Chapter XIII: Part III: {on Syntax} (2)

是其勿是正派人 ’zz gí veh ’zz tsung‘ p’á‘ niun, {he is not a man of good
morals}.
一日到夜做正經事體 ih nyih tau‘ {y}á‘ tsú‘ tsung‘ kiung zz‘ ’t’í, {all
day long he does what is lawful and right}.

{b}. Substantives in apposition, in the relation of species and genus, or subject and attribute, with or without 個 kú‘.

伊話個勿是上海話 í {w}ó‘ kú‘ veh ’zz ’zong ’hé {w}ó‘, {what he speaks is
not the dialect of Shánghái}.
八月裏開個有桂花 pah niöh ’lí k’é kú‘ ’{y}eu kwé‘ hwó, {among the
flowers that blossom in the eighth month is the olea fragrans}.

{c}. Verbs in apposition. Any verbs in English connected by {and}, {to} and {of} are translated by two corresponding verbs in apposition.

我要走前去做 ’ngú yau‘ ’tseu zíe{n} k’í‘ tsú‘, {I wish to go forward and
do it}.
我勿想考 ’ngú veh ’siáng ’k’au, {I do not think of being examined}.
我勿來打儂 ’ngú veh lé ’táng nóng‘, {I do not come to beat you}.

{d}. Verb with an object.

別人恨伊拉 {p}ih niun {h}ung‘ í ’lá, {men hated him}.
脚勿踏斜路 kiáh veh tah ziá lú‘, {his foot does not tread the path of
evil}.
早夜用功 ’tsau {y}á‘ {y}úng‘ kóng, {morning and night, he applies
himself to study}.
雲裏向看相殺 {y}ün ’lí h’iáng‘ k’ö{n}‘ siáng sah, {to take a bird’s-eye
view of a battle} (相殺 is construed as a noun).

{e}. Verbs, nouns or adverbs of place and time in construction with 拉 or 在.

東家勿拉屋裏 túng ká veh ’lá óh ’lí, {the master is not at home}.
百姓勒拉掛墓 pák sing‘ leh ’lá kwó‘ {m}‘, {the people are hanging}
(paper) {on the tombs}.

{f}. Adjective pronouns, and numbers with the particles appropriated to the substantives contained in the subject.

銀子有一百兩 niung ’tsz ’{y}eu ih páh ’liáng, {of silver, there are a
hundred taels}.
第把雨傘是吾個 {t}í‘ pó ’{ü} sa{n}‘ ’zz ngú kú‘, {this umbrella is mine}.

{g}. The verb is qualified by the various kinds of adverbs, either preceding it in apposition, or following it with 得 tuh, or 來 lé, as subordinate copula.

件件事體禿是做得正經個 {k}íe{n} gíe{n} zz‘ ’t’í t’óh ’zz tsú‘ tuh tsung‘
kiung kú‘, {everything is done as propriety requires}.
菩薩一定曉得 {p}ú sah ih ding‘ ’h’iau tuh, {the gods will certainly know
it}.

{h}. The cause, manner, instrument, place or time of the action are expressed by nouns preceding the verb.

黃衣裳是皇帝送個 {w}ong í zong ’zz {w}ong tí‘ sóng‘ kú‘, {yellow dresses
are given by the emperor}.
團扇是蘇州做個 {t}ön se{n}‘ ’zz Sú-tseu tsú‘ kú‘, {round (silk) fans are
made at Sú-cheú}.
人個過犯全是神道查察個 niun kú‘ kú‘ va{n} dzé{n} ’zz zun dau‘ dzó t’sah
kú‘, {men’s sins are all watched and noted by the spiritual
powers}.
人全是一個祖宗傳下來 niun dzé{n} ’zz ih kú‘ ’tsú tsóng zé{n} ’{a}u lé,
{men are all descended from one ancestor}.
我下半晝轉來個 ’ngú ’au pé{n}‘ tseu‘ ’tse{n} lé kú‘, {I will return in
the afternoon}.
地皮是牛犂個 {t}í‘ bí ’zz nieu lí kú‘, {the ground is ploughed by oxen}.
從小到大是爺娘照應 dzóng ’siau tau‘ dú‘ ’zz {y}á niáng tsau‘ yung‘,
{from childhood till they are grown they are watched over by
their parents}.

Obs. The number of prepositions omitted in examples similar to these is very great. Few of them are so essential that they may not be rejected. The remarkable conciseness of written and spoken Chinese is due very much to the omission of prepositions in the manner here illustrated. For that conciseness, there is however in many cases full compensation, in the wordiness or richness, whichever term be preferred, of the groups.

{j}. The same circumstances of cause manner, etc. are also expressed with case particles attached to the noun.

張舉人到蘇去者 Tsáng ’kü niun tau‘ Sú-tseu k’í‘ ’tsé, {the Master of
Arts named Cháng, is gone to Sú-cheú}.
第個砲架子替吳道台做個 {t}í‘ kú‘ p’au‘ ká‘ ’tsz t’í‘ {W}ú ’dau dé tsú‘
kú‘, {this cannon-carriage is made for Wú the Taú-tái}.

{k}. Adjective with a qualifying adverb.

是㑚飄流個人忒多 ’zz ná‘ p’iau lieu kú‘ niun t’uk tú, {you wandering
people are too many}.
打官司要速訊定當 ’táng kwé{n} sz yau‘ sók sin‘ ding‘ tong‘, {lawsuits
should be quickly decided}.

384. The predicate is further enlarged by a combination of the above forms of arrangement, by simple apposition as coordinates, or according to the laws of position already detailed.

生活要做到夜 sáng {w}eh yau‘ tsú‘ tau‘ {y}á‘, {work must be done till
evening}.
我白費脱之許多手脚 ’ngú {p}ák fí‘ t’eh tsz ’h’ü tú ’seu kiáh, {I do have
gone through a great deal of labour to no purpose}.
賭銅錢勿曉得敗脫之幾千幾萬個人家 ’tú dóng díe{n} veh ’h’iau tuh bá‘ t’eh
tsz ’kí t’síe{n} ’kí ma{n}‘ kú‘ niun ká, {gaming has ruined I do
not know how many thousands and myriads of men}.
我看見伊出來 ’ngú (subj.) k’ö{n}‘ kíe{n}‘ í t’seh lé, {I saw him come
out}.

