Chapter XII: Part III: {on Syntax} (1)

{Section} 1. {On Government}.

336. The rules for the relative position of the parts of speech are few and simple. They will be first considered without reference to grouping, repetition, etc.; the syntax of words used under those forms will be presented in subsequent sections.

A substantive that governs another as an attributive genitive always precedes it, and the particle 個 kú‘ is inserted.

牛個角比之鹿個角短 nieu kú‘ koh ’pí tsz lók kú‘ koh ’{t}ö{n}, {the horns
of oxen are short compared with those of deer}.
羊咾牛個皮有多許用頭拉 {y}áng lau nieu kú‘ bí ’{y}eu tú hau‘ {y}úng‘ deu
’lá, {the skin of sheep and oxen has many uses}.
鷄個聲氣最响 kí kú‘ sáng k’í‘ tsûe‘ ’h’iáng, {the cock crows very loud}.

Obs. i. Thus substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part.

Obs. ii In English this order is reversed, when the particle {of} is employed; e.g. {affairs of the nation} is in our dialect, 國家個事體 kók kiá kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í. When a possessive case is formed with ’{s}, the order agrees with that of the Chinese; e.g. {the emperor’s palace}, 皇帝個宮殿 {w}ong {t}í‘ kú‘ kóng díe{n}‘.

Obs. iii. 個 kú‘ is omitted in some instances where it would incommode the rhythmus; e.g. 外國人總要來帮助此地咸豐皇帝 ngá‘ koh niun ’tsóng yau‘ lé póng ’zú ’t’sz dí‘ Ya{n} fóng {w}ong {t}í‘, {foreigners must come and assist Hien Fung, the emperor of this country}; 一向嘸沒興旺辰光 ih h’iang‘ {m} meh h’iung {w}ong‘ zun kwong, {it has never had a time of prosperity}.

337. Adjectives precede their substantives with or without 個 kú‘.

大地方 {t}ú‘ {t}í‘ fong, {a large place}.
西國 sí kóh, {western nations}.
黑天 huk tíe{n}, {black sky}.
晒拉旺日頭裏 só ’lá {y}ong‘ nyih deu ’lí, {dry it in the hot sun}.
利害個物事 lí‘ {h}é kú‘ meh zz‘, {a dangerous thing}.

Obs. Numbers take the auxiliary word (Part II. section 4.) appropriated to the substantive they precede, between them and the substantive. An adjective if needed, is inserted after the auxiliary, e.g. 一座大房子 ih zû‘ dú‘ vong ’tsz, {a large house}; 匹匹白馬 sz‘ p’ih báh ’mó, {four white horses}.

338. Transitive verbs precede their objects.

生火 sáng ’hú, {light a fire}.
染布 ’níe{n} pú‘, {dye cloth}.
買紅紙頭做帖子, ’má {h}óng ’tsz deu tsú‘ t’ih ’tsz, {buy red paper to
make cards}.

Obs. i. If there is a dative and accusative, the latter comes next to the verb. For examples, see Art. 236 and 133.

Obs. ii. Impersonal verbs take a substantive after them as transitive verbs; e.g. 難開花者 na{n} k’é hwó ’tsé, {now the flowers open} (lit. {open the flowers}); 落雨 loh ’{ü}, {it rains} (lit. {falls rain}).

339. Adverbs are placed for the most part before the adjectives and verbs that they qualify.

忒認眞 t’uh niung‘ tsun, {unnecessarily industrious}.
廟裏最興 miau‘ ’lí tsûe‘ h’iung‘, {in the temple, it is most crowded}.
此地寫 ’t’sz dí‘ ’siá, {write it here}.
歇兩日再會 h’ih ’liáng nyih tsé‘ {w}é‘. {after a few days, we shall
meet again}.
又是一氣 {í} ’zz ih k’í‘, {that is a different set}.

Obs. The adverbs that follow their adjectives, such as 近煞 ’{k}iun sah, {very near}, 好極 ’hau giuh, {very good}, will be found in their places, where the comparison of adjectives and adverbs of quality are treated of.

340. Of the prepositions, some forming the locative case follow their words; the rest inclusive of 在 ’dzé, 勒拉 leh ’lá, 勒裏 leh ’lí, all meaning {being at} or {in}, precede their substantives. 勿在鄕下 veh ’dzé h’iáng ’{a}u, {not down in the country}.

Obs. Prepositions of motion and direction preceding the personal pronouns require a substantive of place to follow. 到我堂來 tau‘ ’ngú dong lé, {come to me}; 拉㑚堂勿有 ’lá ná‘ dong veh ’{y}eu, {where you come from, there are none}. See also Art. 197.

{Section} 2. {Interchange of the Parts of Speech}.

341. Under this heading, will be exhibited examples of the manner in which words by a change in position, must be construed as included in parts of speech, different from those to which when alone, they obviously belong. First, there are three principal changes of position, by which {adjectives} become {substantives}.

{а}. Adjectives when they follow a substantive with 個 kú‘ are to be construed as substantives.

心裏向個勿好, 總要改正 sing ’lí h’iáng‘ kú‘ veh ’hau, ’tsóng yau‘ ’ké
tsung‘, {the evil of the heart must be rectified}.
泰山個高量勿出 t’é‘ sa{n} kú‘ kau liáng veh t’seh, {the height of
T’ai-shan cannot be measured}.
房間個闊狹勿清爽 vong ka{n} kú‘ k’weh {h}ah veh t’sing ’song, {the width
of the room, I do not know}.
吾個相好死者 ngú kú‘ siáng ’hau ’sí ’tsé, {my friend is dead}.

Obs. i. Compare In English “the theory of the beautiful,” etc.

Obs. ii. Sometimes 處 t’sû‘ is added to the adjective, as also 頭 deu and fah 發, compound substantives are thus formed; cf. Art. 110. The same words also form substantives from verbs.

{b}. Adjectives are frequently the objects of transitive verbs, and in consequence are necessarily translated in such cases as substantives.

學好 {h}oh ’hau, {to grow good (to learn good)}.
講和 ’kong {h}ú, {treat for peace}.
學壞 {h}oh {w}á‘, {to grow bad}.

Obs. These examples differ from compounds, such as 加大 ká dú‘, {make larger}; 開闊 k’é k’weh, {to extend in width} (see Art. 219), which in their combined form, constitute transitive verbs with a regimen. These on the other hand contain the verb and its object within them.

勿論大咾小, 全是一樣個 veh lun‘ dú‘ lau ’siau, dzé{n} ’zz ih {y}áng‘ kú‘,
{without taking account of the great and the small, all are the
same}.
勿要話別人個長短 veh yau‘ {w}ó‘ bih niun kú‘ dzáng ’tö{n}, {do not speak
of the faults of others}.

Obs. 短處 ’tö{n} t’sû‘ is also used for {faults}.

第條河開多少闊 {t}í‘ diau {h}ú k’é tú ’sau k’weh, {how wide is this
river?}

Obs. Adjectives with the interrogatives {how much? how many?} preceding them, the verb being understood, are in common use; e.g. 幾許深淺 ’kí hó‘ sun ’t’síe{n}, {how much depth is there?} or {how deep is it?} 多少深 tú ’sau sun {ib}.; 勿知多少高低 veh tsz tú ’sau kau tí, {I do not know how high it is}.

{c}. When one adjective is qualified by another, it becomes a substantive; with this, English usage agrees, as in the following names of colours.

濃黑 nióng huh, {deep black}.
淡紅 ’{t}a{n} {h}óng, {light red}.
老黃 ’láu {w}ong, {faded yellow}.
嫩黃 nung‘ {w}ong, {fresh yellow}.
重藍 ’dzóng la{n}, {deep blue}.
淺藍 ’t’síen la{n}, {light blue}.

{Verb as Substantive}. 342. Construing verbs as substantives is common to many languages. The infinitive and gerund forms are used for this purpose, as also the present participle. In Chinese these are all identical, being the root itself.

{a}. The verb as {subject} of a proposition with a predicate following (inf. and pres, part.).

活命難 {w}eh ming‘ na{n}, {it is hard} (predic.) {to live}. (subj.）
會得勝總好個 {w}é‘ tuk sung‘ ’tsóng ’hau kú‘, {to be able to conquer
must be a good thing}.
行篷船走得快個 {h}áng bóng, zé{n} ’tseu tuk k’wá‘ kú‘, {by using a sail,
the boat will go quickly}.
國度亂做生意勿便當個 kóh dú‘ lö{n}‘ tsú‘ sáng í‘ veh bíe{n}‘ tong‘ kú‘,
{the country is disturbed and in consequence, it is hard}
(pred.) {to carry on trade}. (subj.)
兵勿好咾, 打仗勿見得成功 ping veh ’hau lau, ’t’áng tsáng‘ veh kíe{n}‘ tuh
zung kóng‘, {the soldiers are bad, and consequently fighting}
(subj.) {is not likely to be successful}. (pred.)

