哩, 難又要借否 zie{n} deu tsiá‘ kú‘ h’ih dóng
díe{n}, rh ’t’siá veh zung {w}a{n} ’lí, na{n} {í}‘ yau‘ tsiá‘ ’vá,
{you borrowed money before, and further you have not returned it,
and do you wish to borrow again?} (adverbial).
水深而且渾 ’sz sun rh ’t’siá {w}un, {the water is deep and also muddy}.

309. A new subject of remark is introduced by 再者 tsé‘ ’tsé, {again, to proceed}; 還有 {w}a{n} ’{y}eu, {there is another thing}; 那裏曉得 ’á ’lí ’h’iau tuh, {meantime; who could have thought it? strange to say!}

托儂買蒔菇, 再者呌船一隻 t’oh nóng‘ ’má zz kú, tsé‘ ’tsé kiau‘ zé{n} ih tsáh,
{I commission you to buy fruit, and also to call a boat}.
還有一樣事體 {w}a{n} ’{y}eu ih {y}áng‘ zz‘ ’t’i, {there is another thing
I have to say}.

{Adversatives}. 310. {But} is represented by 但 {t}a{n}‘ 但是 {t}a{n}‘ ’zz, 獨是 {t}óh (g) ’zz; {however} is 到底 tau‘ ’tí, or 究竟 kieu‘ kiung‘.

說話好聽, 但是道理嘸啥好 seh {w}ó ’hau t’ing, {t}a{n}‘ ’zz ’{t}au ’lí {m}
sá‘ ’hau, {his words are plausible but his doctrine bad}.
現在還勿起到底要還儂個 {h}íe{n}‘ zé {w}a{n} veh ’k’í tau‘ ’tí yau‘ {w}a{n}
nóng‘ kú‘, {I cannot pay you now, but I intend to do so in the
end}. (adverbial).

Obs. Of these words, tau‘ ’tí is the most common. It sometimes preserves its etymological meaning {in the end}, as in the example given.

311. {Lest} is expressed 常怕 dzáng p’ó‘. The compounded phrase 只怕 tseh p’ó‘, {I am only afraid that}, has come to mean {I suppose that}.

要打伊隻夠常怕要咬 yau‘ ’táng í tsáh ’keu dzáng p’ó‘ yau‘ ’ngau, {beat that
dog lest he should bite}.
伊個話頭只怕虛個 í kú‘ ’{w}ó‘ deu tseh p’ó‘ h’ü kú‘, {that account is I
suppose false}. (or 恐怕 ’k’úng p’ó‘).

Obs. 恐怕, ’k’úng p’ó‘ is {I fear that}; 只怕 tseh p’ó‘ has sometimes a similar meaning. 燈旺來些只怕燙壞之手 tung {y}ong‘ lé ’sí tseh p’ó‘ t’ong‘ {w}á‘ tsz ’seu, {the lamp is very hot (bright) I fear it will burn your hand}.

312. The conjunctional phrases {and yet, on the other hand}, are expressed by 倒 ’tau and 偏 píe{n}, {perversely}.

第個事體呌儂做, 儂倒撥拉別人做 {t}í kú‘ zz ’t’í kau‘
nóng‘ tsú‘, nóng‘ ’tau peh ’la bih niun tsú‘, {I called you to
do this, and yet you have given it to some one else to do}.
打伊倒勿痛 ’táng i ’tau veh t’óng‘, {he is beaten and yet feels no pain}.
勸儂好偏勿肯好 k’iö{n}‘ nóng‘ ’hau p’íe{n} veh ’k’ung ’hau,
{when exhorted to be good, you on the other hand will not}.

313. Such conjunctional phrases as {it would be better to}, are represented by 勿如 veh zû, {not so good as}, or 𡨴可 niung ’k’ó, {I would rather}, 勿比 veh ’pí, {it cannot be compared with}.