385. The copula by a little extension of the meaning of the terms, may be considered as embracing the emphatic adverbs, and the verb forms for affirmation and negation. In conformity with this, the substantive verb 是 is constantly used in the sense of {yes}, and with the negative particle (勿是), {no}. The adverbs of emphasis precede the copula.

新眞正來得硬 sing tsun tsung‘ lé tuh ngáng‘, {his heart is certainly
hard}.
一定是牢實 ih ding‘ ’zz lau zeh, {he is certainly trustworthy}.
總是花頭花腦 ’tsóng ’zz hwó deu hwó ’nau, {it is surely false}.
昨日來個就是我 zóh nyih lé kú‘ dzieu‘ ’zz ’ngú, {he who came yesterday
was I myself}.

Obs. The verb {to have} 有 ’{y}eu (with its opposite 嘸沒 {m} meh) describes existence, as in French the verb {avoir}. The adverbs of emphasis precede it, as they do the other substantive verb; e.g. 一點嘸沒啥 ih ’tíe{n} {m} meh sá, or {m} sá‘, {there is nothing the matter}; 第個道理實在有 {t}í‘ kú‘ ’{t}au ’lí zeh zé‘ ’{y}eu, {there certainly is this doctrine}.

386. When there is a negative particle, the adverb of emphasis precedes it.

一眼勿疑心 ih ’nga{n} veh ní sing, {not at all incredulous}.
伊並勿是要騙打㑚 í {p}ing‘ veh ’zz yau‘ p’íe{n}‘ ’táng ná‘, {he surely
does not attempt to deceive you}.
樹木倒勿曾發靑 zû‘ móh ’tau veh zung fah t’sing, {the trees have still
not yet opened their buds}.

Obs. When the necessity is denied, the negative precedes the adverb expressity; e.g. 勿必要去 veh pih yau‘ k’i‘, {you are not obliged to go}.

387. There are several verbs, not having a full transitive power, that are often to be taken as little more than an extension of the copula. They are such as, 呌 kiau‘, 做 tsú‘, 爲 {w}é, 作 tsoh.

第個勿呌公道 {t}í‘ kú‘ veh kiau‘ kúng ’dau, {that is not
(or cannot be called) just} (or veh kúng ’dau), (or veh sö{n}‘
kúng ’dau, {cannot be considered as just}).
我做用人 ’ngú tsú‘ {y}úng‘ niun, {I am a servant}.
謀反爲大事體 meu ’fa{n} {w}é dú‘ zz‘ ’t’í, {rebellion is a great matter}.
女人勿好作主張 ’nü niun veh ’hau tsok ’tsû tsáng, {women should not be
rulers}.

Obs. The equivalents of these words, in languages having forms of declension, usually take the nominative case after them.

388. The correlative pronouns and sometimes adjectives, are placed like the emphatic adverbs before the copula, the substantives they represent being the subject.

人秃是劃一個 niun t’óh ’zz {w}áh ih kú‘, {the men are all honest}.
惡事體一切全要甩脫個 og zz‘ ’t’í ih t’sih dzé{n} yau‘ hwah t’eh kú‘, {bad
actions are all to be abandoned}.
字目大有用頭 zz‘ móh {t}ú‘ ’{y}eu {y}úng‘ deu, {great is the use of the
written character}.

389. The most remarkable use of the copula is in the potential verb groups, where 得 tuh and 勿 veh stand between two verbs; e.g. 打勿贏 ’táng veh {y}ung, {fighting he does not conquer}; 話得出 {w}ó‘ tuh t’seh, {speaking can express it}; 走得轉 ’tseu tuk ’tsé{n}, {walking you can turn back}.

Obs. i. In colloquial use, these words mean {he cannot conquer, it can be described in words, he can turn back}. If viewed alone as separate sentences, the first verb is the subject, and the second the predicate. So when the last word in these groups is an adjective, it may be regarded as predicate to the verb which stands first. This is particularly obvious where the potential force of 得 tuh and 勿 veh are wanting, 推板勿多 t’é pa{n} veh tú, {there is no great difference}; 寫得 快 ’siá tuh k’wá‘, {he writes fast}. Where the potential force exists in these phrases; e.g. 吹勿响 t’sz veh ’h’iáng, {it cannot be sounded} (of a flute); 豎勿直 ’zû veh dzuh, {it cannot be set upright}; 改勿正 ’ke veh tsung‘, {it cannot be corrected}; though the relation of subject and predicate is less manifest, it is perhaps the best explanation.

Obs. ii. When adjectives occupy both the first and last places, there is no potential force, and the second adjective becomes comparative 高得多 kau tuh tú, {it is much higher}.

Obs. iii. Wherever the potential force is wanting, 來 lé is used convertibly with 得 tuh; i.e. 寫來快 ’siá lé k’wá‘, {he writes fast}. Of the two 得 is most used by the educated.

390. The subject and predicate are still further lengthened by expletives. 末 meh belongs to the former, and 個, 拉, 哩, 者 kú‘, ’lá, ’lí, ’tsé to the latter.

Obs. Educated natives used these words much less frequently than the common people, except when they modify the verb in time, or as in the case of 末, give a conditional sense. The predicate if an adjective has time given to it by these particles, just as if it were a verb.

{Section} 7. {Subordinate Sentences}.

391. Sentences illustrative of verbs of knowing, saying and wishing, etc. taking the initiatory particle {that} in English, usually follow the proposition or verb they explain.

不過聽見儂欵待讀書人 pih kú‘ t’ing kíe{n}‘ nóng‘ k’wé{n} dé‘ {t}ók sû
niun, {I have merely heard that you treat with generosity
literary men}.
伊話勿能來 í {w}ó‘ veh nung lé, {he said he could not come}.
我曉得伊難過日脚 ’ngú‘ ’h’iau tuh í na{n} ku‘ nyih kiáh, {I know that he
lived on with difficulty}.
我勿相信第隻船將要翻脫 ’ngú veh siáng sing‘ {t}í‘ tsáh zé{n} tsiáng yau‘
’fa{n} t’eh, {I do not believe this boat is going to overturn}.

