A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect

Chapter V: Part 1: {on Sound} (1)

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{Section} 1. {Alphabet}.

1. The alphabetical symbols we shall need to employ are the following:—

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Symbols. Pronunciation and Examples.
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á as {a} in f{a}ther; 揩 k’á, wipe; 拜 pá‘, {worship}.

a as {a} in s{a}nd, or in h{a}t; 鉛 k’a{n}, {lead};
蠟 lah, {wax}.

au as in P{au}l, or as {a} in f{a}ll, or {o} in g{o}ne;
老 ’lau, {old}. Aú expresses the mandarin sound.

b or {p} as in 病 {p}ing‘, {sickness}; 生病 sáng bing‘, {to be
sick}.

d or {t} as in 道 {t}au‘, {doctrine}; 神道 zun dau‘, {men
canonized for their virtues}.

dz a compound of {d} and {z}; 盡 dzing‘, {exhaust}.

dzz do. as {dze} in a{dz}e. The second z marks a peculiar
vowel sound which is sometimes between {i}
and {e}, 辭 {dzz}, to {leave}.

é as {ai} in f{ai}l, or {a} in m{a}le; 來 lé, {come}.

e as {e} in l{e}d or l{e}t; 十 {s}eh, {ten}.

eu nearly as {ou} in c{ou}sin lengthened; 手 ’seu,
{hand}. Eú expresses the mandarin sound, as {ow} in
c{ow}.

f as in 夫 fú, or 轎夫 {k}iau‘ fû, {chair-bearer}.

g or {k} as in 其 {k}í, {he}, before {i}, {ü} often heard like
{ji}; 共衆 {k}óng‘ tsóng‘, {altogether}.

{h} a feeble aspirate, often lost; 合 {h}eh, {combine}; 皇
{h}wong, {emperor}. When quite lost, as in the
latter word, it will be omitted.

h and h’ a strong guttural aspirate, nearly equivalent to
{sh} when occurring before í and ü; 海 ’hé, {sea}; 喜
’h’í, {glad}. Before í and ü, the superior comma
will be used.

í as {i} in mar{i}ne; 西 sí, {west}.

i as {i} in s{i}ng or s{i}t; 心 s{i}ng, {heart}.

dj nearly as {j} in {J}une; 序 djü‘, {preface}. This
sound may also be read {z}. The natives use either.

k 古今 ’kú kiun, {ancient and modern}.

k’ a strongly aspirated sound 空 k’ung, {empty}. It
is often mistaken by foreign ears when occurring
before i and ü, for the aspirated c‘h but should be
separated from that sound in careful pronunciation;
去 k’í‘, {go}; usually heard chi‘ aspirated.[1]

l 禮 ’li, {propriety}.

m or {m} 米 ’mí, {rice}; 唔沒 {m} méh, {there is no more}.

n 女, ’nü, {woman}.

ng or {ng} a nasal consonant used at the beginning or close
of a syllable. When no distinct vowel sound
accompanies it, it is marked {ng}; 江 kong, {river};
我 ’ngú {I}; 五 ’{ng}, {five}

a{u}, e{n}, û{n} a slight nasal, best heard before another word;
但 {t}a{n}‘, {but}; 敢 ’ké{n}, {dare}; 幹 kû{n},
{dry}; 算 sû{n}‘, {count}; 搬轉 pè{n} ’tsé{n}, {to
whril round}.

ó as {o} in g{o}; 怕 p’ô‘, {fear}.

o as {o} in g{o}ng and g{o}t; 當 tong, {ought}, {bear};
落 loh, {fall}.

ö as ö in Göthe; 端 tö{n}, correct; 看 k’ön‘, {see}; 奪
{t}öh, {rob}.

p 比 pí, {compare}.

p’ as p with a strong aspirate; 譬 p’i‘, {like}.

rh a peculiar Chinese sound, the same as in mandarin;
而 rh, {and}.

s 所 ’sú, {which, therefore}.

sz a peculiar Chinese sibilant,[2] pronounced as in
mandarin, and nearly as {se} in ca{stle}, whi{stle},
t, l, being supposed omitted; 詩 sz, {poetry}.

t 多 tú, {many}.

t’ as t with a strong aspirate; 拖 t’ú {to draw}.

ts 做 tsú‘, {do}.

ts’ the last strongly aspirated; 秋 ts‘ieu, {Autumn}.

tsz a peculiar Chinese sibilant, pronounced as in
mandarin, as {ts} in ha{ts}; 子 ’tsz, {a son}; 知 tsz,
{know}.

ts’z the above with a strong aspirate 雌 ts’z, {female}.

ú as {u} in r{u}le; 素 sú‘, {common}, {plain}.

u as {u} in r{u}n; 門 mun, {door}; 等 ’tung, {wait}.

ü French u as in vert{u}; German ü as in Tübingen;
虛 hü {empty}.

û 處 ts’û‘ {place}. This vowel is between ó and ú.

v or {f} 佛 {f}eh, {Buddha}; 房 {f}ong, {house}. More of v
than f.

w 光 kwong, {light}; 王 {w}ong, {king}.

y 右 {y}eu‘, {right-hand}; 要 yau‘, {to want}.

z or {s} 象 {s}iáng‘, {elephant}; 坐 zú‘, {sit}.

An apostrophe ’ preceding the word, denotes the second tone.

A comma ‘ following the word, denotes the third tone.

The fourth tone will be written with {h}, {k} or {g} final.

Words left unmarked are in the first tone.[3]

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1. When a native is asked whether k‘i‘ or c‘hi‘ is the more
correct pronunciation of 去 he replies the former. Yet the
orthography by c‘hi‘ seems to the foreigner more like the true
sound. The fact is that the sound is in a state of transition
from k‘i to c‘hi.

2. This sound is better described as s and a peculiar vowel ï or
t, s, and ï. The mark ï denotes a vowel peculiar to China but
like e in {castle}.

3. The further subdivision into upper and lower tones needs no
mark, being indicated uniformly by the initial letter. Thus, b,
g, d, z, l, m, n, r, and any letters italicized are in the lower
tones; other initial letters denote upper tones. There are a few
exceptions which will be noted afterwards. A {final} italic
letter denotes a nasal.
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2. Mandarin pronunciation wants several of these sounds. Among the vowels, the short a and e together with û are omitted, and au, eu, are lengthened into aú, eú. Among the consonants, b, d, g, dj, {m} {ng}, {n}, dz, dzz, v and z are wanting.

3. The Shánghái dialect is deficient in the sh, ch and soft j of mandarin and of Sú-cheú pronunciation.

4. Of the above sounds, those foreign to the English, language, and therefore needing particular attention, are the following:—

Of vowels, {eu} as in 口 ’k’eu, {mouth}; ö as in 安 ö{n}, {rest}. û as in 鑽 tsûn, {to bore}. A final r should be carefully avoided in these three sounds. Oe is not so common in this dialect as in that of Sú-cheú, where it occurs in 船 jö{n}, {boat}, 滿 ’mö{n}, {full}, etc., etc. The vowel ü, (French u), is often convertible with û. Thus 書 sû, {book} is pronounced sü at Súng-kiáng and to the east of the Hwáng-p’ú, while it becomes sz in Paú-shán district.

