Chapter VIII: Part II: {on the Parts of Speech} (1)

{Section} 1. {Native divisions}.

83. Common teachers of the language in distinguishing words, only use two pairs of terms, viz. 實, 虛 zeh, h’ü, and 死, 活 ’sz, {w}eh. The former signifies words that have a meaning (full) and such as have not (empty). All substantives are 實字眼 {s}eh zz‘ ’nga{n}. Auxiliary words or particles receive the name of 虛字眼 h’ü zz‘ ’nga{n}. Verbs and adjectives are placed by some writers in the first of these classes, and by others in the second. Remusat, says that verbs are 實字 zeh zz‘; a native author 畢華珍 Pih {w}ó tsun treats, all words except substantives, as in the second class.

84. The other pair of terms views words as nouns, which are spoken of as 死字眼 ’si zz‘ ’nga{n}, or verbs which are 活字眼 {w}eh zz‘ ’nga{n}. The usual sense of 活 is {living}, but by an extension of meaning, it is applied to anything not fixed to its place, or liable to change in its appearance or form. Hence, verbs as dependent on circumstances of time, will, etc. are termed {moving} or {transferable} words, while substantive are said to be {fixed} or {dead}.

85. The native writer just referred to, in a recent work, 衍緖草堂筆記 ’íe{n} ’zü ’t’sau dong pih kí‘, on the parts of speech and construction of sentences, has extended these divisions, by forming the 虛字 h’ü zz‘, or words not substantives, into four classes:—

1. Adjectives 呆虛字 ngé h’ü zz‘:—

Ex. 高 kau, {high}. 多 tú, {many}. 大 {t}á‘, {great}.
低 tí, {low}. 少 ’sau, {few}. 小 ’siau, {small}.

2. Verbs 活虛字 {w}eh h’ü zz‘:—

Ex. 作 tsok, {to do}. 傳 dzé{n}, {to deliver down}.

3. 口氣語助虛字 ’k’eu k’i‘ ’nü ’dzú h’ü zz‘. Under this head he gives as examples:—

Interrogative and other finals.

焉 {í}e{n},? 乎 {ú},?
哉 tsé,? 也 ’{y}é,.

Pronouns and the sign of the possessive.

此 ’t’sz, {this}. 所 ’sú, {which}.
其 gí, {he}. 之 tsz, {of}.

Adverbs & auxiliary verbs.

甚 zun‘, {very}. 可, ’k’ó, {can}.
最 tsûe‘, „ 爲 {w}é, {be}.

4. 空活虛字 k’óng {w}eh h’ü zz‘.

Obs. The word {w}eh is apparently employed, because conjunctions like verbs connect what goes before with what follows. Similarly, in English grammar the verb is the {copula}, while a large class of conjunctions consists of such as are termed {copulative}. The word 空 is prefixed to distinguish these particles from verbs. The examples he gives are—

Conjunctions.

雖 sûe, {although}. 如 zû, {like}.
但 {t}an‘, {but}. 若 zák, {as}.
而 rh, {further}. 乃 né, {then}.

Negative and interrogative adverbs.

非 fí {it is not}. 何 {ú}, {what?}
不 peh, {not}. 豈 ’k’í, {how?}

{These examples are from the language of books. The corresponding words in the dialect will be found in their places}.

86. The frequent interchange of the parts of speech, and the rhythmical construction of sentences, have almost kept in concealment among the natives, the classification of which words naturally admit. Much attention has been given to the successive forms of the characters; the changes that have occurred in them, and the principles of their original formation have been carefully chronicled; but etymological studies have been comparatively neglected.

The rules of the Wun-cháng, or exercises in fine writing, law indeed been laid down, but they do not constitute the grammar of the language. While grammar is a science still unknown to the Chinese, it is a mark of the intelligence of our author that he has approached so nearly, as the preceding article shews to a western classification, and that he has defined with precision, all the principal parts of speech.

The division into parts of speech, and simple and compound words, gains in distinctness as we leave the books and restrict our illustrations to the language of conversation, and much more when instead of embracing the universal mandarin medium, we aim to exhibit the dialect of a single district.

For example the words 過 kú‘, 能 nung, 生 sáng, are in the books verbs or nouns according to their position, their tones remaining unchanged. In the Shánghái dialect they are all verbs, viz. to pass, can, to produce, If they stand alone; but the combinations of which they form part are often substantives. Ex. 過失 kú‘ seh, {a fault}; 能力 nung lih, {strength}; 生活 sáng {w}é{h} work. Ming, 明 which in the books is an adjective or verb, must if used as a verb in the colloquial have 白 {p}áh appended to it, otherwise it is an adjective. Thus instead of terminations invented to carry a root through two or more parts of speech, we have two roots in opposition for the same purpose. In the following pages accordingly, the terms noun; adjective, etc. will be predicated of the combined forms each as a whole, and not of its constituent words except when viewed independently.

{Section} 2. {Relation of the dialect to the written language, and
to other dialects}.

87. In comparing the dialect with the language of books, it will be best to go at once to the oldest. The earliest portions of the Shú-king, {Book of History}, date from a period that must have been at least 3000 years ago if not previous to that of Moses. The occurrence of many of the commonest words now found in the colloquial {media} of China in records so ancient, is a sufficient illustration of the remarkable persistence of the language. It thus appears that many of the nouns and pronouns, adjectives and verbs, that formed the staple of conversation in the days of Yáu and Shun, are found not merely in the pages of an old world literature, but are still “familiar household words,” among the whole Chinese race. The selected examples which follow are all of constant use in the Shánghái dialect.

88. Examples of single words used in combination or singly.

Names of natural objects, animals, &c.

天 t’íen, {heaven}. 月 niöh, {moon}. 馬 ’mó, {horse}.
地 {t}i‘, {earth}. 星 sing, {stars}. 牛 nieu, {ox}.
人 niun, {man}. 山 sa{n}, {mountain}. 羊 yáng, {sheep}.
水 ’sz, {water}. 海 ’hé, {sea}.
火 ’hú, {fire}. 草 ’t’sau, {grass}.

Divisions of time.

春 t’sun, {spring}. 日 nyih, {day}.
夏 ’{h}au, {summer}. 月 niöh, {month}.
秋 t’sieu, {autumn}. 歲 sûe‘, {solar year}.
冬 tóng, {winter}. 夜 yá‘ {night}.

Meteorological terms.

風 fóng, {wind}. 雷 lé, {thunder}. 雨 ’{ü}, {rain}.

Numbers.

一 ih, {one}. 六 lóh, {six}.
二 ní‘, {two}. 七 t’sih, {seven}.
三 sa{n}, {three}. 八 pah, {eight}.
四 sz‘, {four}. 九 ’kieu, {nine}.
五 ’ng, {five}. 十 zeh, {ten}.

Cardinal points.

東 tóng, {east}. 南 né{n}, {south}.
西 sí, {west}. 北 póh, {north}.

Verbs.

定 {t}ing‘, {to fix}. 能 nung, {can}.
歸 kwé, {return home}. 有 ’{y}eu, {have}.

Adjectives.

大 {t}á‘, {great}. 希 hí, {few}.
遠 ’{y}ön, {distant}. 直 dzuk, {straight}.

Nouns.

罪 zûe, {sin}. 禮 ’lí, {ceremony}.
門 mun; {door}. 詩 sz, {poetry}.

Pronoun.

我 ’ngú, {I}.

89. Examples of nouns composed of two characters, or as they may be termed, dissyllabic forms.

百姓 pák-sing‘, {the people}. 上帝 záng‘-tí‘, {God}.
天下 t’íe{n}-’{a}u, {the world}. 鳳凰 vóng {w}ong‘ {phœnix}.
正月 tsung‘-niöh, {1st month}. 法度 fah-dú‘, {mode of government}.
聰明 ts’óng-ming, {intelligent}.