Obs. i. The clause introduced with {that} is often placed first. 官府嘸没銀子是人人曉得個 kwé{n} ’fú {m} meh niung ’tsz ’zz niun niun ’h’iau tuh kú‘, {that the mandarins have no money is known by every one}; 要進城話拉 yau‘ tsing‘ zung {w}ó‘ ’lá, {he said that he wished to go into the city}. The educated usually place the verb 話 {w}ó‘ first.

Obs. ii. In Latin the construction of the explanatory clause, is that of the accusative and infinitive.

392. Clauses expressing the object of an act, usually follow the sentence that contain the act.

領伊到學堂讀書 ’ling í tau‘ {h}oh dong {t}óh sû, {take him to school,
that he may learn to read}.
請和尙拜懺 ’t’sing {ú} zong‘ pá‘ tsa{n}, {invite Buddhist priests to
perform a service}.
呌畵工來畵小照 kiau‘ {w}ó‘ kong lé {w}ó‘ ’siau tsau‘, {call a painter to
draw a likeness}.
講鄕約勸士農工商做本分꜄ ’kong h’iáng {y}ah k’iö{n}‘ ’zz nóng‘ kóng song
tsú‘ ’pun vun‘, {read the sacred edict (country regulations), to
induce the reading, agricultural, artisan, mid mercantile
classes to perform their duties}.

Obs. In English, the subordinate clause is introduced often by the final {that}, as the previous examples are by the explanatory {that}.

393. The final {that} or {to} is often expressed by the auxiliary verbs 要 yau‘, and 呌 kau‘.

橫勸豎勸呌伊學好 {w}áng k’iö{n}‘ ’zû k’iö{n}‘ kau‘ í {h}oh ’hau, {use all
kinds of exhortations to make him improve}.
關窵拉籠裏要伊呌個 kwa{n} ’tiau ’lá ’lóng ’lí yau‘ í kiau kú‘, {shut
birds in cages that they may sing}.

Obs. In examples such as those of the present, and the previous article, the clauses may be inverted. 要捉魚咾出去登拉更舍裏 yau‘ tsoh ng lau t’seh k’í‘ tung ’lá káng só‘ lí, {in order to catch fish, he goes out to stay in the watch-hut}. 咾 lau must be appended to the clause expressing the object of the action.

394. The final {that} being often omitted, or expressed by verbs, the way is open to form one sentence out of the two component clauses, so as to improve the general rhythmical effect. This is done in such common sentences as the following.

送勒儂看 sóng‘ ’lá nóng k’ö{n}‘, {I present it to you to look at}.
講勒㑚聽 ’kóng ’lá ná‘ t’ing, {I speak that you may hear}.
話撥㑚聽 {w}ó‘ peh ná‘ t’ing, {ib}.
撥飯伊吃 peh va{n}‘ í k’iuh, {give him rice to eat}.
斟酌起來看 tsun tsáh ’k’í lé k’ö{n}‘, {deliberate upon it and see}.

Obs. These examples differ from those of those of the next article, only in being obviously pronounced as one sentence.

395. The clause expressing the object of the verb is often a single verb repeated or not. (In Latin, often the supine).

捨點物事拉我吃吃 só‘ ’tíe{n} meh zz‘ ’lá ’ngú k’iuh k’iuh,
{give me something to eat}.
要到店裏去買 yau‘ tau‘ tíe{n}‘ ’lí k’í‘ ’má, {go to the shop and buy it}.

396. The clause containing the action frequently consists of a substantive, or substantive group, with any of the auxiliary verbs of causing, or instrumentality, and the verb of motion 來, or 去 concluding the clause.

呌瞎子來拜斗 kau‘ hah ’tsz lé pá‘ ’teu, {call a blind man to worship the
north star}.
担衣裳來晾 ta{n} í zong lé long‘, {take the clothes and hang them out to
dry}.
挪石灰漿來刷壁 nó záh hwé tsiáng lé seh pih, {bring lime to white-wash
the wall.}
担馬來騎到海灘去 ta{n} ’mó lé gí tau‘ ’hé t’a{n} k’í‘, {bring a horse and
ride to the sea shore}.
担棕來絞繩 ta{n} tsóng lé kau zung, {bring tsóng wood bark to make ropes}.
担茄瓢舀水 ta{n} {k}á biau {y}au ’sz, {bring a cocoa-nut shell to lade
water}.

Obs. The object of any transitive verb may be made to precede its verb by prefixing some one of these auxiliary verbs and appending 來 lé 去 k’í‘.

397. Substantive groups of many words are inserted between the instrumental verb, and the verb of motion.

担合天底下個事體來講究明白 ta{n} {h}eh t’íe{n} ’tí ’{a}u kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í lé
’kong kíeu‘ ming báh, {he takes the affairs of the whole world
and explains them clearly}.
担各家人家個姓咾名頭寫拉人丁冊上 ta{n} kok ká niun ká kú‘ sing‘ lau ming
deu ’siá ’lá niun ting t’sáh long‘, {take the names and surnames
of every householder and write them in the register}.

398. A relative clause precedes its word as an adjective, and is connected with it by the particle 個 kú‘.

做慣拉個生活勿吃力個 tsú‘ kwa{n}‘ ’lá kú‘ sáng {w}eh veh k’iuh lih kú‘,
{work to which one is accustomed does not fatigue}.
行方便個人家子孫要多者 {h}áng fong bíe{n}‘ kú‘ niun ká ’tsz sun yau‘ tú
’tsé, {he who gives alms will have many descendants}.
圍困拉個城頭有四五六個 {w}é k’wun‘ ’lá kú‘ dzung deu ’{y}eu sz‘ ’{n}g lók
kú‘, {of besieged cities there are five or six}.

Obs. The relative or adjective clause standing thus in apposition with a noun, may be considered as forming with it the subject of the sentence, i.e. the {logical} subject as distinguished from the {grammatical}, which consists of the substantive only.