{b}. The verb as {subject}, with a noun as {attribute} (in Latin grammar, the genitive of the gerund).

種田個家生有鋤頭鐵咾還有多許 tsóng‘ díe{n} kú‘ ká sáng ’{y}eu zz deu, t’ih
tah lau, {w}a{n} ’{y}eu tú hó‘, {the implements of husbandry are
the spade, the spiked hoe, and such like} (arma colendi).
嘸沒反个意思 {m} meh ’fa{n} kú‘ í‘ sz‘, {he has not the intention of
rebelling} (consilium deficiendi).
敎書个本事勿有 kau‘ sû kú‘ ’pun zz‘ veh ’{y}eu, {the ability to
instruct, he does not possess}.

{c}. The verb preceded by or followed by case particles.

我現在拉做 ’ngú {h}íe{n}‘ dzé‘ ’lá tsú‘, {I am now doing it}.
勒拉吃茶 leh ’lá k’iuh dzó, {drinking tea} ({inter bibendum}).
勒裏打算 leh ’lí ’táng sö{n}‘, {he is considering} ({inter putandum}).
做官裏向也有辛苦 tsú‘ kwé{n} ’lí h’iáng‘ ’{á} ’{y}eu sing ’k’ú, {in the
office of mandarin, there is much care and anxiety} (in
magistrato gerendo).
寫字裏向也有法則 ’siá zz‘ ’lí hiáng‘ ’{á} ’{y}eu fah tsuh, {in writing,
there is a method}.

{d}. The verb as regimen of another verb.

斷絕往來 ’{t}ö{n} dzih ’{w}ong lé, {cease to have communications}.
嘸啥做 {m} sá‘ tsú‘, {I have nothing to do}.
勿曾有啥爭論 veh zung ’{y}eu sá‘ tsáng lun‘, {there has not been any
quarreling}.
我勿想去 ’ngú veh ’siáng k’í‘, {I do not think of going}.
勿要討我厭 veh yau‘ ’t’au ’ngú {y}íe{n}‘, {do not make me displeased}.

{e}. The verb as the {instrument} of effecting an action.

問之咾曉得 mun‘ tsz lau ’h’iau tuh, {you would know by asking}.
開之砲咾攻破城頭 k’é tsz p’au‘ lau kóng p’ú‘ zung deu, {he made a breach
in the wall by firing cannon}.
勿留心咾忘記脱者 veh lieu sing lau mong‘ ki‘ t’eh ’tsé, {though not
attending to it, I have forgotten it}.

Obs. Some verbs are found among substantives and adjectives too. 孝 h’iau‘ is a substantive in 百善孝爲先 puh ’zé{n} h’iau‘ {w}é‘ síe{n}, {of all the virtues, filial piety is the chief}; an adjective in 孝子 h’iau‘ ’tsz, {a filial son}, and a verb in 孝順父母 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú ’mú, {to reverence parents}. In the books such variations of grammatical character in the same words are very numerous. In the verse 庶民子來 sû ming ’tsz lé, {all the people came as if they were his sons}, 子 ’tsz is used adverbially.

{Verb as Adjective}. 343. The passive gerund of Latin is related to adjectives as the active gerund is to substantives. The corresponding forms in our dialect are compounds which may be translated either as adjectives or passive gerunds.

可惡 ’k’ó ú‘, {to be hated}, or {hateful}.
可殺 ’k’ó sah, {ought to be killed}.
好笑 ’hau siau‘, {laughable, fit to be laughed at}.
好種个 ’hau tsóng‘ kú‘, {capable of cultivation}.

Obs. The examples given In Art. 246, as in the {permissive} mood, might also be explained as verbs construed as adjectives.

344. Many of the longer verb groups are translated most conveniently as verbal adjectives.

耐勿過 né‘ veh kú‘, {unbearable}.
話勿來 {w}ó‘ veh lé, {unutterable}.
數勿明白 sú‘ veh ming báh, {incalculable}.

Obs. i. For a classification of these phrases v. Art. 227.

Obs. ii. Adjectives coming after verbs, with 得 tuh and 來 lé are best translated as adverbs; 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau, {it is done badly}； 寫來通極 ’siá lé t’ong giuh, {it is written exactly to the purpose}; 燕子飛起來頂快 ’íen ’tsz fí ’k’í lé ’ting k’wá‘, {the swallow flies very swiftly}; 幅子戴得齊整 mau‘ ’tsz tá‘ tuh zí tsung‘, {he wears his hat properly}.

345. Many verbs are used as prepositions. They are 從 zóng, 由 {y}eu, 到 tau‘, 連 líe{n}, 朝 zau, 望 mong‘, 對 té‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’{h}au. Examples of both uses are given.

由儂末哉 {y}eu nóng‘ meh tsé‘, {it will be as you decide}.
由那裏一條路 {y}eu ’{á} ’lí ih diau lú‘, {by which way?}
字眼要連下來 zz‘ ’nga{n} yau‘ líe{n} ’{a}u lé, {words and expressions
should be connected}.
紙頭連筆全勿有 ’tsz deu líe{n} pih dzé{n} veh ’{y}eu, {paper and pencil
are both wanting}.

{Adverb as Substantive}. 346. Adverbs of time and place precede substantives with 個 kú‘, just as one substantive precedes another.

此地個百姓 ’t’sz dí‘ kú‘ pák sing‘, {people of this place}.
什蓋能個人 {s}eh ké‘ nung kú‘ niun, {people of that sort}.
明朝個事體測度勿出 ming tsau kú‘ zz‘ ’t’i t’suh doh veh t’seh, {the
things of to-morrow cannot be known by thinking}.

Obs.先 síe{n}, is an adverb in síe{n} yau‘ ’tsung ’tung ’hau, 先要整頓 好, {you must first make preparations}, and an adjective in 出世最先 t’seh sz‘ tsûe‘ síe{n}, {he was born very early}.

347. When the adverbs take case particles, they must be regarded as substantives.

轎子拉前頭 {k}iau‘ ’tsz ’lá zíe{n} deu, {the chair is before}.

{Adverb as Adjective}. 348. The derivative adverbs like the pure adjectives, form the predicate of a proposition.

人是好好能個 niun ’zz ’hau ’hau nung kú‘, {the man is good}.

Or they qualify substantives.

做私底下個事體 tsú‘ sz ’tí ’{á}u kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {to do underhand things}.

{Adjective as Adverb}. 349. Some adjectives precede verbs, and must in such cases be regarded as adverbs.

多話兩句 tú {w}ó‘ ’liáng kü‘, {say a few sentences more}.
好聽來些 ’hau t’ing lé, {very pleasant to hear}.
酒要少吃 ’tsieu yau‘ ’sau k’iuk, {drink sparingly of wine}.
好走進去 ’hau ’tseu tsing‘ k’í‘, {you are quite at liberty to enter}.

Obs. 前 zíe{n} is an adjective in 前門 zíe{n} mun, {the front door}; a post-position in 門前 mun zíe{n}, {before the door}: and an adverb in 前兩日 zíe{n} ’liáng nyih, {a few days ago}: 大 is usually an adjective, but in 大兩樣個 {t}ú‘ ’liáng {y}áng‘ kú‘, {very different} and in 勿大哩 興 veh dá‘ ’lí h’iung‘, {not very crowded}, it is an adverb.

{Postposition as Adjective}. 350. When the locative case particles 外 ngá‘, 上 ’zong, 下 ’{h}au, 前 zíe{n}, 後 ’{h}eu, precede their words, they are adjectives. When they follow them, they are postpositions.

外國 ngá‘ kóh, {foreign nations}.
城外 zung ngá‘, {outside the city}.
下手 ’{h}au ’seu, {an under workman}.
手下 ’seu ’{a}u, 手底下 ’seu ’tí ’{a}u, {another’s authority}.
後門 ’{h}eu mun, {back door}.
飯後 va{n}‘ ’{h}eu, {after breakfast}.

Obs. The words for north, south, east and west, are employed in the same manner, and may be regarded as postpositions. 北斗星 póh ’teu sing, {north star}; 江北 kong póh, {north of the river}; 浦東 p’u‘ tóng, {east of the Hwáng-p’ú river}. In the last two examples, 北 and 東 may be considered locative case particles.