90. Examples of words used in combinations in the dialect, but not singly.

鳥 as in 窵鳥 ’tiau-niau, {birds}.
帝 as in 皇帝 {w}ong-tí‘, {emperor}.
神 as in 神明 zun-ming, {the inferior divinities}.
位 as in 地位 {t}í‘-{w}é‘, {station}.
事 as in 事體 zz‘-’t’í, {matter}.
可 as in 可以 ’k’ó-’í, {may, can}.
日 as in 日頭 nyih-deu, {the sun}.
聞 as in 新聞 sing-vun, {intelligence}.
說 as in 說書 söh-sû, {relate stories}.

91. These examples, which might if it were necessary, be extended to a much greater length, will be sufficient to exhibit how the most ancient forms of speech, the primitive words of the Chinese race, have maintained their position to the present time. In a similar way, the later classics contemporary with Hebrew literature, and the most flourishing part of the Greek, might be shewn to possess in a still greater abundance, the materials from which this and other dialects have grown into their existing form. But there are also many new words; the passage of time must witness changes, even in the language of a people so devoted to antiquity as that of China. It has been shewn that there has been variation in tones, by referring to the pronouncing Dictionaries made long since. The natives recognize great differences In modern and ancient sounds, as seen in the rhymes of the Book of Odes. Words also have changed; many expressions once common have become antiquated, and new ones have appeared. A reference ta colloquial mandarin will illustrate this statement, and bring before us another large portion of the materials of the dialect.

{Relation to colloquial Mandarin}. 92. The earliest examples of this form of Chinese, are found in works of the Sung dynasty and in the historical novels. Mencius so remarkable among the classic authors, for his picturesque imagery and the animation of his style, sometimes uses combinations, such as 朋友 {p}áng {y}eu‘, {friend}; 自己 zz‘ ’kí, {self}; seldom found in ancient books, and which may be considered as conversational.

93. The following are examples selected from the San kwoh chi 三國志, and Lieh kwoh chi 烈國志, works now five hundred years old, of new words not found in the classics, and all in common use in our dialect.

樹 zû‘, {tree}. 會 {w}é‘, {am able to}.
脚 kiáh, {roof}. 吃 k’iuh, {eat}.
船 zé{n} {boat}. 呌 kiau‘, {call a person}.
撇 p’ih, {stroke to the left}. 攏 ’lóng, {bring together}.
埃 á, {take in order}. 惹 ’zá, {provoke}.
敲 k’au, {knock}. 揪 t’sieu, {restrain by holding}.
撑 t’sáng, {pole a boat}. 瞧 dziau, {to look}.
抄 t’sau, {to copy}. 抖 ’teu, {shiver}.
喝 höh, {call to}. 拖 t’ú, {to pull}.
爬 {p}ó, {to scratch}. 勦 tsiau‘, {destroy}.

94. Of the following new pronouns, and interrogative adverbs first found in the historical novels, there is scarcely any use made in the Shánghái dialect.

甚麽 M. shen‘ ’mó? {what?} 那裡 M. ’ná ’li? {where?}
什麽 shih ’mó? {what?} 這箇 ché‘ kó‘, {this}.
怎麽 ’tsun ’mó? {how?} 他 t’á, {he}.

Obs. The Shánghái pronouns are all different from those, except the mutilated form 那裡 ’{a} ’lí? {where?} So for the most part those of Fúh-kien; which again differ entirely from those of the Canton dialect as contained in Bridgman’s Chrestomathy. Some pronouns are widely spread. Thus, ngó 我 I, exists in all these dialects. As a class however, they are among the words most liable to variation in colloquial Chinese.

95. The following examples of double words taken from the same works, will further illustrate the extent to which mandarin phraseology agrees with that of our dialect. They are all such combinations as are not found in the classics, and might be increased indefinitely.

人家 niun ká, {a man}.
低頭 tí deu, {lower the head}.
開船 k’é zén, {unmoor a boat}.
時辰 zz zun, {an hour}, i.e. {twelfth of a day}.
招架 tsau ká‘, {shield one’s-self}.
(C) 幫助 pong dzú‘, {to assist}.
容易 {y}úng {í}‘, easy.
船隻 (C) ze{n} tsáh, {boats; or a boat}.
𢬵命 ’p’ing ming‘, {throw away life}.
看見 k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘, {to see}.
踅手 zeh ’seu, {maimed hand}.
利害 lí {é}‘, {dangerous, severe}.
(C) 仔細 ’tsz sí‘, {minutely}.
解說 ’ká seh, {explanation}.
撞倒 dzong‘ ’tau, {push down}.
敬重 kiung‘ dzóng, {revere}.
最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, {very good}.
認得 niun‘ tuh, {know a person}.
唱喏 (C) t’song‘ ’zó, {join one’s hands in respect}.
倒竪 ’tau ’zû, {set up on end}.

The characters marked (C) are those that were invented, to represent colloquial words written for the first time. The rest are old classical characters, but they are not found in these combinations.

97. On comparing the old historical novels, with mandarin colloquial tales of the present dynasty, such as the well-known 紅樓夢 {Dream of the Red Chamber}, no closer analogy with our dialect appears. The style indeed is much more diffuse, being a faithful copy of what real conversation is, and so far it is more like provincial dialects. But as to words, the auxiliary particles (in which the chief changes occur), are peculiar to mandarin, and the verbs and nouns are the same as those of earlier works.

Thus, 的 occurs constantly instead of 之 ch, which is the most common sign of the possessive in the {Three Kingdoms}. As the third personal pronoun, 那 ’ná takes the place of 其 gí The word for {said}, 曰 {y}öh, a term not used in conversation, is replaced by 說道 shwóh táú, either together or apart.

98. Having thus briefly considered the historical division that the dialect admits of, into primitive and modern words, something should be added on local terms, constituting the remainder. On examination it will be found that the words, single and compound, not in mandarin, are few. They can scarcely be many more than a hundred. In a list drawn up for the purpose by a native, of about 100, a third part consisted of verbs, another third part of particles, the rest comprised substantives, adjectives, and words imitative of sounds.

Many of these belong also to the dialects of the neighbouring cities. In the histories of Sú-cheú and Súng-kiáng, the short chapter devoted to the subject of colloquialisms, enumerates several that belong equally to Shánghái. They appear to have been copied in great part from one work into another, and the whole number recorded in each does not reach fifty. Those contained in the history of Shánghái, will be found in the following pages under the parts of speech to which they belong. In Medhurst’s Dictionary of the Fúh-kien dialect, there are classified lists of about 250 phrases peculiar to that province. Some of these however are corrupted forms of expressions used in the other parts of China.

99. The neighbouring dialect of Sú-cheú may be expected to have much in common with that of Shánghái, The system of pronunciation is in general the same, the initial consonants forming a hard and soft series, corresponding to the upper and lower tones in the southern provinces. The following are examples of phrases, the same as those of Shánghái.

那哼 ’ná háng? {how?} 弗是 veh zz‘, {it is not}
自家 zz‘ ká, {self}. 多許 tú hau‘, {very many}.
弟个 veh kú‘, {not so}. 慢點 ma{n}‘ ’tíe{n}, {little slower}.
做啥 tsú‘ sá‘? {what do you?} 個頭 kú‘ deu, {there}.
個歇 kú‘ h’ih, {at present}. 個个 kú‘ kú‘, {that}.

哉 tsé (M. 了), sign of completion.
子 ’tsz (M. 了), sign of past participle.
个 kú‘ (M. 的), sign of possessive.
勿 veh (M. 不), simple negative.
全 dsíe{n} (M. 都), {all}.
啥 sá‘ (M. 甚麽)? {what?}
好好能 ’hau ’hau nung, {well, in a good manner}.
想着之 ’siáng záh ’tsz, {having thought of}.
拉屋裡 ’la óh ’lí, {at home}.
是介 zz‘ ké‘ (S. {s}eh ké nung), {thus}.

In some words very commonly occurring, that dialect differs from Shánghái and agrees with mandarin.

This, M. 道个 ché‘ kú‘. S. 第个 {t}í‘ kú‘.
He, M. 他 t’á. S. 伊 í.
How? M. 怎麽樣 ’tsun ’mó yáng‘?

{Section} 3. {On the Substantive}.

100. The native grammarian already introduced to the reader defines substantives, or rather substances, thus 天地名物, 象數事理 T’íe{n} dí‘ ming veh‘ ziáng‘ sú‘ zz‘ ’{l}i, “Heaven, earth, names and things, images, numbers, facts and principles;” 凡有形有質, 有氣有聲 va{n} ’{y}eu {y}iung ’{y}eu tseh ’{y}eu k’i ’{y}eu sung, “all things that have form, material substances, breath and sound;” 一切有端可指者 ih t’sih ’{y}eu tön ’k’ó ’{t}sz ’tsé, “all things having any property that can be pointed out;” 皆謂之實字 kia {w}é‘ tsz {s}eh zz‘, “are called substantives.”

“The names of substances,” he adds, “may consist of one or several characters, which must be arranged in classes, brought under the dominion of the rhythmus, and stored in the memory for use when required.” Such nouns as express the properties of substances he calls 子字 ’tsz zz‘, “son characters,” while the names of the substances themselves are termed 毋字 ’mú zz‘, “mother characters.” Attributes he further subdivides into “universal,” 公共子字 kóng góng‘ ’tsz zz‘, and “special,” 實在子字 {s}eh zé ’tsz zz‘.

{Combined and uncombined substantives}. 101. One of the most striking peculiarities of Chinese words, whether nouns, verbs or particles, is the strictness with which the laws of combination and order are observed. Each dialect has many words that can be used with or without an adjunct, and may be regarded as purely monosyllabic; another large class embraces such as are never used by the natives, except in apposition with some other word, and constituting for that dialect, what may be considered dissyllables. Of the former or monosyllabic kind are the following examples (s. C).

飯 va{n}‘, {cooked rice}. 貓 mau‘, {cat}. 狗 ’keu, {dog}.
雲 yün, {clouds}. 墨 muh, {ink}. 藥 {y}áh, {medicine}.
理 ’lí, {moral law}. 煤 mé, {coal}. 雪 sih, {snow}.

102. In construction, these and similar words may be observed to remain in an uncombined state. The first word in each, of the following sentences exemplifies this remark.

米糴好否 ’mi {t}ih ’hau ’vá? {have you brought rice?}
人是一樣个 niun ’zz ih {y}áng‘ kú, {I am a man as you}.
袖要大 dzien‘ yau‘ dú‘, {let the sleeve be large}.

These words may all of them be used in combination, according to some of the laws described in the succeeding paragraphs. Thus they appear in dissyllabic forms such as—

米價 ’mí ká‘, {price of rice}. 大人 {t}ú‘ niun, {father}.

103. The other class consists of those words that are never used without an adjunct. For example 衣 í {dress}, not used alone, is found among other combinations in the following.

衣裳 í zong, {clothes}. 布衣 pú‘ í, {cotton clothes}.

So also 猪 tsz, 日 zeh, 房 vong, 禮 ’lí, are found in combination only.

猪驢 tsz lú, {a pig}. 過房 ku‘ vong, {adopted child}.
江猪 kong tsz, {the river pig} (a fish).
禮物 ’lí veh, {presents}. 日食 nyih zuh, {eclipse of the sun}.

104. In construction, the adjuncts unless the rhythmus requires it, cannot be omitted.

着衣裳 tsáh í zong, {put on clothes}.
殺猜驢个 sah tsz lú kú‘, {pork butcher}.
日頭落山 nyih deu lok sa{n}, {sun is setting}.
租房子 tsú vong ’tsz, {let a house}.
送禮物 sóng‘ ’lí veh, {offer presents}.

{Combination}. 105. Substantives are formed of two or more substantives combined in various ways. If the collocation consists of species and genus, the former precedes.

柏樹 páh zû‘, {cypress}.
茶壺 dzó {ú}, {teapot}.
松樹 sóng zû‘, {pine}.
鐵蛋 t’ih da{n}‘, {iron bullet}.
酒壺 tsieu {ú}, {wine chalice}.
雞蛋 kí da{n}‘, {hen’s egg}.
牡丹花 mau‘-ta{n}‘ hwó, {moutan pœny}.
孛相船 {p}eh-siáng‘ zén {pleasure boat}.
堦沿石 ká-{í}en záh, {first door-step}.
磨刀石 mú tau záh, {grind-stone}.
紅緯帽子 {h}óng {w}é‘ mau‘-’tsz, {red tasselled hat}.

Obs. In the last five examples, the first two words constitute the species. The word 石 záh requires 頭 as its appendage, if there is no specific term prefixed. When compounds are formed, the auxiliary word is omitted. In the last case 子 tsz, the auxiliary is retained, or dropped at pleasure.

106. When the compound substantive formed by juxtaposition, consists of whole and part, or substance and accident or attribute, the former precedes.

手心 ’seu sing, {palm of the hand}.
手套 ’seu t’au‘, {gloves}.
樹根 zû‘ kun, {root of a tree}.
樹葉 zû‘ ih, {leaves of a tree}.
頭髮 {t}eu fah, {hair}.
首飾 ’seu seh, {head ornaments}.

107. When two or more substantives, cognate in meaning, or in some logical relation, are in apposition, their order depends on native usage.

親眷 t’sing kiö{n}‘, {relations}.
信息 sing‘ sih, {letters and news}.
街路 ká lu‘ {the road}.
貨色 hú‘ suh, {goods}.
榮光 {y}óng kwong, {glory}.
財帛 dzé báh, {money and silk}.
福祿壽 fóh loh zeu‘, {happiness, affluence and age}.
酒色財氣 ’tsieu suh dzé k’í‘ {wine, lust, riches and anger}.

Obs. i. The primary reason of the order in which these words are used, may have been a real or fanciful sequence of ideas, convenience of pronunciation, rhythm or caprice; but whatever it was, it is strictly preserved. Should another order be adopted, the meaning would not be conveyed. To these and other fixed combinations, found in all parts of speech, must in great part be attributed, the facility with which a language of monosyllables and tones such as the Chinese, is employed as a conversational medium.

Obs. ii. Many words found in compounds of this sort are inseparable. Thus 眷 kiö{n}‘ has no other use in the dialect, than to form these combinations. As a verb {to compassionate} its use is limited to the books.

Obs. iii. Under this head may be included antithetical substantives (Literæ oppositæ, Premare), of which there are several in common use without a particle between them. 姊妹 tsí ({elder sister}) mé‘ ({younger do.}) sisters; 禽獸 {k}iun ({birds}), seu‘ ({beasts}), {animals}; 天地 t’íe{n} dí‘, {heaven and earth}; 夫婦 fú vú‘, {husband and wife}; 山水人物 sa{n} ’sz niun veh, {mountains, water, men and things:} 銅錢銀子 {t}óng díe{n} niung ’tsz, {copper and silver money}.

Obs. iv. Phrases of this sort are not coined {ad libitum}. They are old forms, and the modern Chinese do not allow themselves to make new ones. Each dialect has its own traditional arrangement of words, as well as its particular mode of enunciating the tones, and its alphabetical variations. But there is in all the dialects, so large a majority of phrases as well as words, common to the rest of China, even in that of Fúh-kien, that the identity of the language is in no district brought into question by these differences.