勿如轉去更好 veh zû ’tsé{n} k’í‘ kung‘ ’hau, {it would be better to go
back}.
讀勿熟勿比再讀 {t}óh veh zóh veh ’pí tsé‘ dóh, {not having learned it
perfectly, it would be better to study it again}.
惡事𡨴可死勿做 oh zz‘ niung ’k’ó ’sí veh tsú‘, {I would rather die than
do what is wrong}.

{Illative or Transitional Conjunctions}. 314. {Therefore} is represented by 所以 ’sú ’í, 故此 kú‘ ’t’sz, 故所以 kú‘ ’sú ’í, 𡀽咾 keh lau.

心裏勿忘記儂故此又來 sing ’lí veh mong‘ kí‘ nóng‘, kú‘ ’t’sz {í}‘ lé,
{I have not forgotten you, and therefore have come again}.

315. {Then} is expressed by 𡀽末 ké‘ (keh) meh, when it denotes a logical consequence, and by 難末 na{n} meh, when the transition is one of time.

撥勒儂勿要, 𡀽末要啥 peh ’lá nóng‘ veh yau‘, ké‘ meh yau‘ sá‘, {I give
it and you do not want it, then what do you want?}
懂之道理難末好者 ’tóng tsz ’dau ’lí na{n} meh ’hau ’tsé, {the doctrine
being understood, then all is well}.

Obs. Na{n} meh, has also been placed among the adverbs as a particle of time. Its book equivalent 於是 ü ’zz, {consequently}.

{Causal Conjunctions}. 316. 因爲 {y}ung {w}é‘, 爲 {w}é‘ and 爲之 {w}é‘ tsz correspond to our word {because}.

{Conditional particles}. 317. 末 meh, {if}, is placed at the end of the clause.

賤末要買, 貴末勿要買 {k}iáng (zíe{n}‘) meh yau‘ ’má, kü‘ meh veh yau‘
’má, {if it is cheap buy it, but not if it is dear}.

318. 若使 zák sz‘, 若是 zog ’sz, 若然 zog zé{n}, 倘或 ’t’ong {w}óh, 倘使 ’t’ong sz‘, 倘然 ’t’ong zé{n}, are used in the sense of {if}: 旣然 kí‘ zé{n} is {if it was already so}.

若使勿看見末, 就歸來 zák sz‘ veh k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘ meh, dzieu‘ kü lé, {if you
do not see him, return at once}.

Obs. The verbs 使, 是, and adverb 然 lose their primary sense, and form in colloquial usage merely a terminating syllable to the conjunction with which they combine.

319. {Even if} is expressed by 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, 也怕 ’{á} p’ó‘ 那裏怕 ’{á} ’lí p’ó‘.

就是其哭, 也勿要憑其 dzieu‘ ’zz gí k’óh, ’{á} veh yau‘ bing gí, {even if
he cries, do not yield to him}.
也怕嘸末銅錢, 總勿要去偷人家 ’{á} p’ó‘ m meh dóng díe{n}, ’tsóng veh yau‘
k’í‘ t’eu niun ká, {even if you have no money, you must not
steal from others}.

320. {If}, with the negative is represented 勿然 veh zé{n}, or 再勿然 tsé‘ veh zé{n}, {should it not be so}.

快點撥勒我, 勿然我要去者 k’wá ’tíe{n} peh ’lá ’ngú, veh zé{n} ’ngú yau‘
k’í‘ ’tsé, {If you do not give it me quickly, I shall go}.
再勿然我自家去 tsé‘ veh ze{n} ’ngú zz‘ ká k’í‘, {if is so, I shall go
myself}.

Obs. This amounts to an entire omission of the {if}, for 然 zé{n} is an adverb {so}. In fact, the {if} is often not used in affirmative sentences as well as negative.

321. The conjunctional phrases {suppose that, for instance, for example}, are expressed by 比方 ’pí fong, 譬如 p’í zû, 猶如 {y}eu zû, etc.

比方死之末那能 ’pí fong ’sí tsz meh ná‘ nung, {if you should die, what
then?}
猶之乎 {y}eu tsz {h}ú, {just as if}.
猶如 {y}eu zû, {ib}.