{Substantive as Adjective}. 351. When one substantive qualifies another, it may be regarded as an adjective.

窵籠 ’tiau lóng, {bird-cage}.
牛棚 nieu báng, {cow shed}.
花園 hwó {y}ö{n}, {flower garden}.
玻璃窻 pú lí t’song, {glass window}. (See Art. 174).

{Section} 3. {Government of words in groups or combinations}.

{Inseparable groups}. 352. In the closest kind of combinations, when words of different parts of speech form a dissyllabic word, one of them loses its proper grammatical validity by becoming a syllabic appendage to the other.

{a}. Thus, 交 kiau, {to join}, in the noun 交界 kiau ká‘, {a boundary}, has not the property of governing a substantive, that belongs to it in 相交朋友總要實際 siáng kiau báng ’{y}eu ’tsong yau‘ zeh tsí‘, {in treating friends you must be true}. So also other verbs, as—

應 {y}ung‘, {to correspond}, in 應騐 {y}ung‘ níe{n}‘, {agreement with
prediction}. (Sometimes also {to agree, etc}.)
容 {y}úng, {to allow}, in 容易꜄ {y}úng {í}‘, {easy}.
過 kú‘, {to pass}, in 過失 kú‘ seh, {a fault} (cf. {trans}gression).

{b}. In the same manner 功 kóng, {work}, 形 {y}ung, {form}, and 氣 k’í‘, {anger}, in the following examples are not nouns, since they are neither in the nominative or accusative, or any other case. They simply add their primitive sense to the verbs they assist to form.

勿會成功太平 veh {w}é‘ zung kóng t’á‘ bing, {he cannot establish peace}.
形容出來 {y}ung {y}óng t’seh lé, {bring into visible form}.
有啥要動氣我 ’{y}eu sá‘ yau‘ ’dóng k’í ’ngú, why are you angry with me?

{c}. Similarly, adjectives in composition, while retaining their etymological sense, lose their individuality, and cease to qualify substantives, or to form a predicate to a subject.

討一個大娘子 ’t’au ih kú‘ dú‘ niáng ’tsz, {to take a wife}.
燒小菜 sau ’siau t’sé‘, {to cook vegetables}.
定牢個生意 {t}ing‘ lau kú‘ ’tsû í‘, {to fix one’s determination}.
保全萬物 ’pau dzíe{n} va{n}‘ veh, {to preserve all things}.

Obs. In the first example 大 {great} is prefixed to the word for {wife}, independently of any second wife, and is usually equivalent to niáng ’tsz. In the third 牢 {firm} is joined with 定 {t}ing‘, and the two words together govern the following substantive.

353. So in larger groups, when words of different parts of speech combine, the predominant character of the group is communicated to words, which alone have quite another kind of force; e.g. if 針 tsun, {needle}; 線 síe{n}‘, {thread}; 情 zing, {feeling}, represent {actions} not {things} in the sentences—

女人認眞針線紡織 ’nü niun niung‘-tsun tsun-síe{n}‘-’fong-tsuh,
{women diligently sew, spin and weave}.
甘心情願 ké{n} sing zing niö{n}‘, {ready for and wishing}.

354. When words combine to form a new compound term, different in sense from both of them, their grammatical validity is lost, and the new phrase is recognized in its entirety as a noun, verb, etc. according to its meaning. Thus, 引 ’{y}ung, to {lead}, and 線 síe{n}‘, {thread}, form the compound 引線 ’{y}ung síe{n}‘, {a needle}; 方 fong, {square}, and 便 {p}íe{n}‘ {convenient}, form 方便 fong bíe{n}‘, {alms}; 裁 dzé, {to cut with scissors} and 縫 vóng‘, {a seam}, form 裁縫 dzé vóng, {tailor}; 招 tsau, {to call}, and 軍 kiün, {an army}, form 招軍 tsau kiün, {a trumpet}.

開路先鋒 k’é lú‘ síe{n} fóng, {a herald}.
牢頭禁子 lau deu kiun‘ ’tsz, {jailor}.
地保 {t}í‘ ’pau, {village bailiff}.
代書 {t}é sû, {notary}.

355. Coordinate words having the same grammatical power, arranged in groups of from two to five or even more characters, form a numerous class. In regard to the laws of position, the whole group is treated as a single noun or verb, or adjective as the case may be. In the examples, a hyphen connects the coordinate words.

伊個行事, 全是仁義道德 í‘ kú‘ {h}áng-zz‘, dzé{n} ’zz zun-ní‘-’{d}au-tuh,
{his actions are all based on benevolence, rectitude, reason and
virtue}.
做親個時候, 夫妻兩個板要拜天地神明 tsú‘ t’sing kú‘ zz-k’í‘, fú-t’sí ’liáng
kú‘ ’pa{n} yau‘ pá‘ t’íe{n}-dí‘-zun-ming, {at the time of
marriage, the husband and wife must worship heaven, earth and
the inferior deities}.
大細有啥事體, 爺娘要問醫卜星相要好勿要好 {t}ú‘ sí‘ ’{y}eu sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í,
{y}á-niáng yau‘ mun‘ í-póh-sing-siáng‘ yau‘ ’hau veh yau‘ ’hau,
{if there be anything that concerns their children, the parents
will ask the doctor, the diviner, the astrologer, and the
physiognomist, if all will be well}.
勿能用之器皿傢生, 測量伊個長闊高深 veh nung {y}úng‘ tsz k’í‘-’ming-ká-sáng,
t’seh liáng, í‘ kú‘ dzang-k’weh-kau-sun, {you cannot by taking
instruments measure its length, breadth, height and depth}.
(four adj. here form one substantive, viz. {dimensions}.)
人勿好担兇來, 待之馬牛羊三樣中牲, 因備人用 niun veh ’hau ta{n} h’iúng lé,
de‘ tsz ’mó-nieu-yáng sa{n} yáng‘ tsóng sáng, yung bé‘ niun
{y}úng‘, {men ought not to be cruel in treating the three
animals, horse, cow and sheep, because they are useful to man}.
人嘸啥事體個辰光, 担琴碁書畫來, 消悶過日 niun {m} sá‘ zz‘ ’tí kú‘ zun
kwong, ta{n}‘ giun-gí-sû-{w}ó‘ lé‘ siau mun‘ kó‘ nyih, {when men
have nothing to do, they take to the harp, chess, writing and
painting, to dissipate care and pass away the time}.
被褥鋪盖 {p}í‘-niók-p’ú-ké‘, {coverlid and mattrass, for bedding}.
鞋襪衣帽 {h}á-mah-í-mau‘, {shoes, stockings, clothes and hat}.
順從 zun‘-zóng, {to yield to and follow}.
等待 ’tung-dé‘, {wait for}.
骨頭指節 kweh-deu-tsz tsih, {bones, limbs and joints}.
廣大 ’kwong dú‘, {wide and great}.
牢硬 lau ngáng‘, {firm and hard}.
播揚奧妙個道理 pú‘-yáng au‘-miau‘ kú‘ ’{t}au-’lí, {to propagate
mysterious and wonderful doctrines}.

356. Another numerous class of compounds consist of words, which, while helping to form a larger group, retain a grammatical relation to each other.

有一種爲非作歹個人 ’{y}eu ih ’tsóng {w}é-fí-tsok-’té kú‘ niun, {there is
a sort of vicious mischief-making men}.
一眼嘸情嘸義個 ih ’nga{n} {m}-dzing-{m}-ní‘ kú‘, {quite destitute of
feeling and principle}.
正管偷閑懶惰 tsung‘ ’kwé{n} t’eu {h}a{n} ’la{n} dú‘, {they do nothing
but waste time and be lazy}.
認差之假佯頭發囘往心 niung‘ t’só tsz ’ká {y}á deu fah {w}é ’wong sing,
{he was misled by his pretend change of mind}.
領之傳杯弄盞個朋友出去 ’ling tsz dzé{n} pé lóng‘ ’tsa{n} kú‘ {p}áng ’{y}eu
t’seh k’í‘, {he led out his friends who were his drinking
companions}.
嘸沒出典 {m} meh t’seh ’tíe{n}, {has on classical authority}.

Obs. i. 出 governs 典 {ancient books}, and the two words together form a substantive in the objective case, after the verb {m} meh. The whole is equivalent 勿上書本 veh ’zong sû ’pun, {it is not used in books}.

Obs. ii. In phrases of this sort, we have government within government. A transitive verb with its regimen, may form part of a group, which is an elongated adjective, qualifying the following noun. Compare in English, such phrases as “a luxurious, {do-nothing} life.”