108. Some of these combined forms consist of a substantive and an enclitic. Of the auxiliary words thus used 子 ’tsz, 頭 {t}eu, are the most common.

鴿子 keh ’tsz, {a pigeon}.
席子 {s}ih ’tsz, {matting}.
刮法子 {k}wah fah ’tsz, {machinery}.
罐頭 kwé{n}‘ deu, {saucepan}.
流頭 lieu den, {pulley}.
甎頭 tsé{n} deu, {bricks}.
話頭 {w}ó‘ deu, {words}.
骨耳頭 kweh- ’rh deu, {an axle}.

These enclitics are never used in the classics; they form a leading characteristic of colloquial Chinese. ’Tsz and {t}eu give individuality and definiteness to the term they qualify. Their proper meaning, {son}, {head}, is in these cases lost; they help also to fill the rhythm of the sentence, and to distinguish the words to which they are appended from other terms like them in sound. The enclitic 兒 rh, so common in the mandarin provinces, and also in the dialect of Háng-cheú, has its place supplied by 子 ’tsz. Nyih ’tsz 日子 {day} is distinguished from nyih deu 日頭 {the sun} by the enclitic.

109. To express a place where persons come and go, the words 頭 deu and 塲 dzáng are appended to substantives.

粒屑 lih sih, or sih alone, expresses {small fragments of}.
局頭 {k}ióh deu, {place of carrying on trade}.
橋頭 {k}iau deu, {landing place of a bridge}.
碼頭 ’mó deu, „ „ {of a ferry}.
賭場 ’tu dzáng, {place of gaming}.
戲場 h’í dzáng, {place of seeing plays}.
牛場 nieu dzáng, {place of tethering cattle}.
柴粒屑 zá lih sih, {small fragments of firewood}.

110. Verbs and adjectives form compound substantives, by taking after them such auxiliaries as 頭 {t}eu, 法 fah and 處 t’sû‘.

有辦頭 ’{y}eu pa{n}‘ deu, {there is a way of doing it}.
唔坐處 {m} ’zú t’sû‘, {no place to sit down}.
有啥做法 ’{y}eu sá‘ t’sû‘ fah? {is there a way of doing it?}
唔啥好處 {m} sá‘ ’hau t’sû‘, {no benefit in it}.
那能好法 ’ná nung ’hau fah? {how is it good?}
長頭 {dzáng deu}, {overplus}.
剩頭, 餘頭 dzung‘ deu, {û} deu, {remainder}.
牢實頭 lau zeh deu, {a simple, honest person}.
苦惱子 ’k’u ’nau ’tsz, {one very poor and wretched}.

111. Many of the auxiliary substantives treated of in the next section, whose office it is to stand between numerals and their nouns, often follow their substantives without a numeral. A compound is thus formed, in which the sense of the classifying particle is often preserved, {A piece of} is expressed by k’wé. {A bar of} by {t}iau.

冰塊 ping k’wé‘, {piece of ice}. 鋼條 kong diau, {steel spring}.
船隻 zé{n} tsáh, {boats}. 人頭 niun deu, {a man}.
書本 sû ’pun, {books}. 紙張 ’tsz tsáng, {sheet of paper}.

112. The words 夫 fú, 手 ’seu, 做 tsoh, 匠 ziáng‘, 司務 sz‘ vú‘, 家 ká, 人 niun, are appended to substantives to denote agents, trades and professions.

脚夫 kiák fú, {a porter}. 兇手 h’iúng ’seu, {murderer}.
本作, 木匠 mok tsoh, or móh ziáng‘, {carpenter}.
水作, 泥水匠 ’sz tsoh, or ní ’sz ziáng‘, {bricklayer}.
鞋匠司務 {h}á ziáng‘ sz‘ vú‘, {shoemaker}.
裁縫司務 dzé vóng sz‘ vú‘, {tailor}.
店家 tié{n} ká, {shop-keeper}. 船家 zé{n} ká, {boatman}.
捉魚人 tsoh {ng} niun. {fisherman}.
拾柴人 {s}ih zá niun, {wood gatherer}.
東家 tóng ({east}) ká, {master} ({who places his guests on the right}).
禮生 ’lí sáng, {director of rites}. 先生 síe{n} sáng, {teacher}.

Obs. In the longer examples, some verbs will be found which enter into composition, as those in Art. 113.

113. Verbs and adjectives are frequently compounded in the same way as substantives.

屏風 {p}ing ({to screen}) fóng ({the wind}), {a screen}.
扶手 vú ({to support}) ’seu ({the hand}), {hand-rail}.
吃局 k’iuh ({eat}) gióh ({food}), {food}.
小姐 ’siau tsiá, {young lady}.
古董 ’kú ({old}) ’tóng, {curiosities}.
夥計 ’hú ({combine}) kí‘ ({plans}), {partner in business}.
辮子 {p}íe{n}‘ ({to plait}) ’tsz, {the queue}.
黃狼 {w}ong ({yellow}) long ({wolf}), {weasel}.
抽㔸 t’seu ({to draw out}) t’í‘ ({drawer}), {a drawer}.
生梨 sáng ({raw}) lí ({pears}), {pears}.
花紅 hwó ({flower}) {ó}ng ({red}), {small apples}.
金箔 kíun boh, ({thin}) {gold-leaf}.
相好 siáng ({mutual}) hau ({good}) {intimate friends}.

114. The word 阿, merely euphonic, is joined to the names of persons, both relative and proper. Thus instead of 哥哥 kó kó, {elder brother}, we have in Shánghái 阿哥 ah (R. á.) kú also 阿爹 or 爹爹 tiá tiá, {father}. When applied to the names of children and others in humble life, either word in the proper name may annexed.

115. Some examples of foreign words used in the dialect, and of colloquial substantives, extracted from the history of Shánghái are here appended.

鴉片 á p’íe{n}‘, {opium}.
袈裟 ká só, {Buddhist priest’s robe}. Sanscrit Kashaya.
記 (C) 翼 (C) kí‘ lih, {wings}. M. ’ch pang rh.
尾杷 (C) ní‘ pó, {tail}. (尾) R. ’vi) M. i pa.
小囝 (C) ’siau nö{n}, {little boy}.
鱟 (C) heu‘, {the king-crab, rainbow}. M. kang‘, R. 虹 hung.
簷凙 (C) {y}ien doh, {icicles}. M. ping chiu‘ ’tsz.
羊乳 (C) {y}áng ’ná, {goat’s milk}.
筷 (C) k’wa{n}, {chopsticks}. M. k’wai tsz.
烟囪 (C) íe{n} t’sóng, {chimney}. M. yen ’t’ung.
爺娘 {y}á niáng, {father and mother}. M. tie niang.

Obs. Characters followed by (c) are such as are borrowed, to represent purely colloquial words.

New and colloquial words are usually written on the phonetic principle, as may be noticed in the first three examples. Natives differ much in their way of writing purely colloquial words, and being never made use of in books, it matters little what character is adopted.

116. The last way of forming compound substantives to be exemplified, is by the particle 個 kú‘, which coming after a verb and noun expresses an agent.

吃糧箇 k’iuh liáng kú, ({living on imperial rice}), {soldiers}.
撐船箇 t’sáng zé{n} kú‘, {those who work boats}.
管賬個 ’kwé{n} tsáng‘-kú‘, {account-keeper}.
賣花個 má‘ hwó kú‘, {flower-seller}.
擺渡個 ’pá dú‘ kú‘, {ferryman}.

Obs. The common word 的 tih and in books 者 ’tsé is not used in this dialect its place being supplied by 個 kú‘ as in these examples.

{Repetition}. 117. Substantives are in some cases repeated. Forms indicative of diminutiveness are such as occur in the following examples.