399. Circumstances of cause, manner, instrumentality, etc. precede in the same way, the words to which they belong.

皇帝送個翎毛咾蟒袍總要看重個 {w}ong tí‘ sóng‘ kú, ling mau lau ’mong bau
’tsóng yau‘ k’ö{n}‘ ’dzóng kú‘, {peacock’s feathers and
embroidered tunics presented by the emperor are sure to be
highly valued}.
祖宗傳下來個派頭勿好改換 ’tsú tsóng dzé{n} ’{a}u lé kú‘ p’á‘ deu, veh ’hau
’ké {w}é{n}‘, {customs delivered down by ancestors should not be
changed}.
聖人賢人講個道理莫非三綱五常 sung‘ niun {h}íe{n} niun ’kong kú‘ ’dau ’lí
móh fí sa{n} kong ’{ú} dzáng, {the doctrine taught by sages and
learned men is all on the three relations and five constant
virtues}.
山上泉眼出個水淸個 sa{n} long‘ dzíe{n} ’nga{n} t’seh kú‘ ’sz, t’sing kú‘,
{water that comes from mountain springs is clear}.
石頭造拉個房子堅牢個 záh deu ’zau ’lá kú‘ vong ’tsz kíe{n} lau kú‘,
{houses built of stone are strong}.

Obs. Many such sentences admit of the clauses being inverted. Thus, 天定拉個數目人勿曉得 may also be read, niun veh ’h’iau tuh t’íe{n} ding‘ ’lá kú‘ sú‘ máh, {man does not know the times decreed by heaven}.

400. There are some auxiliary verbs, and preposition forms employed to introduce the subject, which then appears in the form of a subordinate sentence.

話到死過以後個事體難講 {w}ó‘ tau‘ ’sí kú‘ ’í {h}eu‘ kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í na{n}
’kong, {in reference to what happens after death, it is
difficult discussion}.
造到發大財是勿能個 ’zau tau‘ fah dú‘ ’dzé ’zz veh nung kú‘, {as to
getting rich, I cannot}.
講到登基坐江山勿見得實蓋能造化 ’kong tau‘ tung kí ’zû kong sa{n} veh
kíe{n}‘ tuh zeh ké‘ nung ’zau hwó‘, {but as to ascending the
throne, and taking his seat on the rivers and mountains, it is
not likely he will be so fortunate}.

Obs. These words are not indispensable to the introduction of a subject as a subordinate clause; e.g. 大是大個 {t}ú‘ ’zz dú‘ kú‘, {as to size it is large}.

401. Similar to these is the construction of the verb forms prefixed to interrogative pronouns which thereby become relatives.

隨便那裏一樣事體要做差個 zûe bíe{n}‘ ’{á} ’lí ih {y}áng‘ zz‘ ’t’í, yau‘
tsú t’só kú‘, {whatever thing it be, he will do it wrong}.
勿論啥官總要得賄個 veh lun‘ sá kwé{n} ’tsóng yau‘ tuh ’hwé kú‘, {mandarins
of all offices whatsoever will take bribes}.
勿拘幾許兵卒總會戰敗 veh kü ’kí hó‘ ping tseh, ’tsóng {w}é‘ tsé{n}‘ bá‘,
{however many soldiers there be, we are sure to conquer}.

402. Subordinate clauses expressive of time and place, are placed before the principal clauses.

住拉啥地方勿肯話 dzû‘ ’lá sá‘ {t}í‘ fong, veh ’k’ung {w}ó,
{he is unwilling to say where he lives}.
清明節氣幾時黃曆上有 t’sing ming tsih k’í‘ ’kí zz, {w}ong lih long‘
’{y}eu, {the time at which the Tsing-ming solar period occurs,
is recorded in the calendar}.
到明朝我又到伊壗頭去 tau‘ ming tsau ’ngú {í}‘ tau‘ í ha{n}‘ deu k’í‘,
{on the next day I went to him again}.

403. The subject consisting of a verb and substantive, often takes the form of a subordinate introductory clause.

待別人要用禮貌 {t}é‘ bih niun yau‘ yung‘ ’lí mau‘, {in treating others,
a man should be polite}.
存心要存得好 dzun sing yau‘ dzun tuh ’hau, {in keeping the heart, a man
should keep it well}.

404. Many subordinate circumstantial clauses are introduced by verbs and precede the principal proposition.

落大雨個辰光去者 loh dú‘ ’{ü} kú‘ zun kwong k’í‘ ’tsé,
{while it was raining heavily he went}.
照之我個想頭要換朝代者 tsau‘ tsz ’ngú kú‘ ’siáng deu, yau‘ {w}én‘ dzau dé‘
’tsé, {according to my idea, the dynasty needs to be changed}.
(or, {will be}, &c.,).
照之古聖王個話頭一心一德 tsau‘ tsz ’kú sung‘ wong kú‘ {w}ó‘ deu ih sing ih
tuh, {according to the words of the ancient king, “one in heart
and one in virtue.”}
讀之七年書咾考之秀才 {t}ók tsz t’sih níe{n} sû lau ’kau tsz sieu‘ zé,
{having studied seven years, he took his degree of Bachelor}.
囂之書開來咾讀之兩張者 h’iau tsz sû k’é lé lau {t}ók tsz ’liáng tsáng ’tsé,
{having opened the book, he read two sections}.
得勝之多囘咾末脚死拉戰塲上 tuh sung‘ tsz tá {w}é lau meh kiáh ’sí ’lá
tsé{n}‘ dzáng long‘, {after gaining many victories, he died at
last on the field of battle}.

Obs. i. Sometimes the verb of the subordinate clause is when preceded by the negative particle, put at the end; e.g. 兵丁勿算武官死有五十干 ping ting veh sö{n}‘, ’vú kwé{n} ’sí ’{y}eu {ng} seh kû{n}, {without counting the common soldiers, fifty military mandarins died}.

Obs. ii. Circumstantial subordinate propositions often come between the subject and predicate, 貪官已經受之姓張箇銀子就拿姓李箇放拉監牢裏 t’é{n} kwé{n} ’í kiung ’zeu tsz sing‘ Tsáng kú‘ niung ’tsz dzieu‘ nó sing‘ ’Lí kú‘ fong‘ ’lá ka{n} lau ’lí, {the avaricious mandarin having received money from Mr. Cháng, will take Mr. Li and put him in prison}; 好人做之將官總勿瞎殺一個人 ’hau niun tsú‘ tsz tsiáng‘ kwé{n} ’tsóng veh hah sah ih kú‘ niun, {the good man on becoming a general, will not kill a single man without reason}.

405. Many subordinate clauses are causal, and are connected with the principal sentence by the particle 咾 lau, or they are inserted in the principal clause with 因爲 yung {w}é‘ to introduce them.