Obs. The adverbs of likeness (see Art. 299) are also similarly employed. 好像日頭忒旺, 眼睛勿好對之伊咾看 ’hau ziáng‘ nyih deu t’uh {y}ong‘, ’nga{n} tsing veh ’hau té‘ tsz í lau k’ön, {just as the sun is too bright for our eyes to gaze on him}.

{Antithetical Conjunctions}. 322. Clauses with the particles {although, yet}, are formed by 雖然 sûe zé{n} and 然而 zé{n} rh, etc.

雖然巧個, 然而勿牢實個 sûe zé{n} ’k’iau kú‘, zé{n} rh veh lau zeh kú‘,
{although clever, he is not trustworthy}.
好是好個, 到底本事平常 ’hau ’zz ’hau kú‘ tau‘ ’tí ’pun zz‘ bing dzáng, {he
is well disposed, but his abilities are not great}.
雖然路遠, 究竟走得到 sûe zé{n} lú‘ ’yö{n}, kieu‘ kiung‘ ’tseu tuh tau‘,
{although it is a long way, yet I can walk it}.

Obs. {Although} is very frequently omitted, as in the second example.

323. {Either,—or} are expressed by 或者 {w}óh ’tsé, 或者 {w}óh ’tsé, or by 勿是, 就是 veh ’zz—dzieu‘ ’zz.

勿是打贏, 就是打敗 veh ’zz ’táng {y}ung, dzieu‘ ’zz ’táng bá‘, {you must
either conquer, or be vanquished}.
或在東, 或在西 {w}óh ’dzé tóng, {w}óh ’dzé sí, {it is either east or west}.
勿是儂, 就是儂個兄弟 veh ’zz nóng‘, dzieu‘ ’zz nóng‘ kú‘ h’iung dí‘, {it
is either you or your brother}.
或是姓張, 或是姓李 {w}óh ’zz sing‘ tsáng, {w}óh ’zz sing‘ lí, {it must be
some one named Cháng or Lí}.

324. {Neither,—nor} are represented both by 也—也 ’{á}—’{á}, and by 又—又 {í}‘—{í}‘, with a negative.

也勿會飛, 也勿會走 ’{á} veh {w}é‘ fí, ’{á} veh {w}é‘ ’tseu. {he
can neither fly nor walk}.
口也勿開, 手也勿動 ’k’eu ’{á} veh k’é, ’seu ’{á} veh ’dóng,
{he neither opens his mouth, nor moves his hands}.
又勿賤, 又勿貴 {í}‘ veh giáng, {í}‘ veh kü‘, {it is neither cheap nor dear}.

325. When the first clause is interrogative, and the second commences with {or}, the equivalent form is ní, the interrogative particle at the end of the first clause, and 還是 {w}a{n} ’zz beginning the second. Sometimes 也 ’{á} alone is used.

明朝要去呢, 還是要待兩日 ming tsau yau‘ k’í‘ ní, {w}a{n} ’zz yau‘ dé‘ ’liáng
nyih, {will you go to-morrow, or wait for a few days?}
(See also Art. 251).

326. {Because,—therefore} are expressed by 因爲 yung {w}é‘, or 爲之 {w}é‘ tsz, in the first clause, and any of the illative particles in the second.

因爲勿曾熟哩, 所以還要燒 yung {w}é‘ veh zung zóh ’lí, ’sú ’í {w}a{n} yau‘ sau,
{since it is not yet well done, you must boil it longer}.
爲之儂勿快活咾, 故此我勿來 {w}é‘ tsz nóng‘ veh k’á‘ {w}eh lau, kú‘ ’t’sz ’ngú
veh lé, {because you were displeased, I did not come again}.

327. {Why—? because—}are expressed by any of the adverb forms for {why?} and the casual conjunctions in the answering clause.

爲啥要眠檣因爲要過橋拉 {w}é‘ sá‘ yau‘ míe{n} dziáng? yung {w}é‘ yau‘ kú‘
giau ’lá, {why do you take down the mast? because there is a
bridge to pass}.

328. {On the one hand, on the other hand}, are expressed by ih míe{n}‘ or ih deu repeated.

一面近河咾要沉殺, 一面兵過來咾要嚇昏 ih míe{n}‘ ’giun {h}ú lau yau zung sah,
ih míe{n}‘ ping kú‘ lé lau yau‘ háh hwun, {on the one side it is
near the river, and they will be drowned, on the other side
soldiers are coming who fill them with fear}.
一半哭一半笑 ih pé{n}‘ k’oh, ih pé{n}‘ siau‘, {partly crying and partly
laughing}.
一頭走一頭想 ih deu ’tseu, ih deu ’siáng, {while he walks he thinks}.

329. {Not only—but even},— are expressed by 勿獨之 veh dók tsz, 惟獨 ví {t}ók, {not only}, or 勿但不過 veh {d}an‘ peh kú‘ in the first clause, 就是 dzieu‘ ’zz, or 連 líe{n} or 連搭 líe{n} tah, in the second.

勿獨之朋友什蓋, 就是陌生人也什蓋 veh dók tsz {p}áng ’{y}eu {s}eh ké‘, dzieu‘
’zz mák sáng niun ’á zeh ké‘, {it is not only friends that are
so, but even strangers too}.
勿獨自家, 連搭子孫 veh dók zz‘ ká, líe{n} tah ’tsz sun, {not only himself,
but even his children also}.
非獨逆風, 連水也逆個 fí dók niuk fóng, líe{n} ’sz ’á niuk kú‘, {not only
is the wind contrary, but the tide is also against us}.

330. {The—the—}are expressed by 越 yöh repeated, 越早越好 yöh ’tsau yöh ’hau, {the earlier the better}.

Obs. Similar phrases are formed with 越發 yöh fah, {the more}, in each clause, also with 越加 yöh ká.

331. When the supplementary clause is, {how much more}, 何况于 {h}ú hwong‘ ü, 况乎 hwong‘ {ú}, 而况 rh hwong‘ or 况且 hwong‘ ’t’siá, are employed.

天好勿看見, 而况雨落 t’íe{n} ’hau veh k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}’, {h}ú hwong’ ’{ü}
loh, {when the weather is fine you cannot see it, how much more
when it rains}.
小個做勿來, 况且大個 ’siau kú‘ tsú‘ veh lé, hwong‘ ’t’siá dú‘ kú‘, {if
you cannot do a little thing, how much more impossible for you
to do a greater}.
自家尙且勿會做, 何况于別人 zz ká zang‘ ’t’siá veh {w}é tsú‘, {h}ú hwong‘ ü
bih niun, {since you cannot do it yourself, much more cannot
others do it}.

{Section} 11. {Expletives and Interjections}.

332. There are some words which though they have important grammatical uses cannot be conveniently set down among the preceding parts of speech and they are therefore placed here. Such are 個, 之, 者, 哩, kú‘, tsz, ’tsé, ’lí.

{a}. 個 kú‘, besides its use as a numeral particle (Art. 156), as the sign of the possessive (130) and in relative pronoun sentences, also takes its place as a final after a verb, or adjective in any indicative proposition.

好個好拉個 ’hau kú‘, ’hau ’lá kú‘, {it is good, well}.
勿能做個 veh nung tsú‘ kú‘, or veh nung kú‘ tsú‘, {I cannot do it}.

{b}. 之 tsz is the sign of the past or past participle, but as will be seen in the first three examples, it is often indicative.

前年做之宰相者 zíe{n} níe{n} tsú‘ tsz tsé‘ siáng‘ ’tsé, {the year before
last, he was prime minister}.
本地白也會話之 ’pun dí‘ {p}ah ’{á} {w}é‘ {w}ó‘ tsz, {he can speak in the
dialect of this place}.
明朝要寫好之末者 ming tsau yau‘ ’siá ’hau tsz meh ’tsé, {finish writing
it to-morrow}.
做之十年官咾告老者 tsú‘ tsz zeh níe{n} kwé{n} lau kau‘ ’lau ’tsé, {after
having been in office for ten years, he retired on the plea of
old age}.