Of consonants, note well the sibilants sz, tsz, dzz, with rh, and the nasals {m}, {n}, {ng}, also the strong aspirate h’; also the three aspirated mutes p’, k’, t’, and ng at the beginning of a syllable.

5. The native arrangement of the alphabet, as found in the tables prefixed to K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, is borrowed from the Sanscrit.[1] The natural order of the letters as formed by the organs of speech, is as far as possible preserved, and the system adopted contrasts advantageously with the irregularity of the English and other alphabets. The pronunciation there registered is what Chinese authors call the 南音 Nán yin, {Southern pronunciation}, as it was early in the Christian era. It probably agrees in the main with the modern speech of Sú-cheú, Háng-chú and the surrounding cities. That the pronunciation of Sháng-hiá is one of its dialects, appears from the slightest examination of the tables in question. It is characterized by the same division into Yin and Yáng, i.e. hard and soft, or thin and broad consonants, which form the basis of arrangement, in those tables, and agrees in many of the details. Vide Appendix on K’áng-hí’s tables of Initials and Finals.

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1. Vide Preface to Morrison’s Dictionary, and Marshman’s Clavis
Sinica. None of the western alphabets appear to have been so
scientifically arranged as the Sanscrit.
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6. In the native system, while the consonants are accurately distinguished, the initial vowels are placed together, under only two heads. In this respect therefore, we depart from it in the following table. The initials sh, zh, ch, f’, and some others are also omitted as not applicable to our dialect. The imperfect nasal consonants are inserted, though as local variations they have no place in the native tables. In naming the classes, western terms have been adopted.

{Tabular view of the alphabetic sounds of the Shánghái dialect}. ---------------------------------------------------------------

Fifteen vowels.
Quantity of syll.| Value.
------------------------------------------
long or short. | á f{a}ther
do. | a h{a}nd, b{a}ck
long | au P{au}l
do. | é M{ay}
short | e l{e}t
long | eu c{ou}sin
do. | í mar{i}ne
long or short | i s{i}ng
do. | ó g{o}
do. | o l{o}ng, l{o}ck
do. | ö Göthe
long | ú r{u}le
long or short | u s{u}n, s{u}ck
long | ü T{ü}bingen
do. | û as in 書 sû

Thirty three consonants.
| High. | Low.
|-------------------------------------------------
| Thin | Aspirated | Broad | Nasals & | Imperfect
| | | | Liquids | nasals
|-------------------------------------------------
Mutes | k | k’ | g | ng | {ng}
| t | t’ | d | n | {n}
| p | p’ | b | m | {m}
----------|-------------------------------------------------
| | | | |
Labio- | f | | v | |
dentals | | | | |
----------|-------------------------------------------------
Sibilants | s | | z | |
and | sz | | zz | |
aspirates | tz | ts’ | dz | |
| | | dj | ni |
| tsz | ts’z | dzz | |
| h’ | | {h} | |
----------|-------------------------------------------------
Semi- | | | | l |
vocals | | | | rh |
------------------------------------------------------------

If from these consonants, we subtract the combinations of t and d, with s and z, the aspirated mutes, and ní, as capable of resolution, there remain twenty three in all. Of those that are left, sz and zz may also be supposed to be made up of s, z, and an indistinct vowel ï, heard in English after the l of beetle, needle, etc.

{Section} 2. {On the Tones}.

7. In order to determine the position of the Shánghái {patois} among the dialects of China, something must be said on tones generally. Chinese pronunciation may for our present purpose, be considered in three or more general divisions, according to the number of tones.

(1.) The first of these is the Northern mandarin. 北音 Pih yin, where four or five tones are in use. It is the pronunciation of the Emperor’s court, and professedly of the government officers throughout the empire. It is also spoken in considerable purity in the parts north of the Yáng tsz Kiáng (hence its name), and in the provinces of Sz-ch’uen, Kwei-cheú, Yün-nán, and parts of Kwangsi and Hunan.

(2.) The second in the Southern pronunciation, 南音 Nán yin, spoken in the part of Kiáng-sú, that is south of the Yáng-tsz’-kiáng, in Cheh-kiáng and part of Kiáng-sí. This is mainly the pronunciation out of which the mandarin grew and which is followed in the Dictionaries, from K’ang-hí upwards, nearly to the Hán dynasty.[1] The tones are four in number, each subdivided into kaú and tí, upper and lower, or as they are also denominated yin and yáng, feminine and masculine. These upper and lower series of tones are also distinguished, by different initial consonants, the one taking g, d, b, v, z, etc., and the other k, t, p, f, s, etc. The variations that exist even between contiguous districts, are very numerous, a circumstance which furnishes a mark of distinction between this part of China and the mandarin provinces, where orthographical differences are few.

(3.) The pronunciation of the other provinces presents many extensive departures from the true mandarin. The tones are seven or eight in number, and are often found inverted in position, as well as contradictory in nature to the names they bear. The Fúh-kien and Canton dialects have long been the subject of foreign study, and have received abundant illustration. Ngán-hwei and Kiangsi have also many eccentricities of pronunciation.

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1. Vide in K’áng-hí, the Fán-ts’eih spelling, quoted from the
previously existing Dictionaries. In K’áng-hí’s table of sounds,
the former model is to some extent departed from, in favour of
the Northern mandarin. The terms 北音南音 are common both in
books, and in the conversation of the natives. Mandarin
pronunciation has also its dictionaries, such as 五方元音, but it
is the old tonic dictionaries and new works founded on them to
which reference is here made.
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8. The tones may be partially described according to their natural character. In attempting this, we intentionally avoid for the present, the usual Chinese terms 平上去入 {p}ing, {even}, záng, {rising}, k’ü‘, {going}, zeh, {entering}, because, being the same in all dialects, they do not in the majority of cases, represent the actual effect of the sounds on the ear. When first adopted in the reign of Liang wu ti, A.D. 402 to 450, they must have represented the tones of the dialect, spoken by Shen yoh[1] the writer who selected them a native of Hu cheu only 100 miles from Sháng-hái. But when applied according to universal practice, to the sounds given to the same characters in other parts of the empire, these four names convey no idea of the actual pronunciation. The descriptions given of the tones by native authors, are consequently often incomprehensible.

A. {Upper acute tone}. We pronounce monosyllabic words, when speaking with moderate emphasis, in a quick descending tone. It is heard in commands as Gó, Fíre, Go at ônce. In naming any object, English speakers usually adopt this intonation for a monosyllable, or the penultimate of a dissyllable. It might be called the affirmative tone. It represents the 上平 záng‘ bing, or upper first tone at Sháng-hái and Sú-cheú, as 天 t’íe{n} {heaven}; while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the second, and in the mandarin of Pe-king, the first tone.

B. {Upper even tone}. This is a sound without deflection like a long note in music, and is not so common in English conversation as the former. When high in key, it is in Sháng-hái the upper second tone, as in 水 sz; {water}; 火 hú, {fire}, 土 t’ú, {earth}. In Sz-ch’uen mandarin, and in the Fúh-kien of Amoy, it is the upper first tone.