做事體勿勸謹咾勿成功者 tsú‘ zz‘ ’t’í veh giun ’kiun lau veh zung kóng ’tsé,
{not being diligent in performing his duty, he did not succeed}.
家當敗完之咾做之窮人者 ká tong‘ bá‘ {w}é{n} tsz lau tsú‘ tsz giong niun
’tsé, {he wasted all his property and became poor}.
打傷之人咾帶之枷者 ’táng song tsz niun lau tá‘ tsz ká ’tsé, {for beating
and wounding a man, he was condemned to wear the cangue}.
衣裳摜拉石頭上碎完者 í zong gwá{n}‘ ’lá záh deu long sé‘ {w}é{n} ’tsé,
{the clothes from being beaten on stones are torn to pieces}.
總督嘸奈何咾服毒者 tsóng‘ tóh {m} ’né {ú} lau vóg dók ’tsé, {the viceroy
having no alternative, poisoned himself}.
上司參之伊咾革脱之官者, ’zong sz t’sé{n} tsz í lau kák t’eh tsz kwé{n}
’tsé, {his superior having reported him as culpable, he was
discharged}.
勿要因為事體多咾勿盡心 veh yau‘ yung {w}é‘ zz‘ ’t’í tú lau‘ veh zing‘
sing, {do not on the ground of having so much to do, pay no
attention}.

Obs. Conjunctions may be prefixed to the introductory clause. 因爲三 代前頭題過第個名字勿可再題 yung {w}é‘ sa{n} dé‘ zíe{n} deu {t}í kú‘ {t}í‘ kú‘ ming zz‘ veh ’k’ó tsé‘ dí, {because three generations ago this name was used, it could not be employed again}.

406. Conditional introductory clauses are formed by means of particles, or they are understood to be conditional from their position, or from the nature of the sentence.

{a}. Examples of conditional clauses without particles.

勿敎訓個兒子伊總要入下流 veh kiau‘ h’iün‘ kú‘ ní ’tsz í ’tsóng yau‘ zeh
’{a}u lieu, {if you do not teach your son, he will certainly
fall to the lowest grade of character}.
勿呑金原要受皇帝個埋怨咾殺脱 veh tung kiun niö{n} yau‘ ’zeu {w}ong tí‘ kú‘
má yö{n}‘ lau sah t’eh, {if he does not take gold and commit
suicide, he must suffer the emperor’s displeasure and be put to
death}.

{b}. Examples with 末 meh, at the end of the conditional clause.

家裏窮末勿要怨恨爺娘勿發財 ká ’lí gióng meh veh yau‘ {y}ön‘ {h}ung‘ {y}á
niáng veh fah dzé, {if you belong to a poor family, you should
not be discontented that your parents are not rich}.
發財發福末勿要怠慢脫時落運個人 fah dzé fah fóh meh veh yau‘ {t}é‘ ma{n}‘
t’eh zz loh {y}ün‘ kú‘ niun, {if you grow rich, do not treat
superciliously those who are unfortunate}.
兒子話勿來末來巴勿得要伊會話 ní ’tsz {w}ó‘ veh lé meh, pó veh tuh yau‘ í
{w}é‘ {w}ó‘, {if their son cannot speak, they wish much that he
should be able}.
要做好官末, 只要念頭動, 舌頭動, 筆頭動, 造出多許善事體 yau‘ tsú‘ ’hau kwé{n}
meh, tseh yau‘ nía{n} deu ’{t}óng, zeh deu ’{t}óng, pih deu
’{t}óng, ’zau t’seh tú hau‘ ’zé{n} zz‘ ’t’í, {if you want to be
a good magistrate, you have only to move your thoughts, tongue
and pen, and you can do much good}.

{c}. Examples of the conditional clause as a case supposed, introduced by conditional conjunctions.

若使考過秀才要伊去鄕試 zák sz‘ ’k’au kú‘ sieu‘ zé yau‘ í k’í‘ h’iáng sz‘,
{if he has taken his Bachelor’s degree, they wish him to go to
the examination for that of Master}.
若使勿高興讀書千方百計騙伊到學堂去 zák sz‘ veh kau hiung‘ dók sû, t’síe{n}
fong pák kí‘ p’íe{n}‘ í tau‘ {h}oh dong k’í‘, {if he is
unwilling to learn to read, they use a thousand arts to trick
him into going to school}.
若然勿聽好說話必定敗家蕩產 záh zé{n} veh t’ing ’hau seh {w}ó‘ pih ding‘ bá‘
ká dong‘ ’t’sa{n}, {if you are unwilling to listen to good
advice, you will certainly ruin your family and lose your
property}.
倘有婚喪喜慶應該請伊吃酒 ’t’ong ’{y}eu hwun song ’h’í k’iung‘, yung ké
’t’sing í k’iuk ’tsieu, {if there be marriages, funerals and
rejoicing days, you ought to invite them to a feast}.

{d}. Examples of the conditional clause as a fact introduced by 旣然 kí‘ zé{n}, or 末 meh.

旣然望雨落勿要惹厭日頭 kí‘ zé{n} mong‘ ’{ü} loh, veh yau‘ ’zá {í}e{n}‘
nyih deu, {if you long for rain, still you should not murmur at
sun-shine}.
旣然嘸末勿要昨日話有 kí‘ zé{n} {m} meh veh yau‘ zóh nyih {w}ó‘ ’{y}eu,
{there being none, you need not have said yesterday that there
was any}.
旣然要末再去買末者 kí‘ zé{n} yau‘ meh tsé‘ kí‘ ’má meh ’tsé, {since you
want it, go again and buy it}.

{e}. Examples of conditional clauses introduced into the midst of the principal clause.

但是娘子雖然聰明勿好撥伊辦外頭個事務 {t}an‘ ’zz niáng ’tsz sûe zé{n} t’sóng
ming veh ’hau peh í {p}a{n}‘ ngá‘ deu kú‘ zz‘ vú‘, {but your
wife, although she be clever, you should not allow to act in
matters beyond her sphere}.

Obs. Several illustrations have occurred in the preceding pages of the fact that the laws of position often render particles superfluous. Thus, in adverbial phrases of succession, {and}, {by}, etc. are omitted in 一個一個 ih kú‘ ih kú‘ {one by one}; 一日大一日 ih nyih dú‘ ih nyih, {greater and greater every day}. So, prepositions are usually omitted in subordinate clauses of cause, manner, agent, etc. because they precede their subject and are readily understood. The omission of the conjunction, for the same reason does not affect conditional clauses (a).

407. If the verb and adjective groups with 得, 勿, 來 are rightly considered as originally forming independent propositions, including in themselves a subject and its predicate, they must be regarded in many instances as subordinate clauses.

{a}. One of these groups may form an adjective clause, or a predicate to a subject.

做勿來個事體多 tsú‘ veh lé kú‘ zz‘ ’t’í tú, {things that cannot be done
are many}.
禮體好得極 ’lí ’t’í ’hau tuh giuh, {the system of observances is
excellent}.

{b}. A group may form the explanatory clause to the verb of a preceding sentence.

勿好話弄勿來 veh ’hau {w}ó‘ lóng‘ veh lé, {you must not say that you
cannot do it}.

408. There are some fragmentary clauses placed at the end of a proposition that need especial notice.

{a}. 罷 {p}á‘ {to end}, or {then there is no more to be said}.

小銅錢換之末就罷哉 ’siau dóng díe{n} {w}é{n}‘ tsz meh dzieu‘ bá‘ ’tsé,
{as to the small cash, you have but to change them, that is
all}.
身邊勿帶就罷 sun píe{n} veh tá‘ dzieu‘ bá‘, {if you have none, that is
enough}.
現在話明白就是哉 {h}íe{n}‘ ’dzé {w}ó‘ ming báh dzieu‘ ’zz ’tsé, {you
have now made it all clear, and that is enough}.
勿肯末罷哉 veh ’k’ung meh bá‘ ’tsé, {if you will not, there is an end
of it}.

{b}. Several adverbial clauses used with adverbs of similarity.

皇帝如同父母一般 {w}ong tí‘ zû dóng ’vú ’mú ih pé{n}, {the emperor is
just like one’s parents}.
兄第忒我一樣 h’iúng dí‘ t’eh ’ngú ih {y}áng‘, {my brother is just as I
am}.
恰像我能 hah ziáng‘ ’ngú nung, {like me}.

{c}. Some words with the negative.

苦惱勿堪, ’k’ú ’nau veh k’é{n}, {intolerably wretched}.
路上爛來勿堪 lú‘ long‘ la{n}‘ lé veh k’é{n}, {the road is exceedingly
dirty}.

{d}. After substantives needing to be spoken of in the dual number 兩個 ’liáng kú‘, or 兩個字 liáng kú‘ zz‘ are appended; the former is applied to living agents, and the latter to {characters} as representatives of abstract nouns.

吾你弟兄兩個勿好爭論 ngú ’ní dí‘ h’iung ’liáng kú‘ veh ’hau tsáng lun‘,
{we are brothers and ought not to quarrel}.
善咾惡兩個字本來對面個 ’zé{n} lau oh ’liáng kú‘ zz‘ ’pun lé té‘ míe{n}‘
kú‘, {virtue and vice are originally opposite terms}.

{e}. Prepositions of motion take after the nouns they govern, the fragments 兩 ’liáng, 一淘 ih dau, separately or together.

我忒儂出外兩日咾再來 ’ngú t’eh nóng‘ t’seh ngá‘ ’liáng nyih lau tsé‘ lé,
{you and I will go out for two days and return}.
伊忒我一淘牽兩隻牛睏拉水裏 í t’eh ’ngú ih dau k’íe{n} ’liáng tsáh nieu
k’wun‘ ’lá ’sz ’lí, {he and I together led two oxen to lie down
in the water} (or 一氣).

Obs. These are perhaps fragments of propositions, of which only the predicate remains.

{Section} 8. {Coordinate Sentences}.

409. In further illustration of the connection of groups and propositions, it may be observed, that coordinate sentences often occur in juxtaposition without any particle.

{a}. There may be several subjects to one predicate.

文武百官鄕紳士庶禿出求雨 vun ’vú puh kwé{n}, h’iáng sun ’zz sû‘ t’ók
t’seh lé gieu ’{ü}, {the civil and military mandarins, the
gentry and common people are all come out to pray for rain}.
按察司布政司撫臺各省有個 ö{n}‘ t’sah sz‘, pú‘ tsung‘ sz‘, ’fú dé, kok
’sáng ’{y}eu kú‘, {a judge, treasurer and lieutenant-governor
belong to each province}.

{b}. There may be several predicates to one subject, or several explanatory clauses to one proposition.

多請朋友勿兔浪用錢財廢事失業 tú ’t’sing {p}áng ’{y}eu veh ’míe{n} long‘
{y}úng‘ zíe{n} zé fí‘ zz‘ seh nyih, {if you invite friends much,
you will not avoid wasting money and expending property}.
風水兩個字池湖末水龍氣末風 fóng ’sz ’liáng kú‘ zz‘, dzz {ú} meh ’sz, lóng
k’í‘ meh fóng, {in the phrase wind and water, the pond
represents the water, and the winding path} ({dragon vapour})
{the wind}.
松江提督手下有前營後營左營右營中營一府裏五營 Súng kong dí toh ’seu ’{a}u
’{y}eu dzíe{n} {y}ung ’{h}eu {y}ung tsú‘ {y}ung {y}eu‘ {y}ung
tsóng {y}ung ih ’fú ’lí ’{ng} {y}ung, {the general at Súng-kiáng
as under him, the front, hind, left, right and central
divisions, in all five for the whole prefecture}.

410. The connective 咾 lau is very frequently introduced between groups; and the constituents of any group of coordinate words may be broken up into separate subjects, or predicates or objects by the insertion of this particle.

墳墓週圍種個樹木咾築個籬笆 vun mú‘ tseu {w}é tsóng‘ kú‘ zú‘ móh lau tsók
kú‘ lí pó, {round the grave are planted trees, and a hurdle
hedge is erected}.
一家裏向有爺咾娘咾小囝咾差囝咾丫頭 ih ká ’lí h’iáng ’{y}eu {y}á lau niáng
lau ’siau nö{n} lau t’sá nö{n} lau au deu, {in one family there
are the father and mother, children, men and women servants}.
知縣要管個一縣裏個漕白犯法咾咾詞訟咾騐屍個事體 tsz {y}ö{n}‘ yau‘ ’kwé{n} kú‘
ih {y}ö{n}‘ ’lí kú‘ zau báh ’va{n} fah lau lau zz zóng‘ lau
níe{n}‘ sz kú‘ zz‘ t’i‘, {the city magistrate presides over the
revenue, crimes, lawsuits and inquests of his district}.
關稅咾兵丁咾啥是道臺管拉個 kwa{n} súe‘ lau ping ting lau sá‘ ’zz ’{t}au dé
’kwé{n} ’lá kú‘, {the customs and army matters are superintended
by the Intendent of Circuit}.

Obs. It has been shewn in section 7, that 咾 lau also frequently terminates causal subordinate sentences.

411. When there are two coordinate ideas to be expressed connectedly, as with {both}—{and}—而且, 也 and 又 are employed.

又是長又是闊 {í}‘ ’zz dzáng, {í}‘ ’zz k’weh, {it is both long and broad}.
也要加長也要加闊 ’{á} yau‘ ká dzáng, ’{á} yau‘ ká k’weh, {you must make
it both longer and broader}.

Obs. i. {Even} as an initiatory particle is expressed by 就是. 就是生意淸也勿要甩脱工夫 dzieu‘ ’zz sáng í‘ tsing ’{á} veh yau‘ hwah t’eh kúng fú, {even if trade is slack, you must not waste time}.

Obs. ii. 也 is also used when no sentence precedes, as in 外國米也有否 ngá‘ kóh ’mí ’{á} ’{y}eu ’vá, {is there rice in foreign countries?}

Obs. iii. When the clauses are negative, the negative particle is inserted after the conjunction, 也勿會開口也勿會動身 ’{á} veh {w}é‘ k’é ’k’eu, ’{á} veh {w}é‘ ’dóng sun, {he can neither speak nor move}.

412. When two objects are compared, they stand as coordinate clauses with the verb 比 ’pí between them, and the attribute of comparison at the end.

生果子勿此熟果子甜個 sáng ’kú ’tsz veh ’pí zóh ’kú ’tsz díe{n} kú‘,
{unripe fruit cannot be compared to ripe fruit in sweetness}.
做生意勿此念書個好 tsú‘ sáng í‘ veh ’pí nia{n}‘ sû kú‘ ’hau, {to engage
in trade is not so good as studying books}.
儂比之我年紀大 nóng‘ ’pí tsz ’ngú níe{n} ’kí dú‘, {you are older than I}.

Obs. i. 又 {í}‘ is sometimes prefixed to the attribute; e.g. 伊比我又好 í ’pi ngú‘ {í}‘ hau, {he is still better than I}.

Obs. ii. 又 {í}‘ with the negative is thus seen to have the force of a separative particle, while in the examples of the preceding article it is clearly connective ({both—and—}) in one case, and separative in the other ({neither—nor—}).

413. Propositions introduced by the adversative particles {only}, {but}, {yet}, etc. (v. Art. 310), form another class of coordinate sentences.

小道理聖人賢人勿屑為但是平常人全要曉得個 ’siau ’dau ’lí sung‘ niun {h}íen
niun veh sih {w}é {t}a{n}‘ ’zz bing dzáng niun zé{n} yau‘ ’h’iau
tuh kú‘, {small matters are not attended to by the wise and
learned, but ordinary people must know them}.
好人該當親近個倒要遠開伊 ’hau niun ké tong t’sing ’giun kú‘ ’tau yau‘
{y}ö{n} k’é í, {you ought to attach yourself to good men, but on
the contrary you avoid them}.
爺娘個棺材勿可以常停拉家裏恐防火燒 {y}á niáng kú‘ kwé{n} zé‘ veh ’k’ó ’í
dzáng ö{n} ’lá ká ’lí ’k’óng bong ’hú sau, {your parents coffins
must not be long retained in the house, lest a fire should break
out}.

414. Illative and causal sentences form another class of coordinate sentences.

故此嘸沒出頭個日子 kú‘ ’t’sz {m} meh t’seh deu kú‘ nyih ’tsz, {therefore
there is no day of escape}.
半個身體三個時辰浸拉水裏所以怪勿得有點勿自在 pé{n}‘ kú‘ sun ’t’í sa{n} kú‘ zz
zun tsing ’lá ’sz ’lí ’sú ’í kwá‘ veh tuh ’{y}eu ’tíe{n} veh zz‘
’zé, {his body was up to the waist in water for 6 hours, and
therefore it is not to be wondered at that he feels a little
uncomfortable}.

415. In causal sentences, the causal conjunctions are used, or the word for “cause” at the end of the sentence; sometimes both are employed.

勿能得勝兵丁勿好個緣故 veh nung tuk sung‘, ping ting veh ’hau ku‘ yö{n}
kú‘, {he cannot conquer, because the soldiers are bad}.
文理爲哈勿好因爲讀書少 vun ’lí {w}é‘ sá‘ veh ’hau yung {w}é‘ dók sû ’sau,
{why is his style of writing bad? because he has read but
little}.

Obs. The answer to a question requiring “because,” is very often ended with 咾 lau, which then takes that sense. But this is an irregular colloquialism, since {lau} as connective conjunction ought to be followed by another clause. 船吹壞脫哉風大咾 zé{n} t’sz {w}á‘ t’eh ’tsé fóng dú‘ lau, {the boat was broken to pieces, the wind being high}.

416. Conjunctions forming pairs of sentences, have already been partially illustrated in Arts, 322–330. It may in addition be observed, that short phrases sometimes take the place of conjunctions.

{a}. Thus for, {not only—even—}, we have 勿要話 veh yau‘ {w}ó‘ and 就是 dzieu‘ zz in the supplemental sentence.

勿要話爺娘敎訓伊勿轉, 勿要話親友勸戒伊勿轉, 就是菩薩也點化伊勿轉 veh yau‘ {w}ó‘
{y}á niáng kiau‘ h’iün‘ í veh ’tsé{n}, veh yau‘ {w}ó‘ t’sing
’{y}eu k’iö{n}‘ ká‘ í veh ’tsé{n}, dzieu‘ ’zz {p}ú sah ’{á}
’tíe{n} hwó‘ í veh ’tsé{n}, {do not say that his parents were
unable to influence him by instruction, and his friends by
exhortations; supernatural beings even could not reclaim him by
their warnings}.

{b}. English initiatory phrases, such as {I suppose that}, {probably}, are represented by 只怕, 恐怕 tseh p’ó‘, ’k’ung p’ó‘, or by 我想 ’ngú ’siáng, {it appears to me that}.

打殺之雄窵雌窵獨干子躱拉恐怕要氣殺 ’táng sah tsz {y}ióng ’tiau t’sz ’tiau
{t}ók kû{n} ’tsz ’tú ’lá ’k’úng p’ó‘ yau‘ k’í‘ sah, {if the male
bird were killed, the female from being solitary, would probably
die of grief}.

Obs. i. {On the one side—on the other side—}are represented by the common substantive for {side} with—ih {one} in both clauses. The preposition and article are rejected as unnecessary, cf. Art. 328.

Obs. ii. Although is sometimes expressed by a verb, in the sense {let it be that}, 憑儂地獄拉前面, 伊也勿肯囘心改念 bing nóng‘ {t}í‘ niók ’lá zie{n} míe{n}‘, í ’{á} veh ’k’ung {w}é sing ’ké nía{n}‘, {granting you that hell were in sights, he would still be unwilling to repent}. 隨儂 sûe nóng‘, 但憑儂 ’{t}a{n} bing nóng‘, are also used in the same sense.

417. Comparisons are introduced by several compounds of 如 zû, and some fragmentary sentences, as 比方, ’pí fong, {for example}.

病好爺娘十分快活猶如尋着之寶貝一般 {p}ing‘ ’hau ’{y}á niáng zeh fun k’á‘
{w}eh {y}eu zû zing zák tsz ’pau pé‘ ih pé{n}, {when they
recover from sickness, the parents are delighted just as if
they had found a treasure}.
如同樹木個根 zû dóng zû‘ móh kú kun, {it is like the root of a tree}.
假如見之꜂長輩勿要忽畧伊 ’kiá zû kíe{n}‘ tsz ’tsáng pé‘ veh yau‘ hweh liáh í,
{suppose that you see your elders, you must not treat them
disrespectfully}.
比如担別人家個祖宗認做自家個祖宗有第個道理否 ’pí zú ta{n} bih niun ká kú‘
’tsú tsóng, niun tsú‘ zz‘ ká kú‘ ’tsú tsóng, ’{y}eu {t}í‘ kú‘
’{t}au ’lí ’vá, {if for example you take the ancestors of
others, and recognize them as your own, could this be right?}

{Section} 9. {On Antithesis}.

418. Of antithesis there are three kinds; (a) that of words in the formation of groups; (b) that which gives an interrogative force by the juxtaposition of positive and negative clauses, (c) That of sentences contrasted in sound or sense.

Obs. The first of these should be placed with the sections on groups, but the other kinds (b) and (c) are naturally discussed after propositions, and therefore they are all placed together here.

419. Substantives that are opposite in sense, when they combine into groups are treated just as other coordinate words.

晝夜 tseu‘ {y}a‘, {day and night}.
山海 sa{n} ’hé, {land} (hills) {and sea}.

420. Adjectives and verbs when they form antithetic groups often lose their proper character as attributives, and become substantives.

斬絞流徒 ’tsan kau lieu dú, {beheading, strangling and banishment}.
酸甜苦鹹 sû{n} díe{n} ’k’ú han, {sour, sweet, bitter, salt}.
第條路多少遠近 {t}í‘ diau lú‘ tú ’sau ’{y}ön ’giun, {how far is it by
this road?}

421. Antithesis in the formation of interrogatives has an important grammatical use. Thus, a verb with or without its object expressed successively in the affirmative and negative form, asks a question.

去過勿曾去過 k’í kú‘ veh zung k’í‘ kú‘, {have you gone or not?}

Obs. The subject is prefixed and is not repeated; e.g. 遭蹋字紙㑚 想罪過勿罪過 tsau t’ah zz‘ ’tsz ná‘ ’siáng zé‘ kú‘ veh zé‘ kú‘, {do you think the misuse of written-paper is a sin or not?}

422. Among instances of the antithesis of propositions, many consist simply of a tautology of ideas by introducing opposite qualities or actions with the negative particle.

有銅錢就做, 嘸沒銅錢勿要做 ’{y}eu dóng díe{n} dzieu‘ tsú‘, {m} meh dóng
díe{n} veh yau‘ tsú‘, {if you have money do it, if not you need
not do it}.
各人要心平勿要做怨恨 koh niun yau‘ sing bing veh yau‘ tsú‘ yö{n}‘ {h}ung‘,
{every one ought to be contented, and not dissatisfied}.

Obs. This figure of speech would in many of its examples be intolerable in English, but the brevity and rhythmical structure of Chinese sentences make it agreeable. It gives an air of simplicity to conversation, and allows the speaker time to prepare his next idea, without forcing his thinking faculties to a too rapid productiveness. The same advantage is obtained by the use of a long group, where in English, one or two of its constituent words would be sufficient.

423. Of antithetical propositions some of the most ornamental are those that consist of the words of a common group lengthened into clauses.

上有天理下合人情 ’záng ’{y}eu t’íe{n} ’lí, ’{h}au {h}eh niun zing, {it
coincides with the law of heaven on one hand, and the natural
sentiments of mankind on the other}.
先有風後有雨 síe{n} ’{y}eu fóng ’{h}eu ’{y}eu ’{ü}, {wind comes first and
rain after}.
明醫家會救人, 笨醫家會殺人 ming í ká {w}é‘ kieu‘ niun, {p}un‘ í ká {w}é‘ sah
niun, {a good physician can cure men, while an incompetent one
can kill them}.
遠水救勿得近火 ’{y}ön ’sz kieu‘ veh tuh ’giun ’hú, {distant water cannot
save from a fire that is near}.
前世無讐今世無寃 zíe{n} sz‘ vú zeu kiun sz‘ vú yö{n}, {if in a former life
you were the enemy of no one, you will have no enemy in this}.
東耳𦕰進西耳𦕰出 tóng ’ní ’tú tsing‘ sí ’ní ’tú t’seh, {enter by the left
ear and disappear by the right}.
推勿轉頭挬勿轉腦 t’é veh ’tsé{n} deu peh veh ’tsé{n} ’nau, {he cannot be
brought to change for the better}.

Obs. This is a principal means of decorating the 文章 vun tsáng, the literary compositions on which the educated class expend so much time and effort. With the classