Chapter IX: Part II: {on the Parts of Speech} (2)

Obs. i. Words expressing {kind of}, {sort of} such as 種樣星 tsóng {y}ang‘ sing, have been placed with those particles that are simply indicative, because they are applied to nouns complete in their form and organization, e.g. 伊種人 í ’tsóng niun, {that sort of man}; 第星 事體 {t}í‘ sing zz‘ ’t’i, {this sort of thing}. Having a significance of their own, they should also be mentioned here.

Obs. ii. Material nouns often in English become generic, assuming the plural termination, and when singular the indefinite article, e.g. earth, stone, etc. In Chinese, if we wish to speak of {a} stone, the affix 頭 must be used, and 塊 prefixed. Some words need only the auxiliary prefix, e.g. 一塊煤 ih k’wé‘ mé, {a piece of coal}.

Obs. iii. Some auxiliaries as 塊 are found both in the significant and simply indicative class; a circumstance which suggests that all the particles in the former table had a meaning of their own originally, though now in some instances not to be traced.

Obs. iv. A few verbs are found among these words, viz. 把, 捆, 担, 包, 張, 鋪; they are here to be construed as substantives. In English, verbs construed as nouns are very numerous, e.g. {hold, handle, touch, walk, roll}.

Obs. v. The examples given in the table, are sufficient to shew that for this class of nouns English usage is similar, except that the particle {of} must be inserted. It is different with the words of the former table, for which there is no equivalent idiom in English. These two kinds of auxiliaries should therefore be keep distinct.

158. The definite subdivisions of material nouns will now be noticed. It is not only the numeral particles and the other auxiliaries, as registered in the two preceding articles, that intervene between numbers and their substantives. Many nouns are divisible into several parts, which have appropriate names and may be used as the words of the preceding table. The most useful names of divisions are here given, and first those of books and characters.

Divisions of books.

句 kü‘, {sentence}.
節 tsih, {verse}.
大 {t}á‘, {column}.
行 {h}ong, {column}.
張 tsáng, {leaf}.
頁 {y}ih, {a leaf}.
章 tsáng, {section}.
首 ’seu, {ode}.
篇 p’ie{n}, {chapter}.
本 ’pun, {volume}.
都 {p}ú‘, {a whole work}.

Strokes of characters.

點 ’{t}íe{n} ㇔
劃 {w}áh ㇐
𥪡 ’zû ㇑
剔 t’iuh ㇂
撇 p’ih ㇒
捺 nah ㇏
挑 t’iau ㇀
拂 fah ㇓
圏 k’iö{n}, small circle. 〇

Obs. These words do not take any numeral particle. Thus in giving directions to a scholar to write the character 受 ’zeu, a teacher would say 一撇, 三黯, 帽下又字 ih p’ih, sa{n} tíe{n}, mau‘, ’{a}u ’tí {y}eu‘, zz‘. The eight strokes given above are all contained in the character 永. Information on this subject is given in Dr. Bridgman’s Chinese Chrestomathy and other works.

159. The most common names of vessels of capacity are the following.

碗 wé{n}, {bowl}. 盤 pé{n}, {tray}.
盞 tsa{n}, {ib}. 桶 ’tóng, {bucket}.
盆 {p}un, {a plate}. 匣 {h}ah, {casket}.
缸 kong, {large jar}. 箱 siáng, {chest}.
㼦 {p}áng‘, {pitcher}. 籃 la{n}, {basket}.
瓶 {p}ing, {bottle, jar}. 簍 ’lieu, {small hamper}.

Obs. These words are used as the auxiliary particles of that which is contained in them. But if they are construed as independent substantives they all take 隻 as their distinctive particle. Thus we find, 一隻碗, 一碗茶, ih tsáh wé{n}, {a cup}; ih wé{n} dzó‘, {a cup of tea}.

160. Of definite measures, the following are in common use. Land and Long Measure.

畝 meu, 240 {square} pú‘}.
站 dza{n}‘, 90 {’lí}.
里 ’lí, 360 {p}ú‘.
步 {p}ú‘, {five feet}.
丈 záng‘, {ten feet}.
尺 t’sáh, {foot} (14 Eng. in. taylor’s ft., 10⅞in. carpenter’s ft.)
寸 t’sun‘, {tenth of a foot}.
分 fun, {tenth of a t’sun‘}.

Dry Measure.

石 {s}áh, 10 {teu}.
斗 ’teu, 10 {sung}.
升 sung, {a pint}.
合 keh, {tenth of a pint}.
抄 t’sau, 100{th of keh}.

Weights.

担 ta{n}‘, {pecul}.
斤 kiun, {catty}.
兩 ’liáng, {tael}.
錢 dzíe{n}, {mace}.
角 koh, 10 {cents}.
分 fun, 1 {cent}.
毫 {h}áu, {tenth of fun}.
釐 lí, {tenth of hau}.

Measures of time.

代 dé‘, {generation}.
世 sz‘, {ib}.
年 níe{n}, {year}.
歲 sûe‘, {ib}.
日 nyih, {day}.
點 ’tíe{n}, {hour} (with 鐘).
刻 k’uh, ¼ {hour}.
分 fun, {minute}.
杪 miau, {second}.
歇 h’ih, {instant}.

Obs. 時 zz, hour, and 月 niöh, month, are here omitted, because they usually take 箇 before them. This must be to distinguish them from words similar in sound, or from their own other senses.

161. Collective auxiliary nouns varying through all the forms of plurality, from {a pair} to {a multitude}, here follow:—

句 kü‘, {sentence of} words.
聯 líe{n}, {pair of} corresponding sentences of poetry.
雙 song, {pair} of shoes.
對 té‘, {opposite pair of} candles, geese, ih dé‘ kí, {pair of fowls}.
股 ’kú, 2 or 3 {in trade}; sa{n} ’ku k’é, {divide between three}.
排 {p}á, {a pile or raft of} timber, {row of} trees.
隊 {t}é‘, {a rank of} soldiers, ih dé ping.
帖 t’ih, {parcel of ten} pencils, ih t’ih pih.
刀 tau, 100 {sheets of} paper, ih tau ’tsz.
炷 tsû, {bundle of} incense, ih tsû h’iáng.
套 t’au‘, {coverful of} books, ih t’au‘, sû.
串 t’sé{n} {chain of} 1,000 cash.
羣 {k}iün, {flock of} birds, beasts, ih giün ’tiau.
副 fú‘, {suit of} clothes, ih fú‘ í zong.
行 {h}ong, {rows of} birds flying, trees.

162. From the list here given, it appears that there are at least 130 of these imperfect substantives, almost all in common use. They admit of a fourfold division.

I. Of the first kind, whose office is simply indicative of appellative nouns, or distinctive to some extent of classes, there are upwards of 30. A few examples are appended.

一口棺材 ih ’k’eu kwé{n} zé, {a coffin}.
造一條橋 ’zau ih diau giau, {build a bridge}.
殺一隻雞 sah ih tsáh kí, {kill a fowl}.
一枝大筆 ih tsz dú‘ pih, {a large pencil}.

Obs. i. At first sight, these words look like a capricious superfluity of articles, arising merely from a fondness for multiplying words. They appear appropriate in a language, where there is so much arbitrary classification, and so little exhibition of the power of generalizing by means of deep and comprehensive principles. Here are thirty words made use of, where one would be sufficient. It should however be remembered, that when used as adverbs there is great clearness given to the conception they express, and that they diminish the confusion that arises from similarities of sound.

Obs. ii. When an adjective is used, it comes between the particle and the noun, as in the last example. This is also true of the other particles that are the subject of this chapter.

II. Of the significant particles, or those that are applied to material nouns, and define quantity and form, apart from number, there are about 40. E.g.

一張紙頭 ih tsáng ’tsz deu, {a sheet of paper}.
二十担泥 ní‘ seh ta{n}‘ ní, {twenty loads of earth}.
九層塔 ’kieu zung t’áh, {pagoda of nine stories}.

Obs. i. When they become parts of compound appellative nouns, one of the distinctive particles precedes.

一个面孔 ih ku‘ míe{n}‘ ’k’óng, {one face}.
一隻節頭 ih tsáh tsih deu, {one finger}.

Obs. ii. 點, 眼, tíe{n}, nga{n}, are applied to any material noun in the sense of {a little of}. Ih 一 precedes them.

III. The subdivisions or definite parts of material nouns, form the most numerous class of the auxiliary substantives. Upwards of 50 are here collected. They take no particle after the number preceding, and must therefore be classed as imperfect substantives. Thus the construction in the following examples is similar.

(III.) 一斤花 ih kiun hwó, {pound of cotton}.
(II.) 一包花 ih pau hwó, {bundle of cotton}.
(II.) 一粒米 ih lih ’mí, {a grain of rice}.
(III.) 一斗米 ih ’teu ’mí, {a peck of rice}.

IV. Collectives compose the remaining, and smallest class of qualifying particles applied to substantives. The use of words in the four classes of particles may be seen in the following examples.

一隻羊 ih tsáh {y}áng, {a sheep}.
一塊羊肉 ih k’wé {y}áng nióh, {a piece of mutton}.
一斤羊肉 ih kiun {y}áng nióh, {catty of mutton}.
一羣羊 ih giün {y}áng, {flock of sheep}.

163. Another small class of auxiliary substantives, consists of those that are used with verbs, expressing like our word {times}, the number of times the action has been performed. They are 次, 烫, 囘, 轉, 記; their use will be understood by examples.

來過兩次 lé kú‘ ’liáng t’sz‘, {I have come twice}.
去之一烫 k’í‘ tsz ih t’ong, {having gone once}.
要讀兩囘 yau‘ dóh ’liáng {w}é‘, {you must read it twice}.
走兩轉就定 ’tseu ’liáng ’tsé{n} dzieu‘ ding‘, {after going round twice
he stops}.
打三十記 ’táng sa{n} seh kí‘, {received 30 blows}.

{Section} 5. {On the Adjective}. 呆 虛 字.

164. The native writer before alluded to says, the office of adjectives is “to describe the attributes and appearance of things.” “In apposition with nouns, they express their qualities,” (與實字相加, 以形容實字如何樣.) “Some adjectives consist of two words which are inseparable. Thus, repetition of the initial, the rhyme, and the whole character, frequently occurs.” (有兩字折不開者, 如雙聲, 疊韻, 疊字等類.) “There are not more than a few tens of characters that are adjectives.”

{Antithesis}. 165. In substantives, the principle of combination came prominently to view, and it will be found to belong though not so extensively, to the other parts of speech. That of antithesis belongs especially to adjectives. Most of the single-worded adjectives in daily use will illustrate this.

輕重 k’iung, ’dzóng, {light}, {heavy}.
大小 {t}ú‘, ’siau, {great}, {little}.
多少 tú ’sau, {many}, {few}.
長短 dzáng, ’tö{n}, {long}, {short}.
厚薄 ’{h}eu, {p}óh, {thick}, {thin}.
闊狹 k’weh, {h}ah, {broad}, {narrow}.
高低 kau, tí, {high}, {low}.
深淺 sun, ’t’síe{n}, {deep}, {shallow}.
冷暖 ’{l}áng, ’nö{n}, {cold}, {warm}.
清濁 t’sing, dzóh, {clear}, {muddy}.
快慢 k’wá‘, ma{n}‘, {quick}, {slow}.
好孬 (C) ’hau, k’ieu, {good}, {bad} (k’ieu = 歹 ’té).
淡濃 {t}a{n}‘, nióng, {pale}, {deep}.
早晚 ’tsau, a{n}‘, {early}, {late}.
硬軟 ngáng‘, ’niön, {hard}, {soft}.
曲直 k’ióh, dzuh, {crooked}, {straight}.
正斜 tsung‘, {s}iá, {right}, {bent}.
壯瘦 tsong‘, seu‘, {fat}, {lean}.
生熟 sáng, zóh, {ripe}, {unripe}.
鬆緊 só{n}g, kiun, {loose}, {tight}.
粗細 t’sú, sí‘, {coarse}, {fine}.
新舊 sing, ’{k}ieu, {new}, {old}.
稀綳 (C) h’í, ’máng, {few}, {crowded} (máng = 密 mih).
貴强 (C) kü‘, giáng, {dear}, {cheap} (giáng = 賤 dzíe{n}).
眞假 tsun, ’ká, {true}, {false}.
亮暗 liáng‘, e{n}‘, {light}, {dark}.

Obs. i. Those words only that are marked (C) are not used in literary compositions. There is no class of words more extensively spread through all Chinese, spoken and written, than the majority of these adjectives.

Obs. ii. Antithetical substantives of one character each, are rare in the colloquial. See 107. Obs. iii.

Obs. iii. In Premare’s list of antithetical characters, more than fifty of 117 are adjectives. Many also of those that belong to other parts of speech, have the antithesis less strongly marked.

Obs. iv. Many abstract substantives are formed by the union of these antithetical adjectives, in the order in which they stand above; e.g. {how long}? ’kí hau‘ dzáng ’dö{n}? {to say nothing about speed}, veh ’kong k’wá ma{n}‘ v. Syntax. Part III. §2.

166. Sometimes in the antithesis, one member is a single, and the other a double form.

佳 {k}iá, {capable}. 唔用 {m} {y}úng‘, {useless}.
亂 lö{n}‘, {disturbed}. 太平 t’a‘ bing, {peaceful}.

167. Other words having no obvious antithesis form it by assuming the sign of the negative.

勿像我能 veh ziáng‘ ’ngú nung, {not like me}.
勿肯做 veh ’k’ung tsú‘, {not willing to do it}.
勿便當 veh bíe{n}‘ tong‘, {not convenient}.

Obs. The negative here just corresponds to our English prefix {un}, e.g. {unlike}, {unwilling}.

{Combination}. 168. Many adjectives are formed by the apposition in a fixed order, of two adjectives, and in these compounds many book words occur.

淸爽 t’sing ’song, {clear}. 忠厚 tsóng ’{e}u, {faithful}.
懶惰 la{n} dú‘, {lazy}. 謙虛 k’íe{n} h’ü, {humble}.
乾淨 kû{n} zing‘, {clean}. 煩難 va{n} na{n}, {difficult}.
聰明 t’sóng ming, {clever}. 須少 sü ’sau, {few}.
毛草 mau ’t’sau, {rough}. 許多 ’hü tú, {many}.
冷靜 ’láng ’zing, {solitary}. 新鮮 sing síe{n}, {new}.
粗疎 t’sú sú, {coarse}. 呆笨 ngé bun‘, {stupid}
窮苦 {k}ióng ’kú, {poor}. 兇狠 h’iúng ’hun, {fierce}.

Obs. The antithesis that occurs in examples of this sort is sufficiently indicated by the sense.

169. In addition to compounds such as those already given, formed by two adjectives, substantives and verbs make part of many.

小器 ’siau ({small}) k’í‘, ({vessel}), {parsimonious}.
雪白 sih báh, {snow-white}.
厚道 ’{h}eu ({thick}) dau‘ ({doctrine}), {liberal}.
大量 {t}û‘ (great) liáng‘, ({capacity}), generous.
刻薄 k’uh ({to cut}) bóh ({thin}), {exacting}.
認眞 niung‘ tsun, {diligent}.
拗强 au‘ ({to bend}) giáng, {unyielding}.
完全 {w}é{n} ({finish}) zíe{n}, {complete} (R. dzíe{n}.)
氣悶 k’í‘({anger}) mun‘ ({sad}), {secretly sad}.
高興 kau ({wish}) h’iung‘ ({ready for}), {willing}.
難過 na{n} ({hard}) ku‘ ({to pass}), {painful, sad}.
胆大 ’ta{n} ({liver}) dú‘ ({great}), {bold}.
出客 t’seh ({outside}) k’áh, ({visitor}), {handsome}.
好笑 ’hau ({good}) siau‘ ({laugh}), {ridiculous}.

Obs. There are also triple forms, in which other parts of speech enter, e.g. 壁立直, pih lih dzuh, {straight as a wall}; 的溜圓 tih lieu‘ {y}ö{n}, {very round}. In these examples, the adjective which stands last is qualified by the preceding words.

170. Some adjectives of two words are exclusively local in their use, and present no etymology in their characters, being written phonetically. They are always inseparable.

𨅓跎 sá dú, {tired}. 豪燥 {a}u sau‘, {active, sharp}.
齷齪 ok t’soh, {dirty}. 㾑𤺥 keh dah, {blind to reason}.
囫圇 {w}eh lun, {entire}. 𨰵𨐃 h’iá tsá, {skillful}.
葛列 köh lih, {clean}. 玲瓏 ling lóng, {intelligent}. M.

171. Combinations of three are also numerous, in which the first word contains the principal meaning. The second is repeated, and as will be seen in the examples, sometimes conveys only sound. The phonetic formation of the characters will usually serve to indicate this.

瞎搭搭 P. hah tah tah, {irregular}.
硬𨅘𨅘 P. ngáng‘ báng báng, {hard and stiff}.
軟滋滋 ’niö{n} tsz tsz, {soft}.
滑澾澾 P. {w}ah t’ah t’ah, {slippery}.
閙嚷嚷 ’nau záng záng, {noisy, humming}.
毛萋萋 mau ts’í ts’í, {rough}.
暖筒筒 P. ’nö{n} dóng dóng, {warm}.
直條條 dzuh diau diau, {straight}.
矮矬矬 ’{á} t’sú t’sú, {dwarfish}.
短悠悠 ’tö{n} {y}eu {y}eu, „
白雪雪 {p}ak sih sih, {snow-white}.
黑搨搨 P. huk t’ah t’ah, {black}.

Obs. i. In examples not marked P. the repeated word has an independent sense, in agreement with that of the leading word, and is so used in the books.

Obs. ii. These phonetic appendages, destitute of any significance of their own, are interesting to the comparative etymologist as corresponding to adjectival terminations in other languages.

172. Combined forms of four words, often consisting of adjectives and either substantives or verbs, and still more frequently of double adjectives repeated are, such as follow.

正大光明 tsung‘ dá‘ kwong ming, {upright and wise}.
寬弘大量 k’wé{n} {ó}ng dú‘ lián{g}‘, {generous}.
井井有條 ’tsing ’tsing ’{y}eu diau, {very regular}.
希奇古怪 h’i gi ’kú kwá‘, {extraordinary}.
長長遠遠 dzáng dzáng ’{y}ön ’{y}ön {long in time}.
高高低低 kau kau tí tí, {irregular in height}.
忙忙碌碌 mong mong lóh lóh, {busy}.
胆胆大大 ’ta{n} ’ta{n} dú‘ dú‘, {boldy}.

Obs. The monosyllabic adjectives are not repeated. These double forms when repeated, are also correctly translated as adverbs in almost all cases. It will be seen in subsequent sections, that repetition is used most extensively among verbs and adverbs.

173. The place of the adjective is before its noun if they go into combination, but with the substantive verb as copula or an equivalent, it may become a supplementary member of the sentence.

好人 ’hau niun, {good man}.
人是好個 niun ’zz ’hau kú‘, {the man is good}.
白糖 {p}áh dong, {white sugar}.
清水 t’sing ’sz, {clear water}.
快馬 k’wá‘ ’mó, {swift horse}.
冷飯 ’láng va{n}‘, {cold rice}.
舊書 {k}ieu‘ sû, {old books}.
馬倒勿快 ’mó ’tau veh k’wa‘, {yet the horse goes slowly}.
水淸是清個 ’sz t’sing ’zz t’sing ku‘, {the water is clear}.

174. Substantives become adjectives to other substantives, if placed before them in combination.

洋刀 yáng tau, {foreign knife}. 石路 zah lú‘, {stone road}.
牛奶 nieu ’ná, {buffalo milk}. 海船 ’hé zé{n}, {sea junk}.

Obs. Compounds of this kind have come under notice before, Art. 106. Thus it appears that cases occur which prevent the accurate defining of the parts of speech. For the words standing first in these examples, while they may well be claimed as adjectives, according to the grammar of the classical languages, are unquestionably substantives when alone. As roots they are substantives. It is by position that they are changed into adjectives. For corresponding examples in English, see Art. 119.

175. Verbs with the particle 個 or 拉個, become adjectives to the following noun.

種拉个稻 tsóng‘ ’lá kú‘ ’dau, {the sown rice}.
死个人多 ’sí kú‘ niun tú, {those that die are many}.
愛拉个囝 é‘ ’lá kú‘ ’siau nö{n}, {a dear child}.
活个物事 {w}eh kú‘ meh zz‘ {living thing}.

Obs. i. In examples like the second of these, the sense is also complete without the noun as ’sí kú‘ tú. We have in English {a darkened} room, {a beloved} child. Participles are here construed as adjectives, a usage similar to the Chinese.

Obs. ii. Some verbs enter into combination as adjectives, without the intervention of any particle. 死人 ’sí niun, {dead man}; 孝子 h’iau‘ ’tsz, {filial son}; 孝女 h’iau‘ ’nü, {filial daughter}.

176. A few adjectives are also employed as transitive verbs. The second and fourth of the following sentences are examples. In the 1st and 3rd, the same words are adjectives.

喜歡得極 ’h’í hwé{n} tuh giuh, {exceedingly glad}.
牛喜歡水 nieu ’h’í hwé{n} ’sz, {buffaloes are fond of water}.
快快活活 k’a‘ k’a‘ {w}eh {w}eh, {very glad}.
伊總快活儂 í tsóng k’a‘ {w}eh nóng‘, {he will certainly be pleased
with you}.

{Comparison of adjectives}. 177. The comparative is expressed in several ways, as by—

{a}. 再 tsé‘, {again}, which precedes the adjective it qualifies.

勿能再少 veh nung tsé‘ ’sau, {I cannot say less}.
再大無沒 tsé‘ dú‘ {m} méh, {there are none larger}.
再强有否 tsé‘ giáng ’{y}eu ’vá? {have you any cheaper?}

{b}. 點 ’tíe{n}, {a little}, follows the word that it qualifies.

第本書好點 {t}í‘ ’pun sû ’hau ’tíe{n}, {this book is better}.
快點走 k’wá‘ ’tíe{n} ’tseu, {walk a little faster}.
多點末者 tú ’tíe{n} meh ’tsé, say {a little more}.

{c}. 一眼 ih ’nga{n}, {a little}, is similar in use to the last.

倒好一眼 ’tau ’hau ih ’nga{n}, {this is however something better}.
高大一眼 kau dú‘ ih ’nga{n}, {let it be better and more}.

{d}. 還 {w}a{n} {still}, {further}; this word combined with 要 yau‘, {to want}, makes the adjective that follows comparative.

還要好 {w}a{n} yau‘ ’hau, {I want better yet}.
工力還要細 kúng fú {w}a{n} yau‘ sí‘, {I want the work finer}.

{e}. 比 ’pí, {compare}; this word makes the adjective that follows comparative. When 比 is in the negative form, the adjective may be omitted.

上海勿比蘇州 Zong‘ ’hé veh ’pí Sú tseu, {Shanghai cannot be compared
to Sú-cheú}.
比我還好 ’pí ’ngú {w}a{n} ’hau, {he is better than I}.
比我好 ’pí ’ngú ’hau, {do}.
勿算比我好 veh sû{n} ’pí ’ngú ’hau, {he is not to be thought better
than I}.

{f}. 更 kung‘, better. Sometimes 加 ká, {to add}, follows it.

勿去更好 veh k’í‘ kung‘ hau, {not to go would be better}.
更加勿對 kung‘ ká veh té‘, {still more wrong}.
更加無用 kung‘ ká {m} {y}úng‘, {much more useless}.

{g}. 越 {y}öh repeated. The use of this particle repeated is to place the two members of a sentence in strong antithesis; sometimes 發 fah, {to express} follows it.

越多越好 {y}öh tú {y}öh ’hau, {the more the better}.
越發窮越發要生病 {y}öh fah gióng {y}öh fah yau‘ sáng bing‘, {the
poorer men are, the more liable they are to sickness}.
越發明白末越發要喜歡 {y}öh fah ming báh meh, {y}öh fah yau‘ ’h’í hwé{n},
{the more you understand it, the better you will be pleased with
it}.

{h}. 又 í‘, {again}, is a very common form. 比 ’pí, often commences the sentence.

第个人又好 {t}í‘ kú‘ niun {í}‘ ’hau, {this man is better}.
落雨又多 loh ’{ü} {í}‘ tú, {it rains still more}.

{i}. 又加 {í}‘ ká, {still more} is often preceded by 比 ’pí.

比我又加明白 ’pí ’ngú {í}‘ ká ming báh, {he is still more
intelligent than I}.

{k}. 加, 添, 放大 ká or tíe{n} {add} or fong‘ dú‘, {increase}.

加伊個膽量 ká í kú‘ ’ta{n} liáng‘, {grew more courageous}.
今朝風加大 kiun tsau fóng ká dú‘, {the wind is higher to-day}.
鞋子要放大 {h}á ’tsz yau‘ fong‘ dú‘, {make the shoes larger}.
銅錢要添點 {t}óng díe{n} yau‘ t’íe{n} ’tíe{n}, {you must give more
money}.

{l}. The comparison is intensified by adding 得多 tuh tú after the adjective.

昨日好得多者 zoh nyih ’hau tuh tú ’tsé, {yesterday he was much better.}
第根竹頭比伊根長学得多 {t}í‘ kun tsóh-deu ’pí í kun dzang tuh tú, {this
bamboo is much larger than that}.
第二隻鷄重得多 {t}í‘ ní‘ tsáh kí dzóng‘ tuh tú, {the second fowl is
much heavier}.

{m}. Beside the formation of the comparative by particles, it is expressed by the positive standing first, when the difference of the compared objects is mentioned.

高六寸 kau lók t’sun‘, {taller by six inches}.

Obs. i. The verb 比 is however in examples of this last kind, understood as going before, and is often expressed, as in 第隻船此伊隻闊 二尺 {t}i‘ tsáh zé{n} ’pí í tsáh k’weh ní‘ ts’ah, {this boat is two feet wider than that}. 我娘個病比前日子好得多者 ’ngú niáng kú‘ bing‘ ’pí zie{n} nyih ’tsz ’hau tuh tú ’tsé, {my mother is much better than the day before yesterday}.

Obs. ii. Three kinds of auxiliary words appear in the examples given.

1. Substantive particles which follow the adjective they qualify, and imply a slight variation only. This variation may be increase or diminution, according to the sense of the adjective compared.

2. Verbs. Of these, the verb 比 {compare} is in constant use. It is found with other particles, or without any particle, and retains its syntax as a verb, unaffected by its use as an auxiliary in the comparison of adjectives. The other verbs employed express addition. Their opposites are used in a similar manner; e.g. 減少 ’ka{n} ’sau, 減脫 ’ka{n} t’eh, {subtract}.

3. Conjunctions and adverbs form the remainder of the particles employed in comparison. They imply a {difference} without specifying whether it be greater or less, so that they correspond more nearly to the English suffix {er} than to the particle {more}. The repeated form 越, 越 just answers to the particle {the}, in “the sooner the better.” Such English forms as this are usually regarded as elliptical, and in explaining them, words supposed to be omitted are supplied. In the corresponding Chinese phrases, there is no ground for the hypothesis of an ellipsis.

178. The subjoined auxiliary particles supply the place of a superlative. The first three are placed before the adjective they qualify. The rest follow their word.

{a}. 頂 ’ting, {highest, top}.

天狼心頂亮 t’íen long sing ’ting liáng‘, {Sirius is a very bright star}.
頂强者 ’ting giáng ’tsé, {at the lowest price}.
伊个人頂明白 í kú‘ niun ’ting ming báh, {that man is very intelligent}.
頂大頂多, ’ting dú‘, ’ting tú, {very great, very many}.

{b}. 最 tsûe‘, {exceedingly, the most}.

老虎最利害 ’lau ’hú ’tsûe‘ lí‘ {é}‘, {the tiger is very fierce}.
窵鳥當中鳳凰最好看 ’tiau ’niau tong tsóng, vóng {w}ong‘ tsûe‘ ’hau
k’ö{n}‘, {among birds, the phoenix is the most beautiful}.
天地當中人最玲瓏 t’íe{n} dí‘ tong tsóng, niun tsûe‘ ling lóng, {of all
things in heaven and earth, man is the most intelligent}.

{c}. 極, {k}iuh, {extremely}; this particle is used before or after the adjective which it qualifies.

聰明得極 t’sóng ming tuh giuh, {extremely intelligent}.
極深奧 {k}iuh sun au‘, {extremely profound}.
有文理得極 ’{y}eu vun ’lí tuh giuh, {very beautifully written}.
斯文得極 sz vun tuh giuh, {extremely polite and elegant}.

{d}. 野 ’yá, {wild, great}; this word requires one of the auxiliary verbs 來 or 得 verbs before it.

黃浦裡險得野 {W}ong-p’ú‘ ’lí ’híe{n} tuh ’{y}a, the Hwang-p’u is very
dangerous.
天高來野拉 t’íe{n} kau le ’{y}á ’lá, {heaven is very high}.

{e}. 死 ’sí, {to die}; this word takes the auxiliary verb 來 between it and its adjective.

米行情貴來死 ’mí {h}ong zing kü‘ lé ’sí, {the price of rice
is very high}.
年勢好來死 níe{n} sz‘ ’hau lé ’sí, {it is a very good year}.
今朝風大來死 kiun tsau fóng dú‘ lé ’sí, {to-day the wind
is very high}.

{f}. 嘸做 {m} tsú‘, {there is nothing that can be done}; this form of expression also requires 來 lé.

風大來嘸做 fóng dú‘ lé {m} tsú, {the wind is very high}.
日頭旺來嘸做 nyih deu {y}ong‘ lé {m} tsú‘, {the sun is very bright}.
學問深來嘸做 {h}oh vun‘ sun lé {m} tsú‘, {his learning is very
profound}.

{g}. 煞 sah, {very}. lit. {a twinkling}. (Premare has this particle, though it is certainly rare in mandarin. Many prefer 殺 [1]sah, {kill}).

强盜靈多煞 {k}iáng dau‘ tú sah, {the robbers are very many}.
勿輕煞 veh k’iung sah, {not very light}.

{h}. 頭一 {t}eu ih, {the first in importance}.

頭一要緊 {t}eu ih yau‘ ’kiun, {the most important}.
敬父母頭一 kiung‘ ’vú ’mú deu ih, {filial piety is most important}.

{i}. 了勿得 ’liau veh tuh, {remarkably}, {exceedingly}.

好來了勿得 ’hau lé ’liau veh tuh, {exceedingly good}.

{j}. 了反勿得 ’liau fan veh tuh, ib.

重來了反勿得 ’dzóng lé ’liau fa{n} veh tuh, {extremely heavy}.

{k}. 話勿得 {w}ó‘ veh tuh, or 話勿來 {w}ó‘ veh lé, {very}, {unspeakable}. 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, {endlessly}.

大來話勿得 {t}ú‘ lé {w}ó‘ veh tuh. {unspeakably great}.
話勿來個苦惱 {w}ó‘ veh lé kú‘ k’ú ’nau, {unspeakably wretched}.

{l}. 得利害 tuh lí‘ {é}‘, {severe}, {dangerous}.

重得利害 ’dzóng tuh lí‘ {é}‘, {exceedingly heavy}.

Obs. i. Among the words admitted here are many forms of expression equivalent to our qualifying adverbs {very}, {extremely}, etc. In actual usage no distinct line is kept between the adjectival and adverbial sense; e.g. 最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, may mean {best}, or {very good}. It seemed therefore preferable to give in one view, the more common forms for framing an absolute or modified superlative. Most of these particles are also used to qualify verbs, as will be shown. They are therefore true adverbs.

Obs. ii. Here may be distinguished four modes of forming the superlative.

1. By particles appropriated to this use 是, 頂, 極, tsûe‘, ’ting, {k}iuh. The two former stand before the adjective, the third is found both before and after its word.

2. The ordinal 頭一 {t}eu ih, in mandarin 第一 {t}í ih, {the first}, also places the adjective it precedes in the superlative.

3. Auxiliary verbal particles 得, 來, tuh, lé, with the appendages 野, 極, 利害, ’{y}á, {k}iuh and lí‘ {é}, to the former, and 野, 死, 唔, 做, ’yá, ’sí, and {m} tsú‘, to the latter, form a third class.

4. The forms 了勿得, ’liau veh tuh or ’liau fa{n} veh tuh, {wonderful}, {very}, 話勿得 {w}ó‘ veh tuh (lé), {unspeakable}, and 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘, {endlessly}, when appended to an adjective with 來 intervening, also convey a superlative sense.

Obs. iii. The verb 完 {w}én, {finish} is also applied to adjectives with the same force as the preceding intensitive particles. 畫來像完者 {w}ó‘ lé ziáng‘ {w}én ’tsé, {painted extremely like}; 容貌黃完 {y}óng mau‘ {w}ong {w}én, {countenance very sallow}.

Obs. iv. Extreme excellence is also predicated of an adjective by the phrases 十分 {s}eh fun, {ten parts} and 十二分 {s}eh ni‘ fun, {twelve parts}; 物事十分好 meh zz‘ zeh fun ’hau, {the thing is thoroughly good}.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. That 殺 sah is the word seems probable because ’si, {die}, a
word like it in meaning is much used in a similar manner.
-----------------------------------------------------------------

179. Ordinal numbers are often expressed by the cardinal numbers, when on rhythmical grounds, there is no empty place in the sentence for a particle.

今朝念一 kiun tsau nia{n}‘ ih, {to-day is the 21st of the month}.
咸豐二年 {y}a{n} fóng ní‘ níe{n}, {the 2nd year of Hien-fúng}.

Obs. In regard to the cardinal numbers (for which see page 61), a few examples only need to be added 五十三 ’ng zeh sa{n}, {fifty three}; 九 十二 ’kieu zeh ní‘, {ninety two}. From a hundred to a hundred and ten, 零 ling is inserted, 一百零四 ih páh ling sz‘, {a hundred and four}. Instead of saying 一百三十 ih páh sa{n} seh, it is more frequent to omit 十 seh. Thus, ih páh sa{n}, {a hundred and thirty}, and so for other numbers. The omission of 一 ih, {one}, sometimes occurs 百八 pák pah, {a hundred and eighty}; {one thousand four hundred} is 千四 t’sie{n} sz‘; fourteen thousand is 萬四 ma{n}‘ sz‘.

180. Days of the month take 初 t’sú before them as a numeral particle, but it is omitted when the number consists of two characters. Ordinal numbers are regularly formed by prefixing 第 {t}í‘ to the cardinal numbers.

正月初一 tsung‘ niöh t’sú ih, {the 1st day of the 1st month}.
明朝初幾 ming tsau t’sú ’kí, {what day of the month is to-morrow}.
後日初一者 ’{h}eu nyih t’sú ih ’tsé, {the day after to-morrow is the
first}.
考歇第一百名 ’k’au h’ih {t}í‘ ih páh ming, {he has passed the
examination as the one hundredth}.
第三十本 {t}í‘ sa{n} seh ’pun, {the thirtieth volume}.
是儂第幾個兒子 ’zz nóng‘ {t}í‘ ’kí kú‘ ní ’tsz? {which son are you?}
排行第幾 {p}á {h}ong dí‘ ’kí? {which are you in order}.

Obs. First is translated 頭一 {t}eu ih.

181. The numeral of multiplication is expressed by means of 倍 {p}é‘, {times}; 要加倍 yau‘ ká bé‘, {make it twice as large}; 加長四倍 ká dzáng sz‘ bé‘, {make it four times as long}.

182. Distributive numbers are formed by the addition of 個 kú‘, or any other auxiliary substantive particles.

一个一个 ih ku‘ ih ku‘, {one by me or one after another}.
兩个兩个 ’liáng kú‘ ’liáng kú‘, {two and two}.
一行一行 ih {h}ong ih {h}ong, {row by row}.
一條一條 ih diau ih diau, {in successive lengths}.

183. Indefinite numbers are expressed 百 páh, 100; 千 t’síe{n}, 1,000; 萬 ma{n}‘, 10,000, with or without 論 lun.

論千論萬 lun t’síe{n} lun ma{n}‘, {thousands and myriads}.
萬百樣物事 va{n}‘ pah {y}áng‘ meh zz‘, {all things}.
論千來者 lun t’síen lé ’tsé, {many thousands are come}.
文武百官 vun ’vú pák kwé{n}, {all officers civil and military}.
會醫百病 {w}é í páh bing‘, {can cure all diseases}.
百花生日 pák hwó sáng nyih, {the flowers’ birth-day}.
萬國九州 va{n}‘ kóh ’kieu tseu, {all countries}.

184. Numbers enter into many common phrases.

三心兩意 sa{n} sing ’liáng í‘, {vacillating in opinion}.
三轉九囘頭 sa{n} ’tsen ’kieu {w}é deu, {constantly turning back}.
七橫八豎 t’sih {w}áng pah ’zû, {lying in all directions}.
三伸四縮 sa{n} sun sz‘ soh, {timidly advancing and retreating}.
瞎七瞎八 hah t’sih hah pah, {all in confusion}.

Obs. Though not commonly occurring in English and other languages, examples similar to these are not wanting; e.g. {at sixes and sevens}.

185. Examples of some adjectives, extensive in their use and varied in their meaning, are here appended.

一 ih, {one, whole, immediately upon}.
獨一無二 {t}óh ih vú rh‘, {there is only one}.
一切說話 ih t’sih seh {w}ó‘, {all he said}.
一統天下 ih ’t’óng t’íe{n} ’{a}u, {the whole empire}.
一言旣出 ih {í}e{n} kí‘ t’seh, {the words have been said}.
一定不易 ih ding‘ peh {y}uh, {certainly unchangeable}.
一念囘頭 ih nia{n}‘ {w}é deu, {sincerely repent}.
一居一動 ih kü ih ’dóng, {all he does}.
一動就打 ih ’dóng dzieu‘ ’táng, {at the least thing, he fights}.
一走就跌 ih ’tseu dzieu‘ {t}ih, {the moment he begins to walk, he
falls}.

186. 全 dzie{n}, {complete, all}.

勿完全 veh {w}é{n} dzíe{n}, {not complete}.
人全拉上 niun zé{n} ’lá long‘, {they are all there}.
全關着 zé{n} kwa{n} zah, —{they are all connected with}—

187. 大 {t}á‘, {great, very}.

國度是大個 kóh dú‘ ’zz dú‘ kú‘, {it is a large kingdom}.
要大呢小 yau‘ dú‘ {n}í ’siau, {will you have it large or small?}
勿大煞個 veh dú‘ sah kú‘, {it is not very large}.
大人小囝 {t}ú‘ niun ’siau nö{n}, {parents and children}.
大勿喜歡 {t}ú‘ veh ’h’í hwé{n}, {much displeased}.
勿大哩好 veh dá‘ ’lí ’hau, {not very good}.
勿大哩吃個 veh dá‘ ’lí k’iuh kú‘, {seldom eat it}.

188. 好 ’hau, {good, well, that I may, it may}.

禿是勿好 t’óh ’zz veh ’hau, {all are bad}.
頂勿好 ’ting veh ’hau, {worst of all}.
恰好 hah ’hau, {fortunately, just at the time}.
勿好意思 veh ’hau í‘ sz‘, {ashamed}.
好拉否 ’hau ’lá ’vá, {are you well?}
醫勿否 í veh ’hau, {he cannot be cured}.
勿能好 veh nung ’hau, {I cannot recover}.
好去囘頭 ’hau k’í‘ {w}é deu, {that I may go and inform him}.
好做個 ’hau tsú‘ kú‘, {it may be done}.

189. 靈 ling, {efficacious, intelligent}.

勿靈個 veh ling kú‘, {powerless, inefficacious}.
唔沒靈處 {m} meh ling t’sú‘, {having no efficacy}.
靈性勿拉心裏 ling sing‘ veh ’lá sing ’lí, {always forgetting}.
魂靈勿拉身上 {w}ung ling veh ’lá sun long‘, {ib}.

190. 快 k’wá‘, {fast}, (adv.) {near, soon, lively}.

快快搖 k’wá‘ k’wá‘ {y}au, {row quickly}.
夜快者 {y}á‘ k’wá‘ ’tsé, {it will soon be night}.
死快者 ’sí k’wá‘ ’tsé, {he is dying}.
快活, 快樂 k’wá‘ weh, or k’wá‘ loh, {glad}.
爽爽快快 ’song ’song k’wá‘ k’wá‘, {well in health}.

{Section} 6. {On the Pronoun}.

191. The pronouns are regarded by the Chinese as part of the auxiliary particles that with nouns and verbs make up sentences, and they have not proceeded to separate them from the rest of that numerous family by a peculiar denomination.

They are chiefly single words, but frequently admit of the dissyllabic form. Other pronouns, or particles having no meaning of their own (e.g. 是, 個), are prefixed or affixed to give them this form. The details will be found below.

Among the many simple and compound forms used as pronouns, the following may be distinguished as properly and originally such for this dialect.

1. Personal, 我, 儂, 其, 伊, 㑚, 你, ’ngú, nóng‘, gí, í, ná‘, ’ní,
{I, thou, he, you}.
2. Reflexive, 自 zz‘, in combination.
3. Demonstrative, 第, 伊, 個, {t}í‘, í, kú‘, {this, that}; also 彼此
pé ’t’sz, occasionally used.
4. Interrogative, 啥, 幾 sá‘, ’kí, {what? how many?} inseparable, and
何 {h}ú, {what?} 那 ’ná (pron. ’á), {which?} inseparable.
5. Relative. There is no separable relative pronoun, its place being
supplied by 個 kú‘, 所 ’sú is inseparable, and very limited in its
use.
6. Possessives. None. Their place is supplied by 個 kú‘, following the
personal pronoun.
7. Distributives. 各, 每, 逐, koh, ’mé, dzóh, {each}, {every}.
8. Reciprocal. None. The borrowed form 大家 is the substitute.
9. Indefinite. 某, 啥, 幾, 多, ’meu, sá‘, ’kí, tá, {some, several}.
10. Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 禿, 全, 別, t’oh, dzé{n}, bih,
{all, other}, separable and 凡 va{n}, inseparable.

{Personal pronouns}. 192. The first personal pronoun in the singular is ’ngú, 我 {I}; the second, 儂 nóng‘ or 那 ná‘, thou; the third, 伊 í or 其 {k}í, {he}.

我去者 ’ngú k’í‘ ’tsé, {I am now going}.
呌儂就來 kau‘ nóng‘ dzieu‘ lé, {I told you to come at once}.
撥拉伊者 peh ’lá í ’tsé, {I have given it him}.
其撥拉我 {k}í peh ’lá ’ngú, {he gave me}.

In the plural 你 ’ní or 我你 ’ngú ’ní, express {we}; 那 ná or 儂那 nóng‘ ná‘, {you}; and 伊 í, {they}.

我你兩个 ’ngú ’ní ’liáng kú‘, {we two}.
那多許人 ná‘ tú hau‘ niun, {all you men}.

When the pronoun consists of one word only, the vacant place is often filled up by 是 ’zz.

是我 ’zz ’ngú, {I}.
是伊是其 ’zz í ’zz gí, {he}.
是那衆人 ’zz ná‘ tsóng‘ niun, {all you men}.

Obs. i. The personal pronoun is often omitted, as 拾蓋看起來 {s}eh ké k’ö{n}‘ ’k’í lé, {thus you see}; 勿來末總勿好 veh lé meh tsóng veh hau, {if you do not come it will be unfortunate}.

Obs. ii. The impersonal pronoun in English {it}, is not expressed, as 落雨者 loh ’{ú} ’tsé, {it is raining}.

Obs. iii. In mandarin 我, 你, 他, ’ngó, ’ní, t’á, {I, thou, he}, all form their plural by taking 們 mun, as a suffix.

Obs. iv. Sometimes 我 ’ngú, may stand for the third person {he}, This occurs, when two persons in relation to each other are the subject of conversation. The nominative is then considered as {I}, and the third person, {he}. Thus, 兄弟曉得呵哥勿喜歡我, h’iúng dí‘ ’hiau tuh á kú veh ’h’í hwé{n} ’ngú, {the younger brother knows that the elder is displeased with him}. This is not the case when no confusion of persons is likely to happen; e.g. 眼睛𥆝之伊個男人 ’nga{n} tsing sú tsz í kú‘ né{n} niun, {she looked on her husband}.

193. The idea of self is expressed by 自家 zz‘ ká, for all persons, generally preceded by the appropriate pronoun.

伊自家話 í zz‘ ká {w}o‘, {he himself said}.
儂自家要去個 nóng‘ zz‘ ká yau‘ k’í‘ kú‘, {you must go yourself}.

Obs. i. In mandarin 自己 tsz‘ ’ki; Fúh-kien, 家己 ká ’kí.

Obs. ii. The pronoun 自 zz‘, {self}, though not used out of combination, occurs in several fixed phrases. 自殺自 zz‘ sah zz‘, {to kill one’s-self}; 自害自 zz‘ {h}é‘ zz‘, {to injure one’s-self}, These concise forms are more agreeable and impressive to the native ear, than the equivalent long forms 自家殺脫自家 zz‘ ká sah t’eh zz‘ ká; 自家害脫自家 zz‘ ká {h}é‘ t’eh zz‘ ká.

{Demonstratives}, 194. The demonstrative pronouns are 第個 {t}í‘ kú‘, {this}, and 個個 kú‘ kú‘ or 伊個 í kú‘, {that}.

第个事體 {t}í‘ ku‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {this matter}.
故个物事 kú‘ kú‘ meh zz‘ {that thing}.
伊个小囝 í kú‘ ’siau nö{n}, {that boy}.
伊歇辰光 í h’ih zun kwong, at that time.

Obs. i. When these words combine with any of the auxiliary substantives to form demonstrative adverbs, the particle 個 kú‘ is omitted.

第頭好包 {t}í‘ deu ’hau pau‘, {here it is good walking}.
故搭去住 kú‘ tah k’í‘ dzû‘, {go and live there}.
伊塊人少 í k’wé‘ niun ’sau, {the people there are few}.

Obs. ii. Some of the mandarin demonstratives 那此彼 ’ná, t’sz, pé, {that}, {this}, {that}, though not belonging to our dialect in their monosyllabic form are found in some combinations. 那裏 ’{á} ’lí, {where?} 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, {here}; 彼此 pé ’t’sz, {that and this}. Facts of this sort illustrate the necessity for distinguishing between words of one or more syllables, and between roots in apposition, as separable and inseparable.

{Interrogatives}. 195. The interrogative forms are 啥 sá‘, {what?} 那裏 ’{á} ’lí, {where? and which?} and 幾 ’kí, {what? which?} also ’kí hó‘ (hau‘), {how many}.

啥人拷門 sá‘ niun k‘au mun, {who knocks at the door?}
啥物事 sá‘ meh zz‘, {what is the matter}.
儂要啥事體 nóng‘ yau‘ sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {what do you want?}
啥所去 sa‘ sü k’í‘, {where are you going?}
爲啥實盖能 {w}e‘ sá‘ {s}eh ké‘ nung, {why do you do so?}
到那裏去 tau‘ ’{á} ’lí k’í‘, {where are you going}.
那裏堂 ’{á} ’lí dong, {where?}
那裏个戶堂 ’{á} ’lí kú‘ {ú} dong, {which place?}
那裏个人 ’{á} ’lí kú‘ niun, {which man?}
那裏條路 ’{á} ’lí diau lú‘, {which road?}
幾時 ’kí zz, {what time?}
幾時辰 sa‘ zz zun, {what time?}
幾點鐘 ’ki ’tíe{n} tsóng, {what it is o’clock?}
幾許銅錢 ’kí hó‘ (hau‘) dóng díe{n}, {how many cash?}
轎夫幾家頭 {k}iau‘ fú ’kí ká deu, {how many chair-bearers?}

Obs. i. In the compound forms here exhibited, 裏 may be taken to indicate {place}; 許 hó‘ is a meaningless particle used to complete the rhythmus.

Obs. ii. The interrogative of the books 何 {h}ú, {what?} is found in combinations, such as 沒奈何 meh né‘ {h}ú, {there is nothing I can do}. But it is not used alone.

{Relative pronouns}. 196. The regular relative pronoun 所 ’só, is only used in combination with 以 ’í in the sense {therefore}, and with ’dzé, 所在 as a noun substantive, {house}.

新所在 sin sû ’dzé, {a new house}.
所以要預備 ’só ’í yau‘ {ü}‘ bé‘, {therefore you must prepare}.

The place of the relative particle 所, used in books and in some dialects, is supplied by the particles 拉 個 ’lá kú‘, or 個 alone, coming after the verb.

買拉个米就擔來撥拉窮人 ’má ’la ku‘ mí dzieu‘ ta{n} lé peh ’lá gióng niun,
{bring the rice you have bought at once, and give it to the
poor}. M. ’só ’mái tih ’mí.
網咾機檻咾坑坎咾禿是捉禽獸個 ’mong lau kí ’k’a{n} lau k’áng ’k’é{n} lau,
t’óh ’zz tsoh giun seu‘ kú‘, {nets, traps and covered pits, are
all for catching animals}. M. chúh k’in sheu‘ tih.
儂造拉個房子 nóng ’zau ’lá kú‘ vong ’tsz, {the house which you have
built}. M. ’ní ’só kæ‘ tih fáng ’tsz.
皇帝賞個俸祿 {w}ong tí‘ ’song kú‘ fóng lóh, {the emoluments which are
conferred by the emperor}.

{Possessive pronouns}. 197. The possessive pronouns are expressed by the personal pronouns, with the auxiliary particle 個 kú‘.

我個兒子 ’ngú kú‘ ní ’tsz, {my son}.
儂个宗祖 nóng‘ kú‘ ’tsú tsóng, {your ancestors}.
第塊地皮是㑚个 {t}í k’wé dí‘ bí ’zz ná‘ kú‘, {this piece of land is
yours}.

Obs. i. In mandarin, 的 tih. The southern Fúh-kien dialect, besides having two distinct plural forms for the personal pronouns 恁 ’lin, {you}, 咱 ’lán, {we} has also separate possessive forms for all the three persons 恁 ’lin, {your}; 阮 ’gwan, {mine}, 咱 ’lán, {ours}; 因 in, {their, his}. The intervening particle 個 is thus rendered unnecessary for that dialect. It is however often inserted. When these forms ’gwán, ’lin, in, are compared with the personal pronouns 我 你 伊 ’gwá, ’li or ’leu, í, the termination N looks extremely like an appendage to the root in each case.

Obs. ii. After the personal pronouns, when a preposition of motion precedes, a substantive of place is required; e.g. 到我喊頭來 tau‘ ’ngú ha{n}‘ deu lé, {come to me}. This is generally true in all instances, where place is left to be understood in English. 㑚塲好個狗 ná‘ dzáng hau‘ kú‘ ’keu, {one of your dogs}. It will be seen that the pronouns in these examples are possessive, though in the former, the corresponding English word is a personal pronoun.

{Distributive pronouns}. 198. The words corresponding to our distributive pronouns, each, every, etc. are the following 每逐各 ’mé, dzóh, k’oh.

每 ’mé, {each}.

每人撥一塊 ’mé niun peh ih k’wé‘, {give one piece to each}.
每家兩个人 ’mé ká ’liáng kú‘ niun, {in each family there are two}.

逐 dzóh, {each in succession}.

逐一个殺一干 dzóh ih kú‘ sah ih kû{n}, {let each person kill one}.
逐日出門一囘 dzóh nyih t’seh mun ih {w}é‘, {go out once day}.
逐樣菜拔脫一科 dzóh {y}áng t’sé‘ bah t’eh ih k’ú, {of each kind of
vegetable, pull up one plant}.
逐科花採一朶 dzóh k’ú hwó ’t’sé ih ’tú, {of each plant pluck one
flower}.

各 koh, {each, every}.

各樣書買一部 koh {y}áng‘ sû ’má ih bú‘, {buy a book of every sort}.
各樣顔色要 koh {y}áng‘ ’ngán suh yau‘, {I want every kind of colour}.
各人良心勿差 koh niun liáng sing veh t’só, {men’s consciences tell
them what is right}.
各管各 koh ’kwé{n} koh, {each attends to his own affairs}.
各處風俗不同 koh t’sû‘ fóng zóh peh dóng, {different places have
different customs}.

Obs. i. Like the Greek {pas}, {all} or {each}, 各 koh is also an adjective {all}; e.g. 各處 koh t’sû‘, {all places}.

Obs. ii. 每 mé, means {always}, in such phrases as 每要望望儂 ’mé yau‘ mong‘ mong‘ nóng‘, {I wish constantly to come and see you}; 每每 ’mé ’mé, {always}.

{Reciprocal pronouns}. 199. Phrases such as {one another} are expressed by 大家 {t}á‘ ká and 家家 ká ká, {mutually}; or by 相 siáng, {together}, in combination.

總要家家相帮 ’tsóng yau‘ ká ká siáng pong, {you ought to help one
another}.
我忒儂相遇 ’ngú t’eh nóng‘ siáng nü‘, {you and I meet}.
大家吃茶 {t}á‘ ká k’iuh dzó, {take tea together}.

{Indefinite pronouns}. 200. The word {some} in {some one}, {something}, is expressed either by 某 ’meu, or by the verb 有 ’{y}eu, {have}. {Anything} is expressed by sá‘, usually with 有 ’{y}eu preceding; in the negative, 唔 {m} takes the place of ’{y}eu.

某處某人 ’meu t’sû ’meu niun, {a certain man of certain place}.
某書某人做個 ’meu sû ’meu niun tsú‘ kú‘, {such a book written by such
a person}.
有人來話 ’{y}eu niun lé {w}ó‘, {some one came and said}.
有是有個 ’{y}eu ’zz ’{y}eu kú‘, {there is some}.
唔啥事體 {m} sá‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {it is nothing}.
有啥信息否 ’{y}eu sá‘ sing‘ sih ’vá, {is there any news}.

201. {Several} is expressed by ’kí kú‘, 好幾個 hau‘ ’kí kú‘, 大 tá, and the borrowed form 多許 tú hau‘; 幾許 ’kí hó‘[1] is also used.

來之幾個人 lé tsz ’kí kú‘ niun, {several men have some}.
好幾囘數 hau‘ ’kí {w}é‘ sú‘, {several times}.
大日勿來 tá nyih veh lé, {it is long since you come}.
唔啥幾許 {m} sá ’kí hô‘, {not many}.

Obs. The Greek {tis} is either interrogative {who?} (Lat. {quis?}) or indifinite {some one}, (Lat. {aliquis}.) In the same way, 幾 ’kí is sometimes {how many?} and at other times {several}. In the latter sense however, 好 is usually prefixed. So also sá‘ means either {what?} or {any thing}.

-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. Compare use of 幾許 in the following verses 花枝出建章 “Flowers
grow in the Kien-chang palace” 風管發昭陽 “The sound of pipes
issues from the palace of Chau-yang,” 借問承恩者 “I beg to ask in
regard to those who receive favour” 雙蛾幾許長 “How long are
their eyebrows?” These words are put in the mouth of a secondary
wife of the emperor Han wú-ti when jealous of imperial favour
extended to some inferior court women. The last line means “are
their eyebrows so much longer than mine?”.
-----------------------------------------------------------------

{Correlatives or adjective pronouns}. 202. The pronouns used as signs of the plural, as already illustrated in the section on substantives are 禿 全 t’óh, dzé{n}, {all} or {both}, and 總 ’tsóng, {all}. {None} and {neither} are also expressed by t’óh, and dzé{n} with a negative.

兩個人禿去者 ’liáng kú‘ niun t’óh k’í‘ ’tsé, {the two men are both gone}.
全勿是 dzé{n} veh ’zz, {it is neither of them}.
全是笨個 dzé{n} ’zz bun‘ kú‘, {they are all stupid}.
對否禿對個 té‘ ’vá, t’óh té‘ kú‘, {are they right? they are all right}.

{Any one you please, whoever, whatever}, are expressed by several borrowed phrases.

a. 大凡 {t}á‘ va{n}, {generally speaking, whoever}.

大凡人做好個就有好報 {t}á‘ va{n} niun tsú‘ ’hau kú‘, dzieu‘ ’{y}eu ’hau
pau‘, {whoever does well, will be at once rewarded}.

Obs. 凡 va{n} and sá‘ are the only true pronouns among these forms.

b. 勿拘 veh kü, {does not matter what}.

勿拘多少 veh kü tú ’sau, {however many}.
勿拘早晚 veh kü ’tsau a{n}‘, {however early or late}.
行事勿拘那能總勿局 {h}áng zz‘ veh kü ’ná nung ’tsóng veh gióh, {whatever
he does it is never right}.

c. 隨便 dzûe bíe{n}, {as you please, whatever}.

隨便啥辰光 dzûe bíe{n}‘ sá‘ zun kwong, {at whatever time}.
隨便啥人肯个 dzûe bíe{n}‘ sá‘ niun ’k’ung kú‘, {any one would be willing
to do it}.

d. 勿論 veh lun‘, {whatever}.

勿論啥日脚 veh lun‘ sá‘ nyih kiáh, {on whatever day}.
勿論幾時儂要就有 veh lun‘ ’kí zz, nóng‘ yau‘ dzieu‘ ’{y}eu, {at whatever
time, when you want it, you have it at once}.

e. sá‘ {whatever}.

想啥話啥, ’siáng sá‘ {w}ó‘ sá‘, {whatever he thinks, he says}.

Obs. i. Buttman, Greek Grammar, section 78, says “Correlatives are words in connection with each other, of which one contains a certain question, and the corresponding one expresses the simplest relation which answers that question.” Thus, the question 啥人 sá‘ niun, {who?} may be answered by 第個人 {t}í‘ kú‘ niun, {this man}; 隨便啥人, dzûe bíe{n}‘ sa‘ niun, {any one whatever}; 唔啥人 {m} sá‘ niun, {no one}; 多 許人 tú hau‘ niun, {many men}. So also, 那裏隻船 ’{á} lí tsáh zé{n}, {which boat?} may be answered by 第隻 {t}í‘ tsáh, {this one}; 勿論那裏隻 veh lun‘ ’{á} lí tsáh, {any one whatever}; 禿勿是 t’óh veh ’zz, {it is neither}; 不過第搭幾隻船裏 peh kú‘ {t}í‘ dah ’kí tsáh zé{n} ’lí, {it must be one of those that are here}; 是別隻船 ’zz bih tsáh zé{n}, {it it another}; 忒前頭一樣個船 t’eh zíen deu ih {y}áng‘ kú‘ zé{n}, {the same boat as before}. Several of these questions are answered by particles already presented under other denominations. The remainder not finding a place readily under any one class, are collected under the name of correlatives.

Obs. ii. The corresponding forms in Latin. {Omnis, neuter, nullus, alter, alius}, are classed with adjectives; Zempt calls them {pronominalia}. Buttman says, that the line between the corresponding words in Greek, as adjectives and as pronouns, cannot be clearly drawn. Marshman says, the Sanscrit grammarians call all these words pronouns. If they can stand without a substantive, they should be called pronouns, otherwise they are adjectives.

Obs. iii. 總 ’tsóng, {all}, is found only in the compounded forms, 共總 {k}óng‘ ’tsóng, 攏總 ’lóng ’tsóng {in all}; 攏總个百性 ’lóng ’tsóng kú‘ pák sing‘, {all the people}. The substantive must accompany 衆 ’tsóng‘, as in 衆弟兄 tsóng‘ ’ti h’iúng, {all the brothers}, and therefore, it must be considered an adjective. 衆 is not found compounded.

Obs. iv. {All} is also expressed by repetition of the substantive, 處處有個 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’{y}eu ku‘, {every-where they are to be had}. v. Art, 129. Another mode is by phrases, such as 一共 ih góng‘, 一切 ih t’sih, {the whole}.

Obs. v. Another translation of {all} is by 大凡 {t}a‘ va{n}. Va{n} is used in the sense of {all} in books, but in the dialect of Shánghái is only met with in this form.

203. {Other different}, are expressed by {p}ih 別 or by 勿同 veh dóng, or by 兩樣 ’liáng {y}áng‘, {not the same}, or by the particle 又 proceeding the substantive verb or by 另 ling‘. {The same} is ih {y}áng‘ 一樣, or 相同 siáng dóng.

要呌別人 yau‘ kau‘ bih niun, {call another man}.
總是別樣 ’tsóng ’zz bih {y}áng‘, {is certainly different}.
到別塲化去 tau‘ bih dzáng hau‘ k’í, {go elsewhere}.
別個國度 bih kú‘ kóh dú, {another nation}.
道理勿同個 ’{t}au ’lí veh dóng kú‘, {different in principle}.
話頭兩樣個 {w}ó‘ deu ’liáng {y}áng‘ kú, {what he says is different}.
勿一樣個 veh ih {y}áng‘ kú‘, {not the same}.
又是一個 {í}‘ ’zz ih kú‘, {that is another}.
另呌一個 ling‘ kiau‘ ih kú‘, {call another}.
一樣個否 ih {y}áng‘ kú‘ ’vá, {is it the same?}
相同個 siáng dóng kú‘, {the same}.

{Words used as pronouns}. 204. The use of some other words in combinations, where they occur instead of the pronouns will now be illustrated.

{a}. 本 ’pun; {belonging to this place}, as demonstrative pronoun.

本地人 ’pun dí‘ niun, {people of this place}.
本地話 ’pun dí‘ {w}ó‘, {dialect of this place}.
本廟是和尙管個 ’pun miau‘ ’zz {ú} zong‘ kwé{n} kú‘, {this temple to which
I belong, is superintended by Buddhist priests}.
本國個規矩 ’pun kóh kú‘ kwé ’kü, {custom of this country}.

{b}. 今 kiun, {now, the present}. As demonstrative pronoun, {this} in reference to time.

今朝今日 kiun tsau, kiun nyih, {to-day}.
今月今年 kiun niöh, kiun níe{n}, {this month, this year}.

{c}. 親 t’sing, {one’s own}, as reflexive pronoun {self}; 親身 t’sing sun, {himself}; 親口 t’sing ’k’eu, {his own mouth}.

{d}. 多少 tú ’sau, {how many?} as an interrogative pronoun.

多少年総 tú ’sau níe{n} ’kí, {how many years old}.

205. The adjectives that follow, are used to avoid the personal pronouns. Those that describe the speaker are depreciatory in their meaning, while if others are addressed, the adjectives employed are respectful.

尊 tsun, {honoured}, 貴 kwé‘, {ib}. 高 kau, {high}, combine with 姓 sing, {family name}, 國 kóh, {kingdom, etc}.

尊姓 tsun sing‘, 貴姓 kwé‘ sing‘, 高姓 kau sing‘, {your name?}
尊庚 tsun káng, 貴庚 kwé‘ káng, 高壽 kau zeu‘, {your age?}
尊處 tsun t’sû‘, 貴處 kwé‘ t’su‘, {where do you live?}
尊府 tsun ’fu, 貴府 kwé‘ ’fu, {where is your residence?}

Obs. i. 府 ’fú, also forms part of the combination 府上 ’fú long‘, {residence}; e.g. 府上那裏 ’fú long‘ ’{a} ’lí, {where do you reside?}

Obs. ii. 貴國 kwé‘ kóh ask {of what honoured country are you?} 貴地 kwé‘ dí‘, {what is your place of residence?} 高徒 kau dú is translated {your scholar}; 尊駕 tsun ká‘ and 相公 siáng‘ kóng, are used in place of {you}, among those who are not in an inferior social position.

206. 令 ling, {honoured, good}, applied to persons, enters into many combinations, where it represents the possessive {your}.

令尊 ling tsun, {your father}.
令堂 ling dong, {your mother}.
令兄 ling h’iung, {yr. eld. bro}.
令姪 ling dzeh, {your nephew}.
令弟 ling dí‘ {yr. younger bro}.
令郎 ling long, {your son}.
令夫人 ling fú zun, {your wife}.
令高徒 ling kau dú, {your scholars}.

207. 老 ’lau and 大 {t}á‘ are found in similar combinations.

老(大）爺 ’lau ({t}ú‘) {y}á, {sir}.
大人 {t}á‘ zun, {ib}.
老(大）兄 ’lau ({t}á‘) h’iúng, {elder brother}.
老(大）哥 ’lau ({t}á‘) kú, {ib}.

Obs. i.老 ’lau is also prefixed to 先生 síe{n} sáng and 夫子 fú ’tsz, addressed to teachers, and to 相公 síang‘ kong, addressed by servants to masters. The form of address to priests, is 老師太 ’lau sz t’á‘, and to instructors 老師 ’lau sz.

Obs. ii. Some other terms are employed in a similar way, instead of the pronouns of the second person; 台 t’é, {honoured} with 甫 ’fú or 篆 dzé{n}‘, {what it your honoured name?} In the plural are found 衆位 tsóng‘ {w}é‘ or 列位 lih {w}é‘, {all you gentlemen!}

208. Self depreciatory phrases employed instead of pronouns of the first person are equally numerous. 寒 {h}ö{n}, {cold}; 敝 {p}í, {spoilt, inferior}; 賤 dzíe{n}, {poor, cheap}, form such groups, as—

寒門(家) {h}ö{n} mun (ka), {my house}.
寒荆 {h}ö{n} kiung, {my wife}, (kiung is {thorn}.)
敝處(地)(鄕) {p}í t’sû‘ (dí‘) (h’iáng), {my abode}.
敝(賤)姓 {p}í (dzíe{n}) sing‘, {my family name}.
賤名 dzíe{n} ming, {my proper name}.
賤内 dzíe{n} né‘ {my wife}.

Obs. One’s wife is also denominated 拙荆 tseh kiung, {stupid thorn}.

209. The antithesis of 令 ling, is usually 舍 só‘, {a cottage}. Among the groups into which it enters, are—

舍弟 só‘ dí‘, {my brother}. 舍姪 só‘ dzeh, {my nephew}.
舍下 só‘ ’{a}u, {my house}. 舍親 só‘ t’sing, {my relations}.

210. Many groups take 小 ’siau, {small}, 家 ká, {family}, both being regarded as sufficiently depreciatory to represent the pronoun {my}.

小兒 ’siau rh, {my boy} or {my son}. 小犬 ’siau k’iön, {small dog}.
小徒 ’siau dú, {your mother}. 小孫 ’siau sun, {grandchild}.
小弟 ’siau dí‘, {I}. 小女 ’siau ’nü, {my daughter}.
家兄 ká h’iúng, {my brother}. 家母 ká ’mú, {my mother}.
家父 ká ’vú, {my father}. 家叔 ká sóh, {my uncle}.

Obs. i. These words form a principal part of the complimentary style of speech, or 客氣個說話 k’áh k’í‘ kú‘ seh wó‘. In the every day colloquial of the lower class, i.e. the majority of the people, they are little used. {Thou} and {I}, {thine} and {mine} are prefixed.