嘵一星星 ’nau ih sing sing, {look! there is a star}.
要一點點 yau‘ ih ’tíe{n} ’tíe{n}, {I want a very little}.

118. A few repeated forms occur, with am adjective preceding in opposition.

暗洞洞 é{n}‘ dóng dóng, {a dark place}.
亮晃晃 liáng ’kwong ’kwong, {a glimmer of light}.

Obs. Such forms of repetition are rare, except when they express plurality (v. Art. 129). In the adjective and verb, they are much more common. See also Part III. Repetition.

119. The formation of compound substantives, by the simple apposition of two or more roots, is also found in other languages. English and German contain many examples. Substantives, adjectives, and verbs all enter into these forms. E.g. hearsay (v. v.), sunset (s. v.), windfall (s. v.), footstool (s. s.), farewell (v. adv.), lebewohl (do. German), adieu (prep. s. Fr. Eng.), addio (do. Ital.), safeguard (a. s.), white-bait (a. s.), Rath-haus (s. s.), council-house (s. s.). Though many of these words are written without a break, the accent on the penultimate indicates, for those that are English, that they are compounds. In languages that have an extensive system of terminations such as Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit, when composition occurs, the constituent roots become one word, and the affix of declension, &c. in the word that precedes is usually omitted. Thus, in {αὐτάδελφος} and {αὐτόχειρ} the simple root {aut} precedes the word to which it is joined, in one case with no adjunct, and in the other with the connecting vowel {o}. In the Latin word {respublica}, {reipublicæ} we have two roots in apposition, without the process of declension being interrupted. Cases of simple juxtaposition such as this, are much rarer in the ancient languages than in the modern, where the root admits of few variations in its form.

120. In the development of a language consisting of monosyllabic roots, where nothing can be added or altered, some equivalent for terminations and compounds must be expected. This want is met in the Indian languages of America, by combining several independent roots into one word. If for these agglutinated syllables, separate characters were reserved, it would be a system resembling the Chinese. We have in the latter (1), simple apposition of roots, as exemplified in articles 105, 106, 107. Second, there is a change of certain substantives into mere particles which are appended, deprived of their primitive meaning, to large classes of words, as seen in articles 108, 109, 110. Forms of this second kind are usually expressive of simple ideas only; the others may be simple or compound. The terminations of tense and case in the classical languages came from the simple apposition of separate words. Those of the first, second, and third persons of a verb are derived for example, from the three corresponding personal pronouns. Obsolete forms preserved in the oldest writers countenance this theory. Whether the primitive speech of mankind was of this sort, may be matter of controversy, but there can be no doubt that the Chinese language has this peculiarity.

121. Variation in tone might be enumerated as a third mode of supplying the want of inflexions. Examples in the spoken language are however extremely few. In 種 tsóng‘, {to sow}, and 種子 ’tsóng ’tsz, {seed}, the tone differs. But even here the enclitic 子 is an inseparable appendage to the noun. Some other examples here follow:—

一囘 ih {w}é‘, {one time}. 囘來 {w}é lé, {come back}.
磨子 mú‘ ’tsz, {a mill}. 磨麥 mú máh, {grind wheat}.
牽繩 k’íe{n}‘ zung, {towing-rope}. 牽船 k’íe{n} zé{n}, {tow a boat}.
鐵釘 t’ih ting, {iron nail}. 釘牢 ting‘ lau, {nail fast}.
應該 yung ké, {ought}. 應許 yung‘ ’hü, {a promise}.
相幫 siáng pong, {to assist}. 宰相 tsé‘ siáng‘, {chief mandn}.

Obs. The superior comma on the right shows where the words whose tone varies should receive the quick rising tone, or Shánghái {k’u shing}.

{Gender}. 122. Gender is expressed by auxiliary words set apart for the purpose. It being thus merely an instance of adjectives and substantives in apposition, the arrangement requires the words descriptive of sex (男 né{n}, 女 ’nü), or gender (雌 t’sz, 雄 {y}ióng) to precede.

雄鷄雌鷄 {y}ióng-kí t‘sz-kí, {a cock and hen}.
一隻雄獅子 ih tsáh {y}ióng sz-tsz, {a male lion}.[1]
男人 né{n} niun, {husband}. 女囝 ’nü nö{n}, {a girl}.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. In the books {y}óng, t’sz, are restricted to birds, and 牝
{p}ing‘ and 牡 meu‘ to animals. In the colloquial of this part of
China, the pair of words above are used in all cases.
-----------------------------------------------------------------

123. Among the words used in the Shánghái dialect to express family relationship are the following:—

爹爹 tiá tiá, {father}. 姊夫 tsí fú, {brother-in-law}.
阿媽 ah ’má, {mother}. 孫女 sun ’nü, {grand daughter}.
阿奶 ah ’ná, {grandmother}. 外甥 ngá‘ sáng, {sister’s son}.
伯伯 páh páh, {eldest uncle}. 女壻 ’nü sih, {son-in-law}.
爺叔 {y}á sóh, {younger do}. 姑媽 kú mó, {husband’s sister}.
娘舅 niáng gieu‘, {mother’s 姑娘 kú niáng, {father’s sister}.
brother}. 阿姨 ah {í}, {wife’s sister}.
丈人 dzáng‘ niun, {father-in-law}. 阿嫂 ah sau, {brother’s wife}.
阿姆 dzáng‘ {m}, {mother-in-law}.
媳婦 sing vú, {daughter-in-law}. 阿姪 ah dzeh, {brother’s son}.
外公 ngá‘ kóng, {mother’s father}.
阿姊 ah tsí, {elder sister}.
妹妹 mé‘ mé‘,{younger do}. 外婆 ngá bú, {mother’s mother}.

{Number}. 124. The form of the substantives in the singular and plural is the same. The auxiliary adjectives and adverbs used to express plurality are placed some before and some after their words. {Tsóng‘}, {tú hau‘} {’hau ’kí}, and {tá} precede their noun. {Dzén}, t{’óh}, invariably follow their words.

125. 衆 tsóng‘ precedes its noun and expresses universality.

衆百姓 tsóng‘ pák sing‘, {all the people}.
衆位阿 tsóng‘ {w}é‘ á, {all you persons}.

126. 多許 tú hau‘ and ’hau ’ki 好幾 describe {a great number or several}. Being double inseparable particles, they form a complete member of a sentence alone, and therefore can be separated from their words, and placed afterwards with a copula and a terminating particle.

多許物事 tú hau‘ meh zz‘, {a great many things}.
物事有多許拉 meh zz‘ ’{y}eu tú hau‘ lá, {there are very many things}.
好幾个人 ’hau ’kí kú‘ niun, {a good many men}.
人有好幾个 niun ’{y}eu ’hau ’kí ku‘, {there are several men}.

127. 多 tú, several, like tsóng‘ cannot form a complete member of a sentence alone, and therefore precedes its word. It is used extensively with, the specific substantive particles already alluded to. The word tu, {many}, retains its old sound ta for this use.

買之大斤者 ’má tsz tá kiun ’tsé, {have bought several catties}.
多囘 tá {w}é‘, {several times}.
多個國度 tá k個‘ kóh dú‘, or tá kóh, {several kingdoms}.
多句說話 tá kü‘ seh {w}ó‘, {many sentences}.

128. The words 全, 禿 dzé{n}, t’óh foil following their substantives, usually from the first word in the concluding member of the proposition.

米咾肉禿有 ’mí lau niók t’óh {y}eu, {there are both rice and meat}.
人全拉看戲 niun dzé{n} ’lá k’ö{n}‘ hí‘, {they are all looking at the
play}.

Obs. Pronunciation places these auxiliary particles in closer union with the following word, than with their own noun. Yet the rhythmus often attracts the two members into one sentence. E.g.