{c}. 者 ’tsé is the sign of an action completed, or in course of being done, whether expressed by a verb or adjective; also of the imperative.

做拉者, 好者 tsú‘ ’lá ’tsé, ’hau ’tsé, {it is done, it is right}.
去拉個者 k’í‘ ’lá kú‘ ’tsé, {he is gone}.
吾拉做者 ngú ’lá tsú‘ ’tsé, {I am doing it}.

{d}. 哩 ’lí and 拉 ’lá, are used like ’tsé and kú‘, as finals to any indicative proposition. 拉 ’lá is also a preposition (Art. 256).

好哩, 勿好拉哩, 好個哩 ’hau ’lí, veh ’hau ’lá ’lí, ’hau kú‘ ’lí, {good,
it is not well, it is well}.

{e}. 咾 lau, the particle that connects a string of substantives, occurs at the end of sentences that require something to complete their sense.

已經話拉者咾, 有啥再話 ’í kiung {w}ó‘ ’lá ’tsé lau, ’{y}eu sá‘ tsé‘
{w}ó‘, {I have said it, and why should I say it again}.

Obs. 𫡄 ná is a final expletive used with 者 ’tsé.

讀者𫡄 {t}ók ’tsé ná, I am reading.

333. The final interrogatives are 呢, 否, 蠻, 麽, ní, ’vá, ma{n}‘, mó. Characters are borrowed for ’vá and ma{n}‘.

{a}. 呢 ní is used either at the end of the first clause in an interrogative antithesis, or at the end of a single clause. It is sometimes pronounced ’nia{n}.

做呢勿做 tsú‘ ní veh tsú‘, {will you do it or not?}
好勿好呢 ’hau veh ’hau ní, {is it right or not?}
勿懂呢啥 veh ’tóng ní sa‘, {do you not understand?}
物事忒貴個呢 meh zz‘ tuh kü‘ kú‘ ní, {are the things too dear?}

{b}. 否 ’vá and 蠻 ma{n}‘ are appropriated to direct interrogations, where not antithetical. They are colloquialisms.

飯用蠻 va{n}‘ {y}úng‘ ma{n}‘, {have you dined?}
還要再來否 wa{n} yau‘ tsé‘ lé‘ vá, {shall you come again?}
曉得否 ’h’iau tuh ’vá, {do you understand?}

{c}. 麽 mó (mau), besides expressing direct and indirect interrogation, also implies a strong affirmative. (Art. 278).

第個稀奇個物事有磨 {t}í‘ kú‘ h’í gí kú‘ meh zz‘ ’{y}eu mó, {is there this
remarkable thing?}
倒勿是十分壞良心麽 ’tau veh ’zz {s}eh vun {w}á‘ liáng sing mó? {is it not
most wilfully unconscionable!}
是否, 是麽 ’zz ’vá, ’zz mó, {is it so? indeed it is?}
第個價錢大麽 {t}í‘ kú‘ ká‘ díe{n} dú‘ mó, {the price of this is great
indeed} (亦通嗎).

334. The initial interrogatives 豈 ’k’í, {how?} 幾 ’kí, {how many?} with 那 ’ná, forming ’{á} ’lí, 那裏 {where? which?} and 那能 ’ná nung, {how?} have already been illustrated among the pronouns and adverbs.

335. The interjections properly so called are such as—

噯 é, {ah!} 噯動勿得個 é ’{t}óng veh tuh kú‘, {ah! you must not do such
a thing}.
呔 t’é, {ho!} 呸 ’p’é, {it is bad}.
阿唷 ah yóh, {alas! oh!}
㕭 au‘, indicates assent, {yes}, or {I understand}. In the first tone,
it calls attention or conveys a warning, 當心㕭 tong sing au, {be
careful and mind what I say}.
呀 á, 喲 yá, as in 是呀 ’zz á, 是喲 ’zz yáh, {it is so}.
哇 vá, {is it not so?} 哈 hé, {ah!}