C. {Upper quick rising tone}. This is nearly like the {staccato} of musical notation, and is usually heard in interjections of surprise and indignation, and frequently in questions. If quick and high, it is in Sháng-háe the upper third tone, as 信 sing, {a letter}, 菜 ts’é, {vegetables}. In Pe-king mandarin. It is the lower first tone.

D. {Upper slow rising tone}. This is a prolonged intonation rising more slowly than the last, and is not needed for the Sháng-háe dialect.

E. {Upper short tone}. This is the intonation of syllables short in quantity. Long and short quantity may be predicated of vowels or of syllables. In Latin, the short {ă} of {m-ă-gis}, becomes long by position in {magnus}. The converse of this example takes place in Sháng-hái pronunciation, where the long and short {a} and {o} are all found in a short tone.[2] In such cases, we write them all with a final {h}; the presence or absence of the accent marking the quantity of the vowel, while that of {h} marks the quantity of the syllable; as in 濕 sáh, {wet}; 薩 sah, in {P}ú sah, {disciple of Buddha}; 哭 k’óh {weep}; 悪 oh, {wicked}. This tone might be divided into two, as it ascends or descends; but as only the former occurs in Sháng-hái sounds, we count but one of these, to avoid too great subdivision.

F. {Lower acute tone}. In proceeding to tones in a lower pitch of voice, we enumerate them in an order corresponding to that followed above; thus the same natural description, except as regards key, will readily apply to them. The lower acute tone is not needed for the Shánghái sounds, except in cases of combination. In the Sú-cheú dialect, it represents the lower second tone, while in Fúh-kien, if set very low, it will be the upper third tone.

G. {Lower even tone}. A low musical sound without deflection. It is the lower first tone at Sháng-hái, as in 能 nung, {can}. 埋, má, {bury}. In the mandarin of Nán-king, it is the upper first tone, while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the lower third tone.

H. {Lower quick rising tone}. This intonation is nearly that of any common word, when spoken interrogatively, as I? Yes? Indeed? It is the lower third tone of Sháng-hái, and the lower first of Nán-king and Amoy.

I. {Lower slow rising tone}. This is the intonation of remonstrance as in “Et tù Brute,” if {tù} were spoken in a deep and rather lengthened tone. So in many antithetical sentences, as “We seek not yoùrs but yoú,” the former accented word is in a low slow rising tone, and the latter in a quick falling tone. Writers on Elocution mark them with the grave and acute, accents respectively.

J. {Lower short tone}. The remarks appended to the corresponding upper tone apply also to this. 學習 {h}oh dzih, {to learn and practice}.

K. {Upper circumflex}. This is an intonation high in key and having two deflections, apparently ascending and descending. It may be quick or slow in time. It is not used in Sháng-hái pronunciation. When slow it is the second tone of Nán-king.

L. {Lower circumflex}. This corresponds to the preceding in character and time, but differs from it in key. When, quick, it is the lower first tone of the district east of Sú-cheú.

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1. Shen yoh 沈約 was high in favour with the emperor Liang wu ti
whose capital was Nanking. Nan shï 南史 c. 57.

2. If different symbols were invented for the long and short
vowels, so that syllables only should be considered long and
short, this anomaly would disappear. All alphabets are deficient
in vowel marks.
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9. While selecting most of their tones from those thus described, some dialects would require a more minute subdivision, and perhaps two high and two low divisions of each series might be found necessary. The preceding arrangement however, will be sufficient to give some conception of the variety of tonic effects, whether harmonious or discordant the listener must judge, existing in the speech of China. If it be recollected that independently of these differences in tones, there are also numberless variations in the alphabetic form of the sounds, an accurate knowledge of so Protean a language might seem unattainable, were it not that the characters are everywhere the same. What one pronounces in a high shrill accent, and another in a prolonged whine, and another in a low musical intonation, they all write in the same form; and if asked what is its tone, they give the same reply.

The Chinese have themselves described the tones according to their natural character. We quote the following translation of some verses in K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, from Medhurst’s Hok-kien Dictionary.

“The even tone travels on a level road, neither elevated nor depressed. “The high tone exclaims aloud, being fierce, violent, and strong. “The departing tone is distinct and clear, gruffly travelling to a distance. “The entering tone is short and contracted, being hastily gathered up.”[1]

This description must be taken as answering to the tones spoken by the native writer from whom it is taken.

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1.
平聲平道莫低昂
上聲高呼猛烈强
去聲分明哀遠道
入聲短促急收藏
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10. The terms used by the Chinese to describe sounds in reference to tones, are such as—

高低, kau tí, {high} and {low} ({key of the tone}).

陰陽, yun {y}áng, {high} and {low} ({key of the tone}).

緩急, {w}én‘ kih, {slow} and {quick} ({time of the tone}).

平仄 {p}ing tsáh, {even}, {deflected}. 仄 is further divided into 上去入 záng‘, k’ü‘, zeh, {rising}, {departing}, {entering}.

To these we add to express quantity apart from tone:—

長短 dzáng, ’dö{n},[1] {long} and {short} ({time in reference to the syllables}).

These terms include all the principles, on which our arrangement of natural tones has been made: thus—

The first two pairs define the upper and lower tones.

The third pair embraces differences in time, the quick and slow tones.

The fourth pair includes even tones and those having deflections, which may rise or fall, and be one or two in number.

The fifth pair distinguishes the three first tones from the fourth.

In an article in the Chinese Repository on the Birmese and Shán languages (Vol. V. page 71), there are some facts respecting tones as employed in those countries. The Sháns, inhabiting the country that separates Birmah from China, have two deflected tones rising and falling respectively, two tones short in quantity also rising and falling, and a low even tone.

The Birmese have the two deflected tones, and one short tone.

The Shán language is fundamentally the same as the Siamese, which also has tones.

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1. This is one of the words where d is heard in the upper series
instead of t. Other cases of departures from the usual law will
be subsequently pointed out.
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11. TABLE OF TONES IN SEVERAL DIALECTS.[1]

i. MANDARIN TONES. 北音
--------------------------------------------------------------
Tones |Nan-King|Pe-king |Hó-nan |Sz-ch’uen
| | |K‘ai-fung|
--------------------------------------------------------------
Upper First, 上平|l, e, |u, e, or |u, q, e, |u, e,
| |u, q, f, |
--------------------------------------------------------------
Second, 上|l, s, r,|l, q, r, |l, q, r, |q, f,
-----------------------------|---------------------------------
Third, 去|q, f, |l, q, f, |l, q, f, |l, s, r,
---------------------------------------------------------------
Fourth, 入|sh, |u, e, |u, q, e, |l, q, e, or
| |----------------------|l, q, f,
| |l, q, r, |l, q, r, |
| |------------| |
| |l, q, f, &c.|l, q, r, |
---------------------------------------------------------------
Lower first, 下平|l, q, r,|l, q, r, |u, q, r, |l, q, e, or
| | | |l, q, f
---------------------------------------------------------------

ii. KIANG-NAN AND CHEH-KIANG. 南音
---------------------------------------------------------------
|Tones |Sú-cheú |Sháng-hái |Ning-pó
---------------------------------------------------------------
Upper |First, 上平|u, q, f,|u, q, f, |u, q, f,
Series|Second, 上上|u, e |u, e, |u, s, r,
|Third, 上去|u, s, r,|u, q, r, |u, e,
|Fourth, 上入|u, sh, |u, sh, |u, sh,
------|------------|-------------------------------------------
Lower |First, 下平|l, q, r,|l, e, |l, s, c, q, f,
Series|Second, 下上|l, q, f,|l, s, r, |l, s, r,
|Third, 下去|l, s, r,|l, q, r, |l, s, r, or e,
|Fourth, 下入|l, sh, |l, sh, |l, sh,
---------------------------------------------------------------