男女禿有 né{n} ’nü t’oh ’{y}eu, {the men and women are all there}.
官府全好 kwé{n} ’fú dzé{n} ’hau, {the mandarins are all good}.

129. The plural is also formed by repetition.

人人來者 niun niun lé ’tsé, {the men are all come}.
國國太平 kók kók t’á‘ bing, {nations all at peace}.
世世代代 sz‘ sz‘ dé‘ dé‘, {age after age}.

{Case}. 130. The genitive or possessive case is expressed by 個 kú‘. It corresponds to 的 tih, M. 个 gé, é, Fúhkien, 個 kó‘, Canton.

伊个聲氣 í kú‘ sáng k’í‘, {his voice}.
花个蘂頭 hwó kú‘ ’nü deu, {the buds of flowers}.
人个面孔 niun kú‘ míe{n}‘ ’k’óng, {the human voice}.

Obs. When the possessive particle is omitted, a compound substantive is formed, as hwó ’nü deu, {flower buds}. Here no transposition is necessary, the predicated part standing last in both cases. English idiom placing the subject after the possessive particle, also requires the definite article to begin the sentence, “the buds of flowers.” When the constituent words are not adapted to form a compound substantive, as in the first of the examples above, the particle is always retained.

131. The objective case has no particle to mark it. It is known by position, coming after the verb. The nominative always precedes the verb.

我告訴㑚 ’ngú kau‘ sú‘ ná‘, {I tell you}.
送我一本 sóng ’ngú ih ’pun, {give me a book}.
勿要駡人 veh yau‘ mó‘ niun, {do not rail at people}.
告訴伊拉者 kau‘ sú‘ í ’lá ’tsé, {I have told him}.

132. Only the verb 話 {w}ó‘, {to say}, requires a particle to precede the objective noun. The words 替, 對, 忒, t’í‘, té‘, t’eh, may either of them be employed.

吾替㑚話 ’ngú t’í‘ ná‘ {w}ó‘, {I tell you}.
忒伊話末者 t’eh í {w}ó‘ meh ’tsé, {tell him}.
對伊話拉者 té‘ í {w}ó‘ ’lá ’tse, {have told him}.

Obs. This verb being intransitive, and standing last, leaves the substantive ungoverned, and renders a preposition necessary. So in English {say} requires {to} after it. In Latin, the noun is put in the dative without a preposition, as {dico vobis}.

133. The sign of the dative in {da mihi}, and {give it to me} is omitted. The euphonic particle ’lá 拉 is used to fill up the rhythmus.

撥我一箇 peh ’ngú ih kú‘, {give me one}.
撥飯拉我 peh va{n} ’lá ’ngú, {give me rice}.
撥飯我吃 peh va{n}‘ ’ngú k’iuh, {ditto}.
撥之我末者 peh tsz ’ngú meh ’tsé, {give it to me}.
撥拉伊拉者 peh ’lá í ’lá ’tsé, {have given it him}.

Obs. i. In English {to} is omitted or not at pleasure. Such datives as occur in {Gloria Patri, dedicated to the interests of truth, my love to you} cannot be expressed.

Obs. ii. In the example peh ’ngú ih kú‘, the dative comes next to the verb, while in the following sentence, the object precedes it. These differences of position are occasioned by the rhythmus.

134. {To a place} is expressed by 到 tau‘, usually with a verb of motion following the substantive.

到蘇州去者 tau‘ Sú-tseu k’i‘ ’tsé, {gone to Sú-cheú}.
幾時到上海 ’kí zz tau‘ Zóng‘ ’hé, {when did you come to Shánghái?}
到此地来做啥 tau‘ ’t’sz dí‘ lé tsú‘ sá? {what do you come to do?}

135. {Motion from} or {by} (ablative) is expressed by 自 zz‘, 從 zóng, 由 {y}eu or 打, ’táng. The last of these is most frequently employed.

打啥户堂來 ’táng sá‘ {ú} dong lé? {whence do you come?}
打故邊走 ’táng kú‘ píe{n} ’tseu, {go that way}.
從第搭到屋裡 dzóng dí‘ dah tau‘ óh ’lí, {from hence home}.

136. The sense of {for}, {instead of} is given by several particles, 替, 代, 代替, 忒, 爲, t’í, dé, dé t’í, t’uh and {w}é‘, are all in use.

忒我去買 t’uh ’ngú k’í‘ ’má, {go and buy for me}.
爲之我咾 {w}é‘ tsz ’ngú lau— {on my account}—.
替儂做生活 t’í‘ nóng tsú‘ sáng {w}eh, {do work instead of you}.

137. {In} and {at} (locative case) are expressed by 勒拉 leh ’lá and 拉 ’lá before, and 裏 ’lí or 裏向 ’lí h’iáng‘, after the substantives, (M. 在 tsai‘ prefixed, 裏, 内, 中, ’lí, núi‘, chóng suffixes).

勿拉屋裏 veh ’lá óh ’lí, {not at home}.
勿拉上海 veh ’lá Zóng‘ ’hé, {not at Shánghái}.
勒拉勿勒拉 leh ’lá veh leh ’lá, {at home or not?}
勿勒裏 veh leh ’lí, {not at home}.
嘴裏工夫 tsz‘ lí kúng fú, {mere words}.
心裏向 sing ’lí h’iáng, {in the mind}.

138. {With}, {of} (instrumental case) are expressed by the verb, ta{n} (also na{n} west of Shánghái), or nó, {to bring}, preceding the noun and a verb following it. (M. 將 tsiáng, 把 pa; in books, 以 ’í and by the suffix 個 kú‘, which usually takes a verb between it and the noun.

担刀來割 ta{n} tau lé kweh (köh), {cut it with a knife}.
錫做个 sih tsú‘ kú‘, {made of tin}.

139. In expressing {by} (instrumental case), the auxiliary verb peh 撥 precedes the instrumental noun, and the principal verb with or without its regimen follows (M. 彼 pei):—

撥拉爺娘責備 peh lá {y}á niáng tsah bé‘, {he was reproved by his
parents}.

140. {Along with} is expressed by t’eh 忒, 替 t’í and 同 {t}óng. The governed noun is followed by ih dau 一淘 together. This appendage is sometimes omitted, when 同 is used.

忒伊一淘去 t’eh í ih dau k’í‘, {go with him}.
同我你跑 {t}óng ’ngú ’ní pau‘, {go with us}.
替我一淘去 t’í‘ ’ngú ih dau k’í‘, {go with me}.
我忒儂做朋友 ’ngú t’eh nóng tsú‘ {p}áng ’yeu, {I will be your friend}.

141. As a sign of the vocative, the suffix 呵 á is sometimes used. 老兄阿 lau h’iung á, {brother} (addressed to strangers as friendly salutation).

142. {Case particles in other languages}. Prepositions standing before the noun, and terminations making up one word with the root, are used together in the classical languages to express case; and very frequently the suffixes alone. In the modern European languages, suffixes are much less used, prepositions performing the office of case particles. In the Tartar languages, the particles called in other languages prepositions, come after their words, and are therefore called postpositions. In Manchu, the oblique cases, four in number, are formed by suffixes selected from this class of particles. When written they are joined to the noun or not at pleasure, and may all be used independently as particles. Thus it appears that the Chinese in using separate case particles, some before and some after, the nouns to which they belong, do not depart from the practice common to other races.

143. Premare’s method of illustrating one by one, the words most important in a grammatical view, by numerous examples, is here followed in regard to some commonly used nouns.

口 ’k’eu, {mouth, an opening}. It is only used in combination.
口音 ’k’eu yun, {speech}.
口才 ’k’eu dzé, {fluency}.
口是心非 ’k’eu ’zz sing fí, {plausible but not sincere}.
三叉路口 sa{n} t’só lú‘ ’k’eu, {where three roads meet}.
口頭言語 ’k’eu deu {í}e{n} ’nü, {colloquial particles}.
一口土白 ih ’k’eu ’t’ú báh, {all he says is in the dialect}.
門口 mun ’k’eu, {opening.}
海口 ’hé ’k’eu, {sea-port}.
乍浦口嘴 Dzó‘ p’ú‘ ’k’eu tsz‘, {Háng-cheú bay}.
口說無憑 ’k’eu söh {m} {bing}, {words without foundation}.
有口無心 ’{y}eu k’eu {m} sing, {speaking without thinking, mere words}.
一口咬定 ih ’k’eu ngau ding‘, {spoke decisively}.

144. 氣 k’í‘.

1. {Breath, vapour}.

透氣 t’eu k’í‘, {to breathe}. 地氣 {t}í‘ k’í‘, {climate}.
濕氣 sák k’í‘, {moisture}. 斷氣 dö{n}‘ k’í‘, {to die}.

2. {Anger}.

惹氣儂 ’zá k’í‘ nóng‘, {provoke you}.
勿要動氣 veh yau‘ dóng‘ k’í‘ {do not be angry}.
氣殺我 k’í‘ sah ’ngú, {provoke me greatly}.

3. {Manner, expression, meaning}.

陽氣來咾 {y}áng k’í‘ lé lau, {beautifully ornamented}.
神氣宛然 zun k’í‘ {w}é{n} zé{n}, {likeness to perfect}.
勿要客氣 veh yau‘ k’ák k’í‘, {do not stand on ceremony}.
大有福氣 {t}ú‘ ’{y}eu fóh k’í‘, {has great happiness}.

145. 心 sing, {heart, mind}.

心拉書上 sing ’lá sû long‘, {attend to your book}.
心裏明白個 sing ’lí ming bák kú‘, {has an intelligent mind}.
摳心挖胆 k’eu sing wah ’ta{n}, {mind set on schemes}.
當心,留心,小心 tong sing, lieu sing, ’siau sing, {pay attention}.
盡心竭力 dzing‘ sing gih lih, {do your utmost}.
兩條心思 ’liáng diau sing sz, {double-minded}.
白費心思 {p}ak fí‘ sing sz, {planning in vain}.
一心一念 ih sing ih nia{n}‘, {all intent upon}.
直心直肚腸 dzuh sing dzuh tú dzáng, {honest, sincere}.
心心主念 sing sing ’tsû nia{n}, {resolutely intent on}.
赤胆忠心 t’suk ’ta{n} tsóng sing, {faithful}.

146. 手 ’seu, {hand, an artisan}.

上手下手 zong‘ ’seu ’{a}u ’seu, {superior and inferior workmen}.
動手勿得 ’{t}óng ’seu veh tuh, {may not put hand to it}.
手忙脚亂, ’seu mong kiáh lö{n}, {confused and wrong}.
親手 t’sing ’seu, {with his own hand}.
一手難遮天下目 ih ’seu na{n} tsó t’íe{n} ’{a}u móh, {one hand cannot
cover the eyes of all the world}.
白手求財 {p}ák ’seu gieu dzé, {want money without earning it}.
幫手 pong ’seu, {assistant}.
傳手 dzé{n} ’seu, {from hand to hand}.

147. 分 vun‘, {duty, divisions}.

十分裏一分 {s}eh vun‘ ’lí ih vun‘, {one tenth}.
名分, 本分 ming vun‘, ’pun vun‘, {duties}.
職分 tsuh vun‘, {an office}.
一生安分 ih sáng ö{n} vun‘, {do my duty a whole lifetime}.
分所當然 vun‘ ’sú tong zé{n}, {as in duty bound}.

148. 頭 {t}eu, {head}.

唔頭唔腦 {m} deu {m} ’nau, {without order}.
頭二百里 {t}eu ní‘ páh ’lí, {about 200 Chinese miles}.
幾許人頭 ’kí hau‘ niun deu? {how many men?}
起頭 ’k’í deu, {at the beginning}.
頭頭是道 {t}eu deu ’zz dau‘, {it is all reasonable}.

149. 眼 nga{n} {eye, a point, a small hole}.

一眼勿差 ih nga{n} veh t’só, {quite right}.
眼睛勿好 nga{n} tsing veh ’hau, {his eyes are bad}.
只得—眼 tseh tuh ih ’nga{n}, {only a very little}.
眼底無人 ’nga{n} tí {m} niun, {thinks none so good as he}.

150. 目 moh, {eye}.

頭目 {t}eu móh, {chief}.
賬目 t’sáng‘ móh, {accounts}.
眼目 ’nga{n} moh, {eyes}.
數目 sú‘ moh, {numbers}.
大關節目 {t}á‘ kwa{n} tsih móh, {important doctrine}.

151. 底 ’tí, {bottom}.

月底 niöh ’tí, {end of the month}.
年底 níe{n} ’tí, {end of the year}.
私底下 sz ’tí ’{a}u, {secretly}.
底裡 ’tí ’li, {at the bottom}.
底下挽通 ’tí ’{a}u ’wa{n} t’óng, {to inform secretly}.
底面不和 ’tí míe{n}‘ peh {ú}, {heart and looks not agreeing}.
直到底 dzuk tau‘ ’tí, {to the end}.
脚底下 kiák ’tí ’{a}u, {under the feet}.

152. The following substantives combine with the cardinal points to form nouns of place. They are arranged in the order of their frequency. 沿, 半爿, 面, 邊, 首, 頭, 方, ha{n}‘, pé{n}‘ ba{n}, míe{n}‘, píe{n}, ’seu, {t}eu, fong. One or two examples will suffice to explain this usage.

東半爿, 東面 tóng pé{n}‘ ba{n}, tóng míe{n}‘, {on the eastern side}.

The combinations with 裏 ’lí, {within}, include two other words which here appended, 向, 勢, 面, 邊, 頭, h’iáng‘, sz‘, míe{n}‘, píe{n}, {t}eu.

Thus, 裏向, 裏面, ’lí h’iáng‘, ’lí míe{n}‘, inside.

Obs. Other words, such as the demonstrative pronouns, and some of the prepositions form similar combinations, as will be afterwards seen.

{Section} 4. {On numeral particles and auxiliary substantives}.

153. Under his head, are included the classifying particles, called by some writers numerals, with weights and measures, and any parts not being themselves full appellative nouns, into which substantives admit of being divided.

Obs. i The distinctive numeral particles applied to different substantives, belonging as they do themselves to that class of words, could not be placed with propriety among or after the adjectives; yet their Syntax is sufficiently unlike that of the substantive to require them to be placed apart.

Obs. ii. A comprehensive classification of substantives has been presented to philologists, by Dr. Legge in his “Letters on the rendering of the name God in Chinese,” Hongkong, 1850. Several useful terms are there introduced, partly from Nordheimer, but a place for the nouns now under discussion is not provided for except under class (4). The classes into which common or nouns not proper are there divided, are—

1. “Appellative or generic nouns, or names of species of individual existence, e.g. man, mountain, tree, house, garment.” Here shape and substance are both included, and the indefinite article can be prefixed in all cases.

2. “Material nouns, e.g. corn, gold, water.” Here matter only is embraced, while the limitation of form must be supplied by other words, as “a bushel of corn,” “a handful of gold,” “a cup of water,” “a sceptre of iron.” Nordheimer, Hebrew Grammar, vol. II. 796, invents no name for the former words in these cases, merely saying that the second limits the first in meaning. He considers them all concrete nouns.

3. “Collective nouns, or nouns which though singular in form, yet express a multitude.”