Obs. iii. Verbs with their regimen are freely used as adjectives, and connected by means of 箇, with the following noun; e.g. 養蠶咾種茶葉個百 姓, 今年苦惱者 {y}áng‘ zé{n} lau tsóng‘ dzó {y}ih kú‘ pká síng‘, kiun níe{n} ’k’ú ’nau ’tsé, {the silk-worm breeders and tea cultivators will this year suffer greatly}. So also other combinations, 拉廣東做個 物事, 全是巧個 ’lá ’kwong tóng tsú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘, dzé{n} ’zz ’k’iau kú‘, {things made at Canton are all ingeniously worked}.

357. In many cases, while there is a common grammatical character belonging to the whole group, only part of the constituent words give the {sense}. Thus in 苦楚 ’k’ú ’t’sú, {miserable}; 福氣 fók k’í‘, {happiness}; 恩典 un ’tíe{n}‘ {favour}; the second word in each has no influence on the sense. So also 相 in 相信 siáng sing‘, {to believe in}, does not in colloquial usage retain the sense of reciprocity. To give that idea, an adverb such as 大家 {t}á‘ ká, must be prefixed.

358. Some terms originally consist of two syllables, which are written separately, only because the Chinese mode of writing requires each character to be the sign of a monosyllable.

吩咐 fun fú, {to command}.
須張 sü tsáng,[1] {to nurse} (C).
叮囑 ting tsóh, {give directions}.

Obs. Such words as these are construed as verbs, just as if they were monosyllabic words.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. Or 張羅 tsáng lú, {to nurse} (also c.)
-----------------------------------------------------------------

{Separable groups}. 359. Those combinations that admit of the insertion of other words, so as to lengthen the group will now be illustrated.

{a}. Those that consist of two coordinate words, admit of a qualifying or governing term being applied to each word.

飛禽走獸 fí giun ’tseu seu‘, {birds and beasts}.
歡天喜地 hwé{n} t’íe{n} ’h’í dí‘, {exceedingly pleased}.
通文達理 t’óng vun ta ’lí, {thoroughly understand literary composition}.
心滿意足 sing ’mé{n} í‘ tsóh, {satisfied}.
咬牙切齒 ’ngau ngá t’sih ’t’sz, {grinding the teeth in pain}.
囘心轉意 {w}é sing ’tsé{n} í‘, {to change one’s mind}.
思前想後 sz zíe{n} ’siáng {h}eu‘, {thinks of the past and future}.
循規蹈矩 dzing kwé‘ dau‘ ’kü, {follow the rule of propriety}.
求神拜佛 {k}ieu zun pá‘ veh, {pray to spirits and worship Buddha}.
早思暮想 ’tsau sz mú‘ ’siáng, {meditate early and late}.

{b}. The groups formed by the numeral particles admit the insertion of adjectives and adjective phrases, between those particles and their substantives. Material nouns sometimes take their auxiliary after them.

一根長銅絲 ih kun dzáng dóng sz, {a long piece of brass wire}.
一片大鐵片 ih p’íe{n}‘ dú‘ t’ih p’íe{n}‘, {a large piece of iron}.
一隻會白話個鸚𪃿 ih tsáh {w}é‘ báh {w}ó‘ kú‘ áng kú, {a talking parrot}.
一根長竹頭 ih kun dzáng tsóh deu, {a long stick of bamboo}.
一隻花狗 ih tsáh hwó ’keu, {a spotted dog}.
一張厚紙 ih tsáng ’{h}eu ’tsz, {a thick sheet of paper}.
一張薄紙張 ih tsáng bóh ’tsz tsáng, {a thin piece of paper}.
一枝有鋒鋩個筆 ih tsz ’{y}eu fóng mong kú‘ pih, {a pencil that has a
point}.

{c}. When a group consists of a transitive verb and its regimen (which sometimes answer to a single verb in English), auxiliary words come between the verb, and its object.

上之檔者 ’zong tsz tong‘ ’tsé, {he has been entrapped}.
專之權咾殺脱之皇帝者 tsé{n} tsz giö{n} lau sah t’eh tsz {w}ong tí‘ ’tsé,
{relying on his influence, he killed the emperor}.
惹有見識個笑 ’zá ’{y}eu kíe{n}‘ suh kú‘ siau‘, {causing the laughter of
those who are intelligent}.
叨儂光嗄 t’au nóng‘ kwong au, {I beg your favour} (light).

Obs. When a verb and adjective are combined, the tense particle follows the adjective; e.g. 繩放鬆之末好 zung fong‘ sóng tsz meh ’hau, {it would be better to slacken the rope}.

{d}. In the verb groups of direction and motion, the substantive governed is sometimes inserted after the principal verb, sometimes between the second and third auxiliaries when there are two, and sometimes it is placed at the end.

同壺滴水下來 {t}óng {ú} tih ’sz ’{a}u lé, {brazen urn dropping water}.
放轎子下來 fong‘ giau‘ ’tsz ’{a}u lé, {let the chair down}.
放我開來 fong‘ ’ngú k’é lé, {let me go}.
赶兵出去 kû{n} ping t’seh k’í‘, {drive out soldiers}.
挑担出來 t’iau ta{n} t’seh lé, {carry out a load}.
打馬前去 ’táng ’mó zíe{n} k’í‘, {drive a horse forward}.
併傢生攏來 ’ping ká sáng ’lóng lé, {collect domestic articles}.
再活別人轉來 tsé‘ {w}eh bih niun ’tsé{n} lé, {call a man to life again}.
轉水進去 ’tsé{n} ’sz tsing‘ k’í‘, {pour in water}.
殺進城來 sah tsing‘ zung lé, {enter the city fighting}.
赶出狗來 kû{n} t’seh ’keu lé, {drive out dogs}.
担出衣裳來 ta{n} t’seh í zong lé, {bring clothes out}.
反轉手來 ’fa{n} ’tsé{n} ’seu lé, {turn one’s hand over}.
旋轉盤來 zíe{n}‘ ’tsé{n} bé{n} lé, {turn the tray round}.
撐開船來 t’sáng ké‘ zé{n} lé, {pole the boat away}.
推開窻來 t’é k’é t’song lé, {push the window open}.
行起風來 {h}áng ’k’í fóng le, {take the wind to work the boat}.
擎起刀來 {k}iung ’k’í tau lé, {lift up a knife}.
放起炮來 fong‘ ’k’í p’au‘ lé, {commence firing cannon}.

Obs. Rarely the nominative is placed after the verb it governs, 走人下來 ’tseu niun ’{a}u lé, {men are coming down}; 吹風進去 t’sz fóng tsing‘ k’i‘, {wind blows in}.

{e}. Negative verb groups sometimes admit of an adverb qualifying the principal verb, and coming immediately after it.

認大勿出 niun‘ dá‘ veh t’seh, {I scarcely recognize him.}
話大勿來 {w}ó‘ dá‘ veh lé, {I cannot well talk}.
看大勿見 k’ö{n}‘ dá‘ veh kíe{n}‘, {I can scarcely see it}.
吃大勿落 k’iuh dá‘ veh loh, {I cannot well eat}.

{f}. Verb groups with the affirmative and negative particles, also admit the objective case after the principal verb.

呌伊勿出 kiau‘ í veh t’seh, {I do not know its name}.
甩伊勿開 hwah í veh k’é, {I cannot throw him off}.
拔伊勿起 {p}ah í veh ’k’í, {I cannot pull it up}.

Obs. In many cases, the object comes after the whole group; e.g. 當勿 住大兵 tong veh dzû‘ dá‘ ping, {he cannot resist the great army}; 做勿動 生活 tsú‘ veh ’dóng sáng {w}eh, {I cannot do any work}.

{g}. Repeated verbs with the tentative 看 k’ö{n}‘, take their accusative case before 看 k’ö{n}‘.

問問伊看 mun‘ mun‘ í k’ö{n}‘, ask him and see.
做做文章看 tsú‘ tsú‘ vun tsáng k’ö{n}‘, {write an essay as a
specimen}.

{Section} 4. {On Repetition}.

360. The repetition of words frequently affects the grammatical sense of the words repeated. At other times it is mere tautology adopted for rhythmical reasons, or for the purpose of emphasis as in English. Cases in which the repeating of a word has a grammatical value, will be first considered.

Appellative and relative substantives, when repeated, are translated by {all} or {every}.

人人算日頭, 無價之寶 niun niun sö{n}‘ nyih deu, vú ká‘ tsz ’pau, {all men
feel that the sun is inestimably precious}.
處處反亂 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’fan lö{n}‘, {rebellion and disturbance everywhere}.
君君臣臣 kiun kiun zun zun, {all princes and magistrates}.
樹樹有皮, 人人有面 zû‘ zû‘ ’{y}eu bí, niun niun ’{y}eu míe{n}‘, {trees
all have bark, and men all have faces}.

361. The numeral particles are all repeated, thereby giving the sense of {all} and {every} to their substantives. Subdivisions of time, and space, measures of material nouns, etc. are also repeated in the same sense.

店家家關者 tíe{n}‘ ká ká kwa{n} ’tsé, {the shops are all shut}.
門扇扇鎖好拉 mun sé{n}‘ sé{n}‘ ’sú ’hau ’lá, {the doors are all locked}.
羊隻隻要修 {y}áng tsáh tsáh yau‘ sieu, {the sheep all need to be shorn.}
城裏向舖舖有小甲 zung ’lí h’iáng‘ p’ú‘ p’ú‘ ’{y}eu ’siau kah, {in the
city every ward has a bailiff}.
天天好日頭 t’íe{n} t’íe{n} ’hau nyih deu, {the sun shines every day}.
物事斤斤缺少 meh zz‘ kiun kiun k’iöh ’sau, {each catty of articles is
short}.
把把刀磨快末者 pó pó tau mú k’wá‘ meh ’tsé, {grind all the knives}.
間間房子坍脱者 ka{n} ka{n} vong ’tsz t’a{n} t’eh ’tsé, {every house is
fallen}.
今年菓子種種勿好 kiun níe{n} ’kú ’tsz ’tsóng ’tsóng veh ’hau, {this year
all kinds of fruits have failed}.
姊妹雙雙出來 tsí mé‘ song song t’seh lé, {the elder and younger sisters
are come out in pairs}.
寫字個法則是筆筆中鋒 ’siá zz‘ kú‘ fah tsuh pih pih tsóng fóng, {the
method of writing is for each stroke to be made with the point
of the pencil}.
條條大路 {t}iau diau dá‘ lú‘, {they are all great roads}.
句句眞話 kü‘ kü‘ tsun {w}ó‘, {every sentence is truth}.

Obs. i. The difference between full appellative or other nouns, and the auxiliary nouns that define time, space, quantity, and form, is here again prominently brought to view. Duplication serves to show where the two classes of terms border on each other. Thus, 街 ká, {a street} is not repeated; the form being, such as 街路條條沒滿之一寸高血 ká lú‘ diau diau meh ’mé{n} tsz ih t’sun‘ kau h’iöh, {the streets were all covered with blood an inch high}. 衖 long‘, {a lane}, on the other hand is treated as a subdivision in space, and takes no numeral particle; e.g. 衖衖有十外家人家 lóng‘ lóng‘ {y}eu {s}eh ngá ká niun ká, {in every lane there are ten families or more}.

Obs. ii. It has been shown in the section on adverbs, that substantives of time when doubled are used in the sense {always}. This is an instance in agreement with the broader principle, that all names of subdivisions and auxiliary numeral particles are repeated, and that the repetition implies universality.

362. Adjectives are sometimes repeated before a substantive, but much more frequently when placed as predicate after it. No addition is thereby made to the sense.

做生活個人勞勞碌碌 tsú‘ sáng {w}eh kú‘ niun lau lau lóh lóh, {the workmen
are tired}.
好好物事 ’hau ’hau meh zz‘, {a good article}.
小小個一圓鐵蛋 ’siau ’siau kú‘ ih {y}ön t’ih da{n}‘, {a small iron shot}.
多多百姓 tú tú pák sing‘, {very many people}.
花卉妖妖嬈嬈 hwó ’hwé yau yau zau zau, {the flowers are very beautiful}.
樹林密密層層 zû‘ ling mih mih zung zung, {the wood is crowded with trees}.
山頭玲玲瓏瓏 sa{n} deu ling ling lóng lóng, {the hill is picturesque}.
若惆惆 ’k’ú tseu tseu, {unhappy}.
聽見之書聲朗朗 t’ing kíe{n}‘ tsz sû sung long‘ long‘, {we heard the
sound of reading pleasant and clear}.
眼淚汪汪 ’nga{n} lí‘ wong wong, {tears flowing abundantly}.
火星燄燄 ’hú sing {y}a{n}‘ {y}a{n}‘, {the sparks are very bright}.
十指尖尖 {s}eh ’tsz tsíe{n} tsíe{n}, {ten sharp-pointed fingers}.

363. When doubled, adjectives follow verbs they are translated as adverbs.

物事安排舒舒徐徐個 meh zz‘ ö{n} bá sû sû zí zí kú‘, {the things were
placed in admirable order}.
做來潦潦草草 tsú‘ lé lau lau t’sau‘ t’sau‘, {it is done in a coarse way}.

Obs. It has been shown that repeated adjectives placed before verbs qualify them like adverbs. We have also 攏攏總總有一百 ’lóng ’lóng tsóng‘ tsóng‘ ’{y}eu ih páh, {altogether there are a hundred}. The primitive adverbs are not repeated.

364. Several relative substantives are repeated without any alteration in the sense.

叔叔 sóh sóh, {uncle}.
嫂嫂 ’sau sau‘, {sister-in-law}.
爹爹 tiá tiá, {father}.
第第 ’{t}í ’dí, {younger brother}.
姊姊 ’tsí tsí‘, {sister} (ah tsí, {idem}).
妹妹 mí‘ mí‘, {younger sister} (mé‘ mé‘).
媽媽 má má, {mother} (or ah má).
哥哥 kú kú, {elder brother} (ah kú, ib.).
弟弟 {t}í‘ dí‘, {younger brother} (hiúng dí‘).

365. When verbs are repeated, it is for rhythmical reasons, and for the sake of alliteration. In addition to the examples given in Art. 231, the following will serve to exhibit the use of these seeming tautologies.

{a}. Single verbs are repeated with or without a regimen.

要買點飯吃吃 yau‘ ’má ’tíe{n} va{n}‘ k’iuh k’iuh, {I wish to buy a
little rice to eat}.
我不過澆澆花咾, 修修丫枝 ’ngú peh kú‘ kiau kiau hwó lau, sieu sieu au tsz,
{I am just watering the flowers, and pruning the branches of the
trees}.

{b}. In a verb group of two, the second word is often repeated.

孛相相 {p}eh siáng‘ siáng‘, {rambling for amusement}.
笑嘻嘻 siau‘ h’í h’í, {laughing}.
魚拉水裏活動動 ng ’lá ’sz ’lí {w}eh ’dóng ’dóng, {the fish are swimming
actively in the water}.
遊嬉嬉咾, 勿肯用必 yeu h’í h’í lau, veh ’k’ung {y}úng‘ sing, {he rambles
about amusing himself, and will not attend to anything}.
哭漓漓 k’óh lí lí, {he is weeping}.

{c}. Many groups of four contain a single repeated verb.

打敗之咾紛紛各散 ’táng bá‘ tsz lau fun fun koh sa{n}‘, {being conquered,
they divided and were all scattered}.
打贏之咾歸來得意揚揚 ’tang {y}ung tsz lau kü lé tuh í‘ {y}áng {y}áng,
{having conquered, he came back satisfied and elated}.
衣袂飄飄 í mé‘ p’iau p’iau, {the shirts of clothes blowing about}.
星光閃閃 sing kwong sé{n}‘ sé{n}‘, {the star-light twinkles}.
枝葉洽洽 tsz ih {y}ah {y}ah, {the branches and leaves are waving}.

{d}. Many verb groups of two are extended by the repetition of each word.

事體定定當當 zz‘ t’í {t}ing‘ ding‘ tong‘ tong‘, {the thing is brought
to a settlement}.
勿必疑疑惑惑 veh pih ní ní {ó}h {ó}h, {you need not suspect}.
牙齒活活落落 ngá ’t’sz {w}eh {w}eh loh loh, {his teeth are shaking and
falling out}.
走𨅓跎之咾興興夯夯 ’tseu sá dú tsz lau h’iung h’iung hong hong, {he has
walked himself tired and is panting for breath}.
碗盞相碰响咾歴歴碌碌 ’wé{n} ’tsa{n} siáng báng‘ ’h’iáng lau líh líh lóh
lóh, {the cups and saucers are falling together and making a
noise}.

{e}. Frequently in repeated groups of four, the constituent words alternate.

打算打算也勿對景 ’táng sö{n}‘ ’táng sö{n}‘ ’{á} veh té‘ ’kiung, {with all
his meditating, he cannot satisfy himself}.
留步留歩勿要送者 lieu bú‘ lieu bú‘ veh yau‘ sóng‘ ’tsé, {stay, stay, do
not escort me out}.
物事好吃有味有味 meh zz‘ ’hau k’iuh ’{y}eu mí‘ ’{y}eu mí‘, {this thing
is very nice, it has a fine taste}.

{f}. The verb is repeated alternately with two accusatives.

總要勞心勞力 ’tsóng yau‘ lau sing lau lih, {you must use your mind and
all your efforts}.
年成好者謝天謝地 níe{n} zung ’hau ’tsé ziá‘ t’íe{n} ziá‘ dí‘, {it is a
good year, and we must thank heaven and earth for it}.
爲皇爲帝 {w}é {w}ong {w}é tí‘, {to be an emperor}.
做官做府 tsú‘ kwé{n} tsú‘ ’fú, {to be a mandarin}.

366. With regard to their syntax, groups consisting of repetitions frequently form separate clauses of a sentence, but not exclusively so. They also like other groups, obey the laws of position of section 1. in relation to neighbouring words, and in their internal structure, and are construed as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs according to their particular character and use as a whole.

{a}. As adjective, whether forming a predicate or in apposition.

做一個人總要正正派派 tsu‘ ih kú‘ niun ’tsóng yau‘ tsung‘ tsung‘ p’á‘
p’á‘, {as a man, you must be correct in conduct}.
人住勒拉花花世界, 大有福氣拉 niun dzû‘ leh ’lá hwó hwó sz‘ kú‘, dú‘
’{y}eu fok kí‘ ’lá, {man living in a beautiful world, has great
happiness}.

{b}. As verb.

看看許多人跟拉 k’ö{n}‘ k’ö{n}‘ tú hau‘ niun kun ’lá, {see there is a
great number of persons following}.

{c}. As verb.

逃走脱者就快快活活接到船上 {t}au ’tseu t’eh ’tsé dzieu‘ k’á‘ k’á‘ {w}eh
{w}eh tsih tau‘ zé{n} long‘, {when he had escaped, they gladly
received him to the boat}.
明明亮亮收受徒弟 ming ming liáng‘ liáng‘ seu ’zeu dú dí‘,
{they openly received disciples}.
詳詳細細考究實骨子那能個 ziáng ziáng sí‘ sí‘ ’k’au kieu‘ zeh kweh ’tsz
ná‘ nung kú‘, {carefully examine how it truly is}.

Obs. Groups of four, whether formed by repeated words or not, very commonly fall into separate clauses; e.g. 文理嘸啥好草草不工 vun ’lí {m} sá‘ ’hau, ’t’sau ’t’sau peh kóng, {it is not at all well written, but coarse and unpolished}.

{Section} 5. {Order in groups}.

367. There are various principles of arrangement in the words of a group. A group of four (1) may contain in itself an entire sentence; e.g. 懂呢勿懂 ’tóng ní veh ’tóng, {do you understand?} (2) or it may consist of verbs and their regimen, nouns and their adjectives, or other combinations of the parts of speech; e.g. 伸冤理枉 sun yö{n} ’lí ’wong, {to redress injuries}. (3) Repetition direct and alternate, forms many short phrases into longer groups, (4.) The principle of arrangement in many groups is, the order of nature, species being placed before genus, and the whole before its parts. (5.) The constituent words may be coordinate in meaning, and alike in grammatical character.

In addition to these varieties of structure, there are also mixed groups in which repetition for instance forms one part, and words combined grammatically, another; e.g. 念念不忘 nia{n}‘ nia{n}‘ peh vong, {think of constantly}.

368. Complete sentences are here placed with the other groups, because they fall into regular forms, and obey the laws of rhythm in a manner similar the fixed phrases of two, three, four or more words here referred to. Hence the predominance of short pithy sentences in common conversation.

有啥勿懂 ’{y}eu sá‘ veh ’tong, {why should I not understand?}
勿曾曉得 veh zung ’h’iau tuh, {I do not know}.
洋價大者 {y}áng ká‘ dú‘ ’tsé, {the price of the dollar is high}.
那能辦法 ná‘ nung‘ {p}a{n}‘ fah, {how should we proceed?}
要好就好 yau‘ ’hau dzieu‘ ’hau, {if you want it good, it is at once
good}.

Obs. The order of the words in these phrases is regulated by the rules of Part III, section 1, and the sections on propositions.

369. Many groups have an internal syntactical arrangement, and they are so numerous, that although some examples have already been given, more will here appended. They may be divided into (a), those in which there is a repetition of the idea, and (b) where there is none.

嘴尖舌快 ’tsz tsíe{n} zeh k’wá‘, {sharp lips and tongue}.
靑天白日 t’sing t’íe{n} bah nyih, {clear sky and bright sun}.
忘恩負義 vong un veu‘ ní‘, {forget kindness}.
欺天瞞地 k’í t’íe{n} mé{n} dí‘, {deceive heaven and earth}.
東倒西歪 tóng ’tau sí hwá, {all is in disorder}.
話長話短 {w}ó‘ dzáng {w}ó‘ ’tö{n}, {very loquacious}.
搬嘴弄舌 pé{n} ’tsz lóng‘ zeh, {fond of using the tongue}.
呑飢忍餓 t’un kí ’niun ngú‘, {to endure hunger}.
人面獸心 niun míe{n}‘ seu‘ sing, {in face a man, but in heart a wild
beast}.
苦口良言 ’k’ú ’k’eu líang {í}e{n}, {advice bitter but salutary}.
山珍海味 sa{n} tsun ’hé mí‘, {delicacies from the mountain and the sea}.
指東話西 ’tsz tóng {w}ó‘ sí, {advising this and then that}.
藏頭露尾 dzong deu lú‘ ’ví, {act contrary to propriety}.
喜富怕窮 ’h’í fú‘ p’ó‘ gióng, {pleased with riches but fearing poverty}.
損人利己 ’sun niun lí‘ ’kí, {rob others to enrich one’s-self}.
呼兄喊第 hú h’iúng ha{n}‘ dí‘, {to call brothers}.
或三或四 {w}oh sa{n} {w}óh sz‘, {sometimes this and sometimes that}.
引經據典 ’{y}ung kiung kü‘ ’tíe{n}, {to cite books and appeal to the
classics}.
吹哥唱曲 t’sz kú t’song‘ k’ióh, {to play airs and sing songs}.

370. Passing over repetition groups, as already sufficiently illustrated, some examples will be given of those in which several words coordinate in sense are placed in proximity. In many instances such words as express relative superiority stand first.

風雲雷雨 fóng {y}ün lé ’{ü}, {wind, clouds, thunder and rain}.
雨雪霜露 ’{ü} sih song lú‘, {rain, snow, hail and dew}.
賢良方正 {h}íen liáng fong tsung‘, {the wise, good, noble and upright}.
柴米油鹽 zá ’mí {y}eu {í}e{n}, {fuel, rice, oil and salt}.
荳穀米麥 {t}eu‘ kóh ’mí máh, {beans, rice and wheat}.
始終本末 ’sz tsóng ’pun meh, {beginning and end, origin and conclusion}.
牛羊犬馬 nieu, {y}áng, ’k’iö{n}, ’mó, {cattle, sleep, dogs and horses}.
君親師友 kiün t’sing sz ’{y}eu, {king, parents, teacher and friends}.
磚瓦石灰 tsé{n} ’ngó záh hwé, {bricks, tiles and lime}.
禽獸昆蟲 {k}iun seu‘ k’wun dzóng, {birds, beasts and insects}.
瓶甏罐頭 {p}ing báng kwé{n} deu, {pitchers, pots and pans}.
耳目口鼻 ’rh móh ’k’eu bih, {ear eyes, mouth and nose}.
魚鳞蝦蟹 ng ling hö{n} ’há, {fish, crabs and shrimps}.
金銀銅錫 kiun niun dóng t’ih sih, {gold, copper, copper, iron and tin}.
解釋 ’ká seh, {explain}.
審斷 ’sun tö{n}‘, {to judge}.
離散 lí sa{n}‘, {to be scattered}.
偷竊 t’eu t’sih, {to steal}.
圓滿 {y}ö{n} ’mé{n}, {round & full}.
端方 tö{n} fong, {upright}.
紡織 ’fong tsuh, {spinning and weaving}.

Obs. On presenting these examples to a Fuh-kien literary man, it was found that half of the groups were in use in his dialect; of the remainder, more than half were partially the same with collocations familiar to him, while the rest were entirely different.