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1. u, upper. l, lower. r, rising. f, falling. q, quick. s, slow.
e, even. c, circumflex. sh, short.
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12. Nán-king is here placed among those that belong to the 北音 or Northern Mandarin division. A native author[1] says, that this city and two others 淮陽 Hwái {y}áng and 徐海 Sü hái use the northern pronunciation.

The large Dictionaries are uniform in the adoption of the pronunciation in our (ii.) division, as their basis of spelling. They usually speak of only four tones, distinguishing the upper from the lower by the initial letter. This is also the universal practice among the educated class vivâ voce. They do not speak of 帝 ti‘ {emperor} and 地 di‘ {earth}, as different in tone, the one the upper third tone, the other the lower, but as different in the alphabetical form tí, dí.

The division into eight tones is preferable for a foreign reader, because (1) there is a difference in elevation of voice, 帝 tí‘ being at an interval of a fourth in the musical scale more or less, higher than 地 dí‘. (2) Although the third and fourth tones, upper and lower, are deflected at Sháng-hái in a similar way, so that they may be regarded as the same tones, this is not the case with the first and second, which differ decidedly in character.

The fourth tone in the 北音 Póh yun, class (i.) is in the Northern provinces, long in quantity. The words included under it are distributed among the other tones, and must be learnt separately, in order that they may be correctly pronounced; e.g. of words written {chúh}, some such as 竹, 竺, 燭 are at K’ai-fóng-fú in the upper first tone, while 軸, 祝, 昨 are in the lower first tone.[2]

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1. Vide 李氐音鑑. The author was a native of Peking.

2. The analogy between the Chinese tones and the Greek accents
probably led the Catholic Missionaries to call the former
{accentus}. The distinction between accent and quantity which
existed in Greek, has been found also in Sanscrit in the Vedas.
(Vide Bopp’s Sanscrit Grammar, section 80.) In both, there were
three accents, acute, grave and circumflex. The grave is
described as the negation of the acute and to be understood
where that mark is not written. The acute was a rising in tone;
while the circumflex is said to have raised and depressed the
tone on the same syllable. (Vide Valpy’s, Greek Grammar.) Taking
accent and quantity together, we obtain four distinctions of
sound, which is the nominal number of tones in Chinese. The
fundamental difference in the structure of polysyllabic and
monosyllabic languages prevents the analogy from being carried
far; the tones in one case being fixed to syllables, and in the
other to words. But when it is remembered that those two
branches of the great Indo-European stem are among the most
ancient of languages, not much later in origin than the Chinese
itself, and one of them its geographical neighbour, the fact of
these delicate differences of sound existing till now in that
language, becomes interesting as throwing light on some of the
most precious remains of the literature of the past. Grammarians
would not speak with such hesitation, as they do, when
describing these peculiar intonations of the civilized races of
the old world, if they had heard and could discriminate the
Chinese tones. Late speculations on the change in
language-forming power that has taken place in modern times,
have referred to the gradual diminution of inflexions in new
languages, and to other circumstances, as instances of it. From
these has been argued the decay of a certain faculty once
possessed by the human race. The limited use of accents fixed to
words in newly-formed languages, may be viewed as another
illustration of it. Clearly-marked alphabetical differences, as
now preferred to those nicer distinctions of sounds, which
perhaps were familiar alike to the most cultivated branches of
the Great Arian family, and to the ancient and modern Chinese.
It may be added that the use of many of the Hebrew accents is
but imperfectly known in modern times.
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{Section} 3. {On the Shanghai Tones}.

13. We shall illustrate the tones one by one with numerous examples, adding a translation for the use of those who wish to acquire at the same time, a vocabulary of common phrases. We have hitherto regarded tones as they are heard, when the sound is enunciated emphatically and single. But there are certain changes which occur in combinations of two or more words in rapid conversation, which can be only explained by examples of such groups arranged in separate columns. In the observations appended to each table, the more prominent of these variations will be pointed out, and the place of the accent determined.[1]

The vowel marks employed in this work are repeated here, that the eye of the reader may be familiarized with them:—

Long vowels. | Short vowels. | Other vowels.
-------------------------------------------------
á r{a}ther. | a s{a}ng. | au Pa{u}l.
é r{ay}. | e s{e}t. | eu as in 頭 {t}eu.
í r{ea}d. | i s{i}ng. | ö Göthe.
ó r{o}ad. | o s{o}ng. | ü vert{u}.
ú r{ud}e. | u s{u}ng. | û as in 書 s{û}.
-------------------------------------------------

In writing mandarin, the following will also be used:—

aú {á}, {ú}, combined. Prolongation of au.
eú c{ow}. Prolongation of eu.
ei kine. The Greek, ei.

The accents denote long vowels, and a symbol is never used for more than one sound. This is the principle of the orthography usually called Sir W. Jones’ system. It was proposed by the Hon. J. R. Morrison in 1836, in the Chinese Repository, (vol, 5, page 22), for application to the Chinese language. For this part of China, modifications are needed in the details, and hence the differences in the system here adopted, from that described by the writer of that article, and in Williams’ Chinese Vocabulary, etc.

The long vowels all have, what is called in England, the Italian pronunciation.

The sound eu is something like the French {eu} in dou{leu}r, or the common short English u as in b{u}n prolonged ’or the corresponding mandarin sound eú as in 口 ’k’eú, Premare uses eou, and Klaproth eu; from them we have borrowed it. In the lengthened form, it is a diphthong eú or uú, as in English cl{ou}d. The shorter form eu has no exact English equivalent.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. In an Essay on the Hok-kien tones by the Rev. S. Dyer of
Malacca, descriptions of them with a musical notation are given.
Tables of examples for groups of two like those we now give, but
without the Chinese characters, are annexed.
-----------------------------------------------------------------

14. {The upper first tone}. This is the common quick falling sound, usually given in. English pronunciation, to any monosyllable when standing alone, and spoken with emphasis.

瓜 kwó, {melon}. 鍾 tsúng, {bell}.
風 fóng, {wind}. 多 tú, {many}.
輕 k’iung, {light}. 飛 fí, {to fly}.

That it may be readily compared with the other tones, by such as have a native assistant at hand, some examples are here given of the same alphabetical sound, varied according to the four upper tones.