4. “Abstract nouns or names of qualities or modes of existence, abstracted from the object with which they are in combination.” Numeral particles and nouns of measure and shape must be placed here, although they are thereby associated with a multitude of mental and moral terms, with which they have little in common. Abstract nouns might form two classes distinguished as material and moral.

5. “Relative nouns, e.g. father, king.” Since the second class material nouns furnishes the matter of which the words ‘bushel,’ ‘handful’, ‘cup,’ etc. supply the form, perhaps these auxiliary words should be called formal nouns, and form a sixth class.

154. The classes (1), (2), (5) and part of (4), are embraced in the preceding section; The remainder form the subject of the present. With regard to their use, combined with the numeral, they cover the ground of the article {a}, {an} in the class, and of the auxiliary words in the second.

Thus, a mountain, 一座山 ih zú‘ sa{n}.
Call a man, 告一个人來 kau‘ ih kú‘ niun lé.
Two measures of rice, 二斗米 ní‘ ’teu ’mí.
A cup of cold water, 一碗冷水 ih ’wé{n} ’láng ’sz.

Obs. In Hebrew no word like {of} is necessary, e.g. shébet (constr.) barzel, {a sceptre of iron}. Lat. {virga ferrea}.

155. The number and the auxiliary word are both necessary to the idiom, but the latter is sometimes used alone after the substantive, as noticed in Art. 111. Yet in this case, the same construction is admissible. Thus we have,

兩間房間 ’liáng ka{n} vong ka{n}, {two rooms}.
兩條鋼條 ’liáng diau kong diau, {two steel springs}.
三隻船隻 sa{n} tsáh zé{n} tsáh, {three boats}.

156. The distinctive numeral particles, or those employed with the appellative or generic nouns, here follow.

箇 kú‘ (keu‘), of men, fish, cash, dials, collars, and all relative
terms.
顆 ’k’ú, of pearls.
根 kun (root), of candles, hairs, trees, masts, bamboos.
管 kwé{n} (pipe), of flutes, pencils.
口 ’k’eu (mouth), of coffins, men (as consumers).
科 k’ú, of plants, trees, roots, 三科樹 sa{n} k’ú zû‘, 3 {trees}.
塊 k’wé‘, of stones, bricks, dollars.
件 {k}íe{n}‘, of garments, affairs, news, things.
頭 {t}eu, of men, of cattle (when reckoned by heads).
頂 ’ting, of sedan chairs, hats, umbrellas, curtains.
朶 ’tú, of single flowers.
燈 tung, of candles, lights, 一燈火 ih tung ’hú, {a light}.
堵 ’tú, of walls, 一堵牆 ih ’tú dziáng, {a wall}.
條 {t}iau, of snakes, dragons, bridges, ropes, roads.
把 ’pó (hold in hand); of chairs, knives, fans, wine bowls.
本 ’pun (root), of books, account books, plays.
匹 p’ih, of horses (隻 is more common.)
面 míe{n}, of mirrors, brass and skin gongs.
幅 fóh, of pictures, maps.
對 fóng, of letters, 一封信 ih fóng sing‘, {a letter}.
文 vun, of cash, (個 is more common).
隻 tsáh, of birds, quadrupeds, tables, temples, hands, feet,
watches, shoes, clocks, eyes, ears, vessels.
盞 ’tsa{n}, of lamps.
樁 tsong, of matters.
種 ’tsóng, of matters.
枝 tsz, of pencils, branches, stalks.
座 zú‘, of houses, mountains, pagodas.
乘 zung, of carriages.
圓 yö{n}, of dollars.
樣 {y}áng‘, of affairs, matters.
項 {h}áng‘, of things, matters. Also 星 sing, of things.

Obs. i. The office of these substantive particles is simply indicative. The reason of their application to particular words is custom only, but etymological connection is sometimes traceable as in 封 {to close up}, 頭 is applied to men only as a suffix.

Obs. ii. All generic and relative nouns are here included. They are distinguished in English from material nouns by taking the plural, and admitting {a}, {an}, before them.

Obs. iii. These words differ frequently, in their application to particular nouns, from the usage of other parts of the country. A native of Fúh-kien would laugh to hear 隻 tsáh, instead of 枝 tsz, applied to hands and feet. In mandarin 尾 vi‘, is the distinctive particle for fish instead of 箇 kú‘, which is employed in this dialect.

Obs. iv. Most of these particles are employed in mandarin. They are used sparingly in the historical novels, because the semi-colloquial, semi-literary style of those works only occasionally expands into full conversational idiom. When it does so, they are always found.

157. The next class of the auxiliary substantives are such as are significant, or retain their meaning when translated into English, giving to their substantives, which are either material nouns or are construed as such, limitations of form and quantity.

Obs. Weights and measures, names of vessels, divisions of books, etc., though belonging to the significant auxiliary particles, will be placed separately (see Art. 158–160).

間 ka{n}, {a room of} a house, ih ka{n} vong deu, {a room}.
口 ’k’eu, {mouthful of} breath, words, rice.
句 kü‘, {a sentence of} speech, ih kü seh {w}ó‘.
竿 kû{n}, {rod of} bamboo for fishing, ih kû{n} diau‘ kû{n}.
科 k’ú, pluck up {a heap of} grass, {p}ah ih k’ú ’t’sau.
塊 k’wé‘, {a piece of} land, meat, silver.
捆 ’k’wun (to roll), {a faggot of} wood.
局 {k}ióh, play {a game at} chess, tsoh ih gióh gí.
眼 ’nga{n} (eye) {holes in} nets, of nails, cash, {a little of any
thing}.
担 ta{n}‘(to carry), {a load} of anything, ih ta{n}‘ meh zz‘.
點 ’tíe{n} {drop of} ink, {little of} anything.
湯 t’ong, how many {kinds of} food, ’kí t’ong va{n}‘.
墩 tun, {heap of} earth, rubbish.
檯 {t}é, {a stage of} plays, {table of} wine, food.
頭 {t}eu, bring {an end of} rope, ta{n} ih deu zung.
條 {t}iau, {long piece of} iron, wood, {string of} cash.
段 {t}ön, {piece cut off}, of wood, string, etc.
板 ’pa{n}, {half sheet of} paper.
包 pau (to wrap) {a parcel}, {bundle of} cotton, sugar.
把 ’pó, {handful of} rice, ih ’pó ’mí.
派 p’á‘, {division of} things, {kind of} men, customs.
篇 p’íe{n}‘, {a piece of} elegant composition, ih p’íe{n} vun tsáng.
片 p’íe{n}, {piece of} gold, ih p’íe{n} kiun ’tsz.
疋 p’ih, {piece of} cloth.
鋪 p’ú (to spread), {covering of} carpets, coverlids.
門 mun (touch-hole), {piece of} artillery.
紐 ’nieu, sa{n} ’nieu zung, three {skeins} of string.
方 fong (square), {a piece of} cloth, land, ih fong {t}í bí.
封 fóng, {a packet of} silver, ih fóng niung ’tsz.
手 ’seu, ih ’seu ni, {handful of} earth.
張 tsáng (to extend), {sheet of} paper.
節 tsih, {knot of} bamboo, {joint of} finger.
串 t’sé{n}, {string of} flowers, cash, beads.
餐 t’sö{n}, {meal of} rice.
軸 dzóh (rollers), map {on rollers}, ih gióh {w}ó‘, {a picture}.
席 dzih (mat), {party at} dinner.
扇 sé{n}‘, open {one leaf of} the door, ih sé{n}‘ mun, k’é k’é.
重 zóng, {layers of} books, dress.
層 zung, {story of} pagodas, {steps of} ladders.
陣 dzun‘, {gust of} wind, {shower of} rain.
葉 ih, {leaf of} grass, flowers, ih ih ’t’sau, {a blade of grass}.
圓 {y}ön, {small cake of} meat, medicine.
粒 lih, {seed of} corn.