371. Species invariably precedes genus, and matter form, in groups formed of words thus related.

筆筒好插個 pih dóng ’hau t’sah kú‘, {you can stick it in the pencil
holder}.
嘸沒筆帽子 {m} meh pih mau ’tsz, {there is no top-case to the pencil}.
蚊帳破個 mun tsáng, p’ú‘ kú‘, {the mosquito curtain is torn}.
扇骨綠漆個 sé{n}‘ kweh lók t’sih kú‘, {the frame of the fan is painted
green}.
鐵店裏打拉個 t’ih tíe{n}‘ lí ’táng ’lá kú‘, {it was made in the
blacksmith’s shop}.
石馬 {s}áh ’mó, {stone horse}.
蒲扇 {p}ú sé{n}‘, {broad-leaf fans}.
砂皮 só bí, {sand paper}.
瓦粒屑 ’ngó lih sih, {earthenware fragments}.

Obs. i. Substance precedes accident or attribute, and the whole its part. This is sometimes the same with the proposition immediately above, {genus} being only such part of {species} as happens to belong commonly to several objects. We may fix our attention on either word in the compound indifferently, considering it as the {essence}, while the other is the {accident}. Thus, 屋基 óh kí, {foundation of a house}; 屋頂 hó ’ting, {house roof}, are parts of the appellative substantive {house}. So, if speaking of the articles into which bamboo is manufactured, the second word in 竹牌 tsóh bá, {piece of flattened bamboo}; 竹簾 tsóh líe{n}, {bamboo window-blinds}; 竹紙 tsóh ’tsz, {bamboo paper}, is in each case that which expresses {form}, while the first describes the {material}.

The latter may be viewed as accidental to the former, or if preferred, the second word may called {genus}, while the first is considered as limiting it to a particular {species}.

Obs. ii. In conformity with the principle, that the word in which the substance of the noun inheres should stand first, the auxiliary appendages 頭 deu, 子 ’tsz, 處 t’sû‘, 法 fah follow their words; e.g. 飯嘸尋處 va{n}‘ {m} zing t’sû‘, {there is no way of getting a living}; 寫法總有個 ’siá fah ’tsóng ’{y}eu kú‘, {there must be some mode of writing it}.

Obs. iii. The auxiliary substantives and numeral particles appropriated to particular nouns, when they follow their words without a numeral, exemplify the same law; e.g. 白話裏向勿要加出多許書句 {p}áh {w}ó‘ ’lí h’iáng‘ veh yau‘ ká t’seh tú hau‘ sû kü‘, {do not mingle so many book sentences in what you say}.

Obs. iv. In double substantives formed partly with a verb, the verb as giving the species stands first; e.g. 算盤 sö{n}‘ bé{n}, {counting board}; 印板 yun‘ ’pa{n}, {printing blocks}; 話柄 {w}ó ping‘, {a bon mot} (See Art. 113.).

Obs. v. Many inseparable dissyllabic substantives, in which the distinction of matter and form is not obvious in their daily use, if viewed etymologically may be noticed to have the same order; e.g. 文章 vun tsáng, {literary compositions}; 地方 {t}í‘ fong, {a place}. The word giving the matter stands in each case first.

372. If the action be gradual in a compound verb, the word first in time is first in order. The word that concludes the action comes last.

担來銷化 ta{n} lé siau hwó‘, {to take and burn}.
燈點完者 tung ’tíe{n} {w}é{n} ’tsé, {the lamp is burnt out}.
撥拉賊匪打輸 peh ’lá zuh fí‘ ’táng sû, {he was defeated by the rebels}.

Obs. i. Most of the auxiliary particles occurring in compound verbs follow the principal word; v. Art. 217, 222, but 打 ’táng, and such adverbs as help to form compound verbs precede the principal words; e.g. 打緝打緝看 ’táng t’sih ’táng t’sih k’ö{n}‘, {make inquiries}.

Obs. ii. The auxiliary verbs of {power}, forming a potential mode, precede their verbs. 勿會白話 veh {w}é‘ báh {w}ó‘, {he cannot talk}; 勿能去 veh nung k’í‘, {he cannot go}. In English, there are also auxiliaries of this kind preceding other verbs in apposition, without the sign of the infinitive intervening; e.g. {may, can}.

{Variation in Order}. 373. The components of some groups admit of more than one mode of arrangement. The following may be used in a direct or inverted order.

來往 lé ’wong, {communication}.
氣力 k’í‘ lih, {strength}.
笑談 siau‘ da{n}, {laughing and talking}.
征戰 tsung tsé{n}‘ {to fight}.
週身上下 tseu sun ’zong ’{a}u, {the whole body} (or 下上).
歡喜 hwe{n} ’h’í, {pleased}.
勿論損益 veh lun‘ ’sun yuh, {without regarding whether it be injurious
or beneficial}.
小大 ’siao dú‘, {small, great}.
黑白 huh, báh, {black, white}.
南北東西 né{n} póh tóng sí, {south, north, east and west}.
靈魂 ling {w}ung, {the soul}.
彎轉 wa{n} ’tsé{n}, {to turn around}.
長短 dzáng ’tö{n}, {long and short}.

Obs. The number of groups variable in order, is comparatively extremely small. The number of cases in English, where one particular order of coordinate words is maintained, is by no means small; e.g. {long and happy reign; far and near; kings and queens}.

374. The following principles of arrangement may be distinguished in the apposition of verbs.

{a}. The auxiliaries of the future tense, and the imperative and potential moods precede their verb. 要 yau‘, 會 {w}é‘, 能 nung.

總要去 ’tsóng yau‘ k’í‘, {you must go}.
我會寫 ’ngú {w}é‘ ’siá, {I can write}.
勿能來 veh nung lé, {he cannot come}.
勿要來 veh yau‘ lé, {I do not wish to come; or do not come}.
勿會話要來 veh zung {w}ó‘ yau‘ lé, {I did not say, I should come}.
儂也要來 nóng‘ ’{á} yau‘ lé, {you must come}.

{b}. When the object of a verb is an action, it is expressed by a verb in Chinese, instead of a verbal derivative, or infinitive, or gerund form, such as would be used in languages having grammatical forms.

勿免死 veh ’míe{n} ’sí, {cannot avoid dying}.
勿想吃 veh ’siáng k’iuh, {I do not think of eating}.
勿算逃走 veh sö{n}‘ dau ’tseu, {not to be regarded as flight}.
勿敢做 veh ’ké{n} tsú‘, {he does not dare do it}.
幾時想修 ’kí zz ’siáng sieu, {when do you think of reforming}.
打算謀反 ’táng sö{n}‘ meu ’fa{n}, {to meditate a revolt}.
愛吃酒 é‘ k’iuk ’tsieu, {to be fond of drinking wine}.

{c}. The auxiliary verbs expressive of direction and motion, beginning and completion, etc. follow the principal verb.

買進來 ’má tsing‘ lé, {to buy in}.
抱進抱出 ’{p}au tsing‘ ’{p}au t’seh, {to carry in and out in one’s arms}.

{d}. Priority in time often determines the order of verbs.

我去送 ’ngú k’í‘ sóng‘, {I will go and present it}.
要來相幫 yau‘ lé siáng pong, {you must come and assist}.
勸化世界上人 k’iö{n}‘ hwó‘ sz‘ ká‘ long‘ niung, {to exhort and convert
mankind}.
打殺別人 ’táng sah bih niun, {to beat persons to death}.

{e}. Coordinate verbs.

保護𩻴寡孤獨 ’pau {ú}‘ kwa{n} kwó kú dóh, {to protect and save widows,
orphans, and those who have no relatives}.

{Section} 6. {Simple Propositions}.

375. The simplest sentence is that in which there is a single word, forming the subject (主 ’tsû), and another the predicate (賓 ping). The subject always precedes.

馬來 ’mó lé, {a horse comes}.
天熱 t’íe{n} nyih, {the weather is hot}.

Obs. i. Occasionally the predicate precedes, 出會 t’seh {w}é‘, {the procession is out}; 落水 lok ’sz, {the tide is falling}. These forms may also be explained as impersonal verbs with an accusative.

Obs. ii. An adjective forms of itself a complete predicate, and usually has no copula to connect it with the preceding nominative. 桃子熟者 {t}au ’tsz zók ’tsé, {the peaches are ripe}.

376. The simple proposition in its full form has also a copula.

是吾作主 ’zz ngú tsok ’tsû, {I act for myself}.
海裏個水是深個 ’hé ’lí kú‘ ’sz ’zz sun kú‘, {the water of the sea is
deep}.
天來得熱 t’íe{n} lé tuh nyih, {the weather is hot}.

Obs. When the predicate is a verb, the copula may be always considered as included in it. It is when the predicate is an adjective that a vacuum becomes obvious to a foreign ear.