希喜戲歇 hí ’hí hí‘ hih
多覩妒篤 tú ’tú tú‘ tóh,
枯苦課哭 k’ú ’k’ú k’ú‘ k’óh,

In the fourth word of each series, the vowels change, í into i, and ú into ó. The Chinese regard them as different only in tone; to a foreign ear, the difference is one both of time, as the syllables are long and short, and of vowels sound, as the long {i} becomes short {i}, and long {u} becomes long {o}.

15. As examples of combination, take first those which have the upper first tone in the penultimate, (p, s, k, j, in roman type, represent the four upper tones in their order; in italic type, the lower).

Tones. Place of the Accent.
p.p. 今朝 kiun tsau, {to-day}, ult.
相公 siáng kóng, {sir}, {husband}, „
工夫 kúng fú, {work}, pen.
當中 tong tsóng, {in the middle}, ult.
p.s. 天頂 t’íe{n} ting, {the zenith}, „
多少 tú sau, {how many?} „
恩主 un tsû, {benefactor}, „
p.k. 眞正 tsun tsung, {truly}, „
相信 siang sing, {believe}, {be fond of}, „
聲氣 sáng kí, (c’h) {sound of voice}, pen.
p.j. 中國 tsúng kóh, {China}, „
彎曲 wa{n} k’ióh, (c’h) {winding}, {crooked}, ult.
p.{p}. 中原 tsóng niö{n}, {China}, „
天堂 t’íe{n} dong, {heaven}, „
差人 ts’á niun, {a messenger}, pen.
p.{s}. 天理 t’íe{n} lí, {heavenly reason}, ult.
裝滿 tsong mé{n}, {to pack full}, „
新米 sing mí, {new rice}, pen.
p.{k}. 天地 t’íe{n} dí, {heaven and earth}, ult.
天亮 t’íe{n} liáng, {daybreak}, „
鄕下 h’iáng {a}u, i{n the country}, pen.
p.{j}. 風俗 fóng zóh, {custom}, ult.
新閘 sing zah, {village near Shanghai}, „

Obs. In this table, the tone preserves its natural character throughout, but when followed by the quick rising tones, as in p, k, and p, {k}, or by the short tones, or by a word hurried over without emphasis on account of its unimportance, it is heard with a more distinct accent than in other cases. When the accent is upon the other word, this tone needs to have the voice rest upon it for a time, to prevent its becoming the third tone.

The tone which is the same as this in the Amoy dialect, undergoes a regular change, in combinations such as those in this table. When standing first of two words, it becomes an upper quick rising tone. Thus though a tone be identical when pronounced alone in two dialects, it does not follow that its laws of combination are also the same. For much important information on the Hok-kien tones, and the laws of combination in that dialect, the writer is indebted to Rev. J. Stronach of Amoy.

16. Examples of the upper first tone in the antepenultimate or when first in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.
p.p.{p}. 蘇州人 Sú-tseu niun, {a Sú-cheú man}, ult.
p.s.{p}. 天主堂 t’íe{n}-tsû dong, {Roman Catholic Chapel}, „
p.k.k. 挑過去 t’iau kú-k’í, {carry it past}, ant.
p.j.{k}. 當得住 tong tuh-dzû, {able to stand against}, „
p.{p}.{p}. 朝辰頭 tsau-zun deu, {in the morning}, „
p.{s}.k. 千里鏡 ts’íe{n}-lí kiung, {telescope}, ult.
p.{k}.p. 三字經 sa{n}-zz’ kiung, {the Three Character Classic}, „
p.{j}.{k}. 追勿上 tsûi veh-zong, {cannot overtake him}, ant.
p.s.s. 多好狗 tú-hau keu, {a number of dogs}, „

Obs. i. In the example standing last but two, if 經 is accented, it preserves its proper character, but if, as is often the case, 三 is accented, 經 becomes even and falls in pitch.

Obs. ii. The accent often varies between the first and the last syllable. In regard to position, it is the latter that should receive it. But in reference to tone, that now under illustration admitting emphasis freely, overbears the accent of position.

17. Examples of upper first tone standing last in a combination of two or three.

Tones. Accent.
p.p. 當心 tong sing, {take care}, pen.
燒香 sau h’iáng, {burn incense}, ult.
s.p. 祖宗 tsú tsóng, {ancestors}, pen.
頂多 ting tú, {greatest number of}, „
講書 kong sû, {explain books}, „
水晶 sz tsing, {rock crystal}, ult.
k.p. 貴庚 kwé káng, {your honourable age?} „
放心 fong sing, {be content}, „
j.p. 插花 ts’ah hwó, {insert flowers}, „
忒多 t’uk tú, {too many}, „
{p}.p. 明朝 ming tsau, {to-morrow}, pen.
良心 liáng sing, {good heart}, {conscience}, „
k.{p}.p. 啥晨光 sá zun-kwong, {what time}, ant.
{s}.p. 母親 mú ts’ing, {mother}, ult.
老兄 lau hiúng, {venerated brother}, „
{k}.p. 地方 {t}í fong, {a place}, „
念經 nia{n} kiung, {chant sacred books}, „
{j}.p. 逆風 niuh fóng, {contrary wind}, „

Obs. In the groups p.p., s.p., and {p}.p. in this table, the tone of the last word falls and becomes even. In such cases, the initial consonants remain unaffected. Thus, 工夫 kúng fú cannot become kúng vú, though, fú falls in key. The same change may sometimes be observed after the third and fourth tones.

18. Examples of this tone, as the second in a group, of three.

Tones. Accent.
s.p.k. 小生意 siau sáng-í, {small retail trade}, pen.
k.p.{p}. 雇工人 kú-kóng niun, {workman}, „
j.p.k. 束腰帶 sóh-yan tá, {waist-band}, „
{p}.p.{k}. 文昌殿 vun-ts’áng díen, {temple of the patron of
Literature}, „
{s}.p.{p}. 軟心腸 niö{n} sing-dzáng, {merciful heart}, ult.
{k}.p.j. 大英國 {t}a-yung kóh, {England}, ant.
{j}.p.{p}. 讀書人 {t}ók-sû niun, {educated man}, ult.

Obs. i. There is a secondary accent on some other syllable in groups of three, which sometimes predominates over the other. We have not attempted to record more than one. E.g. 讀 the antepenultimate of the last example is often heard with a decided accent.

Obs. ii. An inspection of these tables will shew that the first tone attracts the accent to itself in many instances, and that through rapidity of pronunciation, or from the accent being placed on the word before, it tends to fall in key and become even.

Obs. iii. In regard to position the accent prefers the last syllable.

19. {The upper second tone}. It is a high even tone without deflection, and forms a principal element in producing that curious singing effect in many dialects, which the foreigner notices in first listening to Chinese pronunciation.

Ex.

水 sz, {water}. 好 hau, {good}.
火 hú, {fire}. 討 t’au, {beg}.
許 hé, {promise}. 點 tíe{n}, {point} (verb or subs.)

20. Examples of the upper second tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Tones. Accent.
p.s. 恩典 un tíe{n}, {favour}, pen.
酗酒 h’iúng tsieu, {intoxicated}, „
s.s. 滾水 kwun sz, {boiling water}, pen.
頂好 ting hau, {the best possible}, „
k.s. 救火 kieú hú, {save from fire}, ult.
要緊 yau kiun, {important}, „
j.s. 作主 tsok tsû, {to be master}, „
出首 ts’eh seu, {accuser}, „
{p}.s. 門口 mun k’eu, {door-way}, „
財主 dzé tsû, {rich man}, „
{s}.s. 勉强 míe{n} k’iáng, {by compulsion}, (c‘h) „
耳𦖋 ní tú, {ears}, „
{k}.s. 面孔 míe{n} k’óng, {face}, „
{j}.s. 折手 zeh seu, {maimed hand}, „
曆本 lih pun, {almanac}, „
p.{j}.s. 燒熱水 sau nyih sz, {prepare hot water}, „
{p}.k.s. 唔要緊 {m} yau kiun, {not important}, ant.
{j}.j.s. 勿缺少 veh k’iöh sau, {not deficient}, (c‘h) ult.
{j}.j.s. 實骨子 {s}eh kweh tsz, {in reality}, pen.

Obs. i. The last syllable, when preceded by a word in the upper first tone, is usually heard to fall in key, as in the first two of the above examples.

Obs. ii. In some examples, the tone under illustration often changes into a quick falling tone, as in 救火 kieu‘ ’hú, pronounced kieu‘ hú, and 勉强 pronounced míe{n}‘ k’iáng.

21. Examples of the upper second tone in the antepenultimate.

Tones. Accent.
s.p.p. 請先生 ts’ing síe{n}-sáng, {engage a teacher}, ant.
s.s.{p}. 考舉人 k’au kü-niun, {be examined for Master of Arts
decree}, pen.
s.s.{k}. 手低下 seu tí-{a}u, {under (my) control}, ant.
s.j.k. 打磕瞌 táng k’eh-ts’óng, {nod the head when sleeping}, ult.
s.{p}.{p}. 火輪船 hú-lun zé{n}, steamer, „
s.{k}.{k}. 土地廟 t’ú-dí miau, {temple of the Lares arvales}, „
s.{j}.s. 考勿起 k’au-veh-k’í, {cannot venture to be examined}, „

Obs. For purposes of accentuation 下, 打, and 勿 in the above examples may be called {enclitics} or {proclitics}. As such they leave the emphasis to rest on the {significant} words.

22. Examples of the second tone in the penultimate of a group of two.

Tones. Accent.
s.p. 小干 siau kû{n}, {a boy}, ult.
喜歡 h’í hwé{n}, {glad}, „
{j}.s.s. 白滾水 {p}áh kwun-sz, {simply boiling water}
(weak tea), „
打窵 táng tiau, {shoot birds}, „
水手 sz seu, {sailors}, „
s.k. 寶貝 pau pé, {precious}, „
請教 ts’ing kiau, {will you inform me?} „
小菜 siau ts’é, {vegetables}, „
s.j. 可惜 k’ó sih, {alas!} pen.
曉得 h’iau tuh, {understand}, „
打鐵 táng t’ih, {work in iron}, ult.
s.{p}. 水牛 sz nieu, {water buffalo}, „
保全 pau dzíe{n}, {preserve}, „
水桐 sz dóng, {water bucket}, „
s.{s}. 苦惱 k’ú nau, {unfortunate}, „
倒滿 tau mé{n}, {pour full}, „
s.{k}. 胆大 tan dú, {courageous}, „
體面 t’í míe{n}, respectable, „
請坐 ts’ing zú, {please sit down}, „
s.{j}. 搶奪 ts’iáng döh, {rob and plunder}, „
寶石 pau záh, {precious stone}, „

Obs. The accent is usually on the last word, and it is especially marked when that word is in the first or third tone. When the penultimate assumes the accent, it frequently changes to the upper rising tone, but this is apparently nothing more than an occasional irregularity, produced by rapid pronunciation. Native assistants generally deny the existence of these and all such changes; but on having their attention drawn more closely to the subject, they admit that there are exceptional cases.

23. Examples of the same tone standing second in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.
p.s.p. 齊祖宗 tsá tsú-tsóng, {sacrifice to ancestors}, ult.
s.s.k. 比比看 pí-pí k’ö{n}, {compare them}, „
k.s.{j}. 做好日 tsú hau-nyih, {keep a wedding}, pen.
j.s.{p}. 一本頭 ih-pun deu, {just one volume}, ult.
{p}.s.{p}. 秦如皇 dzing sz {w}ong, {the emperor who
burnt the books}, „
{k}.s.{j}. 字紙簏 zz-tsz lóh, {written-paper basket}, „
{j}.s.{p}. 踛起來 lók k’í-lé, {stand up}, „

Obs. i. The penultimate is heard higher in key than the others. The last falls, but retains the principal accent more or less distinctly.

Obs. ii. The secondary accent is usually on the first word, except in the example 做好日, where the penultimate word changes into an upper rising tone, and receives the accent.

24. {The upper third tone}. This tone being both high in key and deflected upwards, is difficult to imitate correctly.

Ex.

葬 tsong, {bury}. 變 píe{n}, {change}. 四 sz, {four}.
寸 ts’un, {inch}. 姓 sing, {family name}. 店 tíe{n}, {shop}.

Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.

Tones. Accent.
k. p. 意思 í sz, {object, idea}, pen.
看書 k’ö{n} sû, {to read}, ult.
種花 tsóng hwó, {plant cotton or flowers}, „
k.s. 放火 fong hú, {set on fire}, pen.
禁止 kiung tsz, {forbid}, „
k.k. 富貴 fú kwé, {rich and honourable}, ult.
教訓 kiau h’iün, {instruct}, „
k.j. 愛惜 é sih, {love and pity}, „
過歇 kú h’ih, {at present}, „
k.{p}. 算盤 sûn bén, {Chinese abacus}, „
教門 kiau mun, {form of instruction}, „
k.{s}. 怕冷 p’ó láng, {afraid of cold}, „
快馬 k’wá mó, {a swift horse}, „
k.{k}. 對面 dé míe{n}, {the opposite}, ult.
算命 sû{n} ming, {to calculate destiny}, „
k.{j}. 氣力 k’í lih, {strength}, pen.
做賊 tsú zuh, {be a thief}, ult.

Obs. i. It may be useful as an aid to memory, to notice that verbs are very numerous in this tone. The majority of the above examples will illustrate this remark.

Obs. ii. In the first example 意 í is irregular, and is pronounced in the first tone.

Obs. iii. When the accent is decidedly on the last word, as in most of the examples, the penultimate is very short and pronounced with the least possible emphasis.

Obs. iv. In the examples, k, k, penultimate word is in rapid pronunciation, heard even, like the second tone. Thus 照‘ 應‘ is pronounced ’tsau yung‘.