377. The subject may consist of a substantive, or a substantive group, a pronoun, a verb or a verb group, or adverbs of place and time, construed as nouns.

日頭勿出來 nyih deu veh t’seh lé, {the sun does not come out}.
菴堂寺院秃有燒香 é{n} dong zz‘ {y}ö{n}‘ t’oh ’{y}eu ’sau h’iáng, {in all
convents and monasteries there is incense burning}.
第個是好點個 {t}í‘ kú‘ ’zz ’hau ’tíe{n} kú‘, {this is better}.
買是勿能 ’má ’zz veh nung, {to buy is impossible}.
挑咾扛勿會個 t’iau lau kong veh {w}é‘ kú‘, {to act as porter alone or
with others, is what I cannot do}.
此地有雪 ’t’sz dí‘ ’{y}eu sih, {it snows here}.
明朝初六 ming tsau t’sú lóh, {to-morrow is the sixth}.

Obs. i. Sometimes the subject is understood; e.g. 總要立定主意 ’tsóng yau‘ lih ding‘ ’tsû í‘, ({you}) {must be resolute}.

Obs. ii. Adjectives also sometimes form a predicate. 好有好報, ’hau ’{y}eu ’hau pau‘, {goodness has a good reward}; 善咾惡總要辨出來 ’zé{n} lau oh ’tsóng yau‘ bíe{n}‘ t’seh lé, {virtue and vice must be distinguished}.

Obs. iii. Any word that qualifies a noun may be removed from its place in apposition, and become a predicate. Thus, 第座房子是拉個 {t}í‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz ’zz ’lá kú‘, {this house is the right one}, may become, 是第座房子 ’zz dí‘ zú‘ vong ’tsz, {it is this one}; 兩條橋有, ’liáng diau giau ’{y}eu, {there are two bridges}, or 橋有兩條 {k}iau ’{y}eu ’liáng diau, {of bridge there are two}.

378. When the copula is used, it takes the forms of 是 ’zz, 得 tuh, 來得 lé tuh, and 來 lé before adjective predicates, while 做 tsu‘, and in some groups 爲 {w}é‘ and 作 tsoh precede substantives.

道理是勿差個 ’{t}au ’lí ’zz veh t’só kú‘, {the doctrine, is right}.
心裏來得笨 sing ’lí lé tuh {p}un‘, {in mind he is stupid}.
我勿做兵 ’ngú veh tsú‘ ping, {I am not a soldier}.
我勿為官 ’ngú veh {w}é kwé{n} ’fú, {I am not a mandarin}.
寫來好看 ’siá lé ’hau k’ö{n}‘, {it is well written}.
寫得勿好 ’siá tuh veh ’hau, {it is written badly}.

Obs. Educated men appear to avoid the use of 來 lé, as a substitute for 得, but it is extremely common among the lower classes.

379. In the predicate are found, a substantive, adjective, verb, or adverb, or a group of either.

比我大個是阿哥 ’pí ’ngú dú‘ kú‘ ’zz á kú, {he who is
older than I is called elder brother}.
赦免小過失好個 só‘ ’míe{n} ’siau kú‘ seh ’hau kú‘, {to forgive little
faults readily is good}.
戲咾戲法咾啥勿看 h’í‘ lau h’í‘ fah lau sá‘ veh k’ö{n}‘, {plays, jugglery
and such things, I do not go to see}.
價錢最大個是珍珠八寶 ká‘ díe{n} tsúe‘ dú‘ kú‘ ’zz tsun tsû pah ’pau,
{things of the highest price are pearls and the eight precious
stones}.

Obs. The final expletives are usually appended to the predicate. 說話 好個 seh {w}ó‘ ’hau kú‘, {your words are good}.

380. In very many sentences, the predicate is a transitive verb with an object, which in its simplest form is a substantive, monosyllabic or consisting of a group.

做好事就是周濟窮人 tsú‘ ’hau zz‘ dzieu‘ ’zz tseu tsí‘ gióng niun,
{charity consists in giving to the poor}.
伊勿能辦事體 í veh nung {p}a{n}‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {he cannot transact business}.
有銅錢個人要吃燕窩咾魚翅, ’{y}eu dóng díe{n} kú‘ niun yau‘ k’iuh íe{n}‘
{ú} lau ng t’sz‘, {those who are rich eat birds’ nests and
sharks’ fins}.

381. Great variety is introduced into sentences, without the addition of separate clauses, by applying qualifying words and groups to the parts just enumerated. Extension by the apposition of words, alike or contrasted in meaning, and in the same parts of speech, is also very common. The subject is extended:—

{a}. By prefixing an adjective.

聖人出世 sung‘ niun t’seh sz‘, {a wise man was born}.
窮苦個人多 {k}ióng ’k’ú kú‘ niun tú, {poor men are very many}.
好老個讀書人少 ’hau ’lau kú‘ {t}ók sû niun ’sau, {really good scholars
are rare}.

{b}. By apposition of substantives with or without kú‘, whether in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute.

鄕下人告荒去者 h’iáng ’{a}u niun kau‘ hwong k’í‘ ’tsé, {the country
people are gone to announce that there is a famine} (or 哭荒).
上輩個好處要講拉子孫聽 ’záng pé‘ kú‘ ’hau t’sû‘ yau‘ ’kong ’lá ’tsz sun
t’ing, {the goodness of their forefathers, you should tell to
their descendants}.

{c}. By a transitive infinitive with its objective case.

吃牛肉眞正罪過 k’iuh nieu nióh tsun tsung‘ ’zé kú‘, {to eat beef is an
unquestionable sin}.

{d}. By the addition of nouns or verbs governed by case particles.

屋裏向嘸沒人 óh ’lí h’iáng‘ {m} meh niun, {there is no one at home}.
勒拉睏個辰光有賊偷之去者 leh ’lá k’wun‘ kú‘ zun kwong ’{y}eu zuh t’eu tsz
k’í‘ ’tsé, {at the time of sleeping, thieves came and stole it}.

Obs. The so-called genitive with 個 kú‘, included under (b) as an instance of apposition. It is the attributive genitive, or possessive case of western grammars. The genitive sense is given by the relative position of the words, and not by the connecting particle kú‘ often omitted.

{e}. By prefixing numbers and numeral particles to substantives.

兩個女人投井者 ’liáng kú‘ ’nü niun deu ’tsing ’tsé, {two women have
thrown themselves into wells}.
三隻廟燒毀完者 sa{n} tsáh miau‘ sau ’hwé {w}é{n} ’tsé, {three temples
have been burnt to ashes}.

{f}. By prefixing demonstrative, possessive and other adjective pronouns to substantives.

是㑚個房屋勿穩足個 ’zz ná‘ kú‘ vong óh veh ’wun tsóh kú‘, {your house is
not safe}.
第部牛車了脱者 {t}í‘ ’bú‘ nieu t’só ’liau t’eh ’tsé, {this chain pump is
broken}.
各人個脾氣各樣個 koh niun kú‘ bí‘ k’í‘ koh {y}áng‘ kú‘, {each man has his
own disposition}.

{g}. By prefixing adverbs of place or time with the sign of the possessive, or with no intervening particle. It might also be said, that these adverbs are here all treated as substantives.

此地個水清個 ’t’sz dí‘ kú‘ ’sz t’sing kú‘, {the water of this place is
clear}.
蕩搭個人掉皮個 {t}ong tah kú‘ niun {t}iau‘ bí‘ kú‘, {the men of this
place are not honest}.
間壁房子火灼 kah pih vong ’tsz ’hú dzáh, {the house next door is on
fire}.
什蓋能個謠言拉城裏 {s}eh ké‘ nung kú‘ {y}au {í}e{n} ’lá zung ’lí,
{there is a report of that sort in the city}.
現在個百姓勿比古時間 {í}e{n} ’zé kú‘ pák sing‘ veh ’pí ’kú zz ka{n},
{people of the present time are not to be compared to those of
antiquity}.

382. Several of these adjuncts may concur in forming a subject.

外國梳頭個規矩又是一樣者 ngá‘ kóh sz deu kú‘ kwé ’kü {í}‘ ’zz ih {y}áng‘
’tsé, {the foreign method of dressing the hair is different}.
孝順父母恭敬祖宗原是一樣個道理 h’iau‘ zun‘ ’vú ’mú, kúng kiung‘ ’tsú tsóng,
niön ’zz ih {y}áng‘ kú‘ ’{t}au ’lí, {filial regard to parents
and reverencing ancestors are the same thing}.

383. The predicate is extended in a similar manner. It may assume the following forms.

{а}. Substantive with its adjective.