25. Examples of the same tone, as the antepenultimate of three words.

Tones. Accent.
k.p.s. 照規矩 tsau kwé-kü, {follow the custom}, pen.
k.s.k. 種小菜 tsóng siau-ts’é, {plant vegetables}, „
k.k.{k}. 世界上 sz-ká long, {in the world}, ult.
k.j.{p}. 派出來 p’á ts’eh-lé, {place in divisions}, ant.
k.{p}.{k}. 啥時候 sá zz-{e}u, {what time?}, „
k.{p}.p. 做成功 tsú zung-kóng, {to complete}, ult.
k.{s}.{s} 敬父母 kiung ’vú-mú, {reverence parents}, „
k.{j}.{k}. 帶勿動 tá veh-dóng, {cannot carry}, ant.

Obs. To keep the first word short in time, and deflected upwards, is the chief requisite in examples of this kind, If the voice were allowed to rest on it, it would necessarily become the first or second tone.

26. Examples of the upper third tone standing last of two or three words.

Tones. Accent.
p.k. 生意 sáng í, {trade}, pen.
東喊 tóng ha{n}, {eastwards}, „
爽快 song k’wá, {in good health}, „
s.k. 寫信 siá sing, {write a letter}, ult.
打算 táng sûh, {consider, plan}, pen.
k.k. 正派 tsung p’á, {correct conduct}, ult.
做戲 tsú h’í, {act a play}, „
j.k. 得意 tuh í, {obtain one’s wishes}, „
失信 seh sing, {be unfaithful}, „
{p}.k. 皇帝 {w}ong tí, {emperor}, „
回信 {w}é sing, {letter in answer}, „
{s}.k. 禮拜 lí pá, {worship}, „
馬掛 mo kwó {jacket}, „
{k}.k. 造化 ’zau hwó, {fortunately, to create}, „
地界 {t}í ká, {boundary of land}, „
罪過 zé kú, {sin, an impropriety}, pen.
k.{j}.k 看勿見 k’ö{n} veh-kíe{n}, {do not see}, ant.
{p.j.}k. 搖勿過 {y}au veh-kú, {cannot row past}, „
{j}.k.k. 勿要怕 veh-yau p’ó, {do not fear}, pen.
{j}.j.k. 勿適意 veh suh-í, {not in health}, ult.
{s}.s.k 冷小菜 láng siau ts’é, {cold vegetables}, „

Obs. i. The almost unbroken regularity of the accent in these examples, arises partly from the last word being the proper place for it, and partly from the tone under illustration being naturally adapted to receive it.

Obs. ii. In the examples p, k, the last word falls in key, and its upward deflection and initial consonant remain unaffected.

Obs. iii. The examples k, k, follow the same law as in Art. 24. Obs. iv. In 打算 the former word being merely an auxiliary particle, is short in time as if it were táng‘.

27. Examples of the upper third tone as the penultimate in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.
p.k.{p}. 担過來 ta{n} kú-lé, {bring it over}, ant.
s.k.k. 寫信去 siá-sing k’í, {send a letter}, „
k.k.{s}. 細細哩 sí-sí lí, {accurately}, „
j.k.{k}. 忒過分 t’uk kú-vun, {excessive}, ult.
{p}.k.j. 難過歇 na{n} kú-h’ih, {at present}, „
{s}.k.{k}. 理性上 lí-sing long, {according to reason}, ant.
{k}.k.{p}. 右半爿 yeu pé{n} ba{n}, {right-hand side}, ult.
{j}.k.j. 勿見得 veh kíe{n} tuh, {it is not likely}, pen.

Obs. i. The middle word is always carefully shortened in tone.

Obs. ii. When the last word is one of less significance than the others, it frequently loses the accent.

28. {The upper fourth tone}. This tone is a short syllable, high and bent upwards. It has k final after the vowels á, ó, o, u, after other vowels k is not heard.

Ex. 角 kok, {horn}; 刻 k’uk, {quarter of an hour}; 法 fah, {method}.

Examples in which it is the first of a group of two.

Tones. Accent.
j.p. 出身 ts’eh sun, {rank or profession}, ult.
發風 fah fóng, {wind rising}, „
j.s. 爀顯 hok h’íe{n}, {lightning}, „
出產 ts’eh ts’a{n}, {field productions}, „
j.k. 百姓 pák sing, {people} (hundred names,) „
j.j. 法則 fah tsuh, {method}, „
j.{p}. 出門 ts’eh mun, {to go from home}, „
客人 k’áh niun, {stranger, guest}, pen.
磕頭 k’eh deu, {to make a prostration}, ult.
j.{s}. 瞎眼 hah nga{n}, {blind eyes}, „
j.{k}. 識字 suh zz, {able to read}, „
質地 tseh dí, {natural powers}, „
k.{j}. 濶狹 k’weh {a}h, {width}, (broad, narrow,) pen.
骨肉 kweh nióh, {blood relations}, „

Words of the fourth tone naturally short, are here in a position unfavourable for the accent. Even the few cases of exception marked, do not take it exclusively on the penultimate.

29. Examples of the same tone in the antepenultimate.

Tones. Accent.
j.p.{s}. 忒伊兩 t’eh-í liáng, {with him}, ult.
j.s.{p}. 縮轉來 sók tsé{n}-lé, {return}, „
j.k.j. 撥過歇 peh-kú-h’ih, {given}, ant.
j.{k.p.} 跌下來 tih ’{a}u-lé, {fall down}, ult.
j.{p}.p. 織成功 tsuh zung-kóng, {completely woven}, ult.
j.{s}.j. 搨顔色 t’ah gna{n} suh, {paint on colours}, pen.
j.{j.p.} 角落頭 koh-loh deu, {corner}, ult.

The secondary accent is on the first syllable in these examples.

30. Examples of this tone standing last of two or three words.

Tones. Accent.
p.j. 天色 t’íen suh, {weather}, pen.
分別 fun pih, {difference}, „
s.j. 手筆 seu pih, {hand-writing}, ult.
寶塔 pau t’ah, {pagoda}, „
k.j. 算法 sûn fah, {method of calculation}, „
j.j. 吃粥 k’íuk tsóh, {eat rice water}, „
{p}.j. 頭髮 {t}eu fah, {hair}, pen.
沉殺 dzun sah, {be drowned}, „
{s}.j. 顔色 gna{n} suh, {colour}, „
五十 {ng} seh,[1] {fifty}, „
{k}.j. 二十 ní seh {twenty}, „
吝嗇 ling sih {parsimonious}, „
{j}.j. 沒殺 meh sah {be drowned}, ult.
立刻 lih k’uh {immediately}, „
p.{p}.j. 骷髏骨 kú leu kweh {scull}, „
{p}.p.j. 龍華塔 lúng hwó t’ah {Lúng-hwá pagoda}, „

In the first two examples, the penultimate being in the upper first tone, the last word may be heard to fall in key.

In those marked {k}, j, the first word is lengthened in pronunciation, and thus passes into the lower second tone.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. The character 十 is read zeh The sound seh as heard in
conversation is irregular.
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31. Examples of the upper fourth tone standing second in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.
p.j.{p}. 推出來 t’é t’seh-lé, {investigate}, ult.
s.j.p. 保國家 pau kók-kiá, {defend one’s country}, „
k.j.j. 背脊骨 pé-tsih kweh, {back-bone}, „
j.j.{p}. 脚節頭 kiák tsih-deu, {toes}, „
{p}.j.k. 跑得動 {p}au tuh-dóng, {able to walk}, ant.
{k}.j.s. 話得好 {w}ó tuh-hau, {well spoken}, „
{j}.j.p. 額角頭 ngák koh-deu, {forehead}, ult.

The secondary accent may often be distinctly heard on the first word in these examples.

32. A few examples of large groups are here appended.

Tones.
p.p.s.s. 清清爽爽 ts’ing-ts’ing song-song, {distinct},
p.k.j.{k}. 忠孝節義 tsóng-hiau tsih ní, {fidelity, filial piety,
chastity and uprightness},
j.k.j.k. 各到落處 kok-tau-lok-ts’û, {everywhere},
s.s.p.p. 喜喜歡歡 h’í-h’í hwé{n}-hwé{n}, {glad},
k.k.k.k. 正正派派 tsung-tsung p’á-p’á, {good conduct},
j.j.j.j. 瞎七瞎八 hah-t’sih hah-pah, {all in confusion},
j.j.j.{s}. 七曲八裊 ts’ih-k’ióh pah-niau, {winding about},
p.{j}.s.s.s. 金木水火土 kiun mók sûi hú t’ú, {metal, wood, water,
fire and earth},
k.k.j.k.s. 看過歇個者 k’ön-kú-h’ih-k’ú-tsé, {have seen it},
p.{p}.j.j.{j}. 青黃赤黑白 t’sing {w}ong t’suh huh {p}ah, {blue,
yellow, red, black, and white},
p.p.{p}.j.p. 東西南北中 tung sí né{n} póh tsóng, {east, west,
south, north and middle},
p.k.j.{s}.s. 聽過歇拉者 t’ing-kú-h’ih-lá-tsé, {I have heard it},

For analysing such groups as these, all that would seem to be necessary, is to divide them into smaller combinations. Dissyllables and trisyllables may thus be formed, and linked together by the hyphen as above. They then fall under the same laws as preceding examples, and the accent of position will be usually on the last word.

When a number of particles are collected, as in k’ön‘-kú‘-h‘ih-kú-’tsé, they are heard like a word of five syllables with an accent in the first and last syllables. The English words {acceptableness}, {peremptorily}, {necessarily}, may be compared with examples of this kind; without the last two words, the accent would be on the first and third.

In the last example, the first accent is on 聽 t’ing, the second on 拉 lá, which being in a long tone, attracts it.

When there is a string of substantives together, as in enumerating the five colours, the five elements, the five constant virtues, etc. more time is allowed for the pronunciation of each. The hyphen has therefore been omitted in such cases.

33. Collecting these results, the following general remarks may be made on the upper tones.

I. The principal accent prefers the last syllable, but enclitic particles often reject it, while it is attracted most readily by the first and third tones.

The reverse of this is true at Ch’á-p’ú and Hái-ning to the South-west of Sháng-hái, where the penultimate takes the accent.

II. A secondary accent occurs in groups of three, which rests on the most significant word, or on the tones naturally requiring most stress of voice, the first and third.

III. An interchange takes places between the second and third tones, when either of them stands before a word which is the same in tone.

IV. The first tone becomes the lower first, i e. even, low and rising at the end, when standing last, if the word preceding takes the accent. After the third tone, upper and lower, it does not vary.

V. The first tone is lengthened in time in the penultimate, when the stress of the voice is on the last word, and the third, when in that position, shortened.

VI. The upper tones tend to fall in key, where they come after the first tone, and when they do so, always preserve their initial consonants. After any other tone, they usually keep their proper elevation.

34. In entering on the lower tones we meet with new consonants, G, D, B, NG, N, M, L, R. The exceptions will be found noticed in Art. 56.

{Lower first tone}. This is a long low tone deflected upwards at the end. East of the Hwáng-p’ú river and in the city of Sháng-hái, this tone is as here described. But to the westward of that river, the quick low circumflex very soon takes its place, and is met with to the immediate neighbourhood of Sú-cheú and Háng-cheú. It appears to consist of a quick rising and quick falling tone pronounced rapidly together.

Ex. 篷 {p}óng, {sail}; 龍 lóng, {dragon}; 門 mun, {door}.

35. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.

Tones. Accent.
{p}.p. 唐詩 {t}óng sz’, {poetry of Táng dynasty}, pen.
文章 vun tsáng, {essays composed by rule}, „
{p}.s. 牙齒 ngá ts’z, {teeth}, „
常久 dzáng kieu, {long time}, „
{p}.k. 憑據 {p}íng kü, {evidence}, ult.
同姓 {t}óng síng, {of the same name}, „
{p}.j. 頭髮 {t}eu fah, {hair}, „
{p.p.} 停船 {t}ing zé{n}, {stop a boat}, „
{p.p.} 窮人 {k}ióng niun, {poor man}, pen.
{p.s.} 文禮 vun lí, {elegance in style}, „
騎馬 {k}í mó, {to ride}, ult.
{p}.k. 和尙 {u} zong, {priest}, „
强盜 {k}iáng dau, {robber}, „
{p.j.} 題目 {t}í móh, {a theme}, pen.
牛肉 nieu nióh, {beef}, „

Obs. i. The accent is predominantly on the penultimate word, and the lower first tone is thus seen to be one of those, that attracts to itself the stress of the voice. In this combination the penultimate is always carefully enunciated in a low key.

Obs. ii. Where we have written {t, k, p}, the corresponding soft consonants d, g, b, if the ear only were consulted, might sometime be employed; but an orthography ought to be consistent, and it appears to us that the best imitation on the whole of the native sounds, will be secured by writing the latter symbols in the last word of a combination, and the former in the penultimate. The only case it is believed, where this method does not fully represent the true pronunciation, is in such words as 窮, 强, {k}ióng, {k}iáng, and others whose initial is in mandarin k’ and which are in the lower first tone. There could be no objection to the use of g in those cases, except the want of uniformity among the mute consonants; keeping the letter {k}, it will be enough to inform the reader, that there is a peculiar thickness of sound, and a consonant difficult to write with any of our alphabetic symbols.

36. Examples of the lower first tone, as the antepenultimate in a group of three.

Tones. Accent.
{p}.p.p. 黃昏星 {w}ong-hwun sing, {evening star}, ult.
{p}.s.{p}. 神主牌 zun-tsû bá, {ancestral table}, „
{p}.k.p. 前世寃 dzíe{n}-sz’ yön, {enemy of a former
life}, „
{p}.p.j. 磨刀石 mu tau záh, {grinding hone}, „
{p.p.j.} 如來佛 zû-lé veh, {title of Buddha}, „
{p.s.j.} 前兩日 zíe{n} liáng-nyih, {two days ago}, ant.
{p.k.}p. 堂弟兄 {d}ong {t}í-hiúng, {cousin on father’s
side}, „
{p.j.p.} 擡勿來 dé veh-lé, {cannot carry it}, ult.

Obs. The first word in this table, as in the preceding, needs to be studiously kept low, even, and undeflected.

37. Examples of the lower first tone standing last in a group of two or three.

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A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese, as Exhibited in the Shanghai DialectChapter V: Part 1: {on Sound} (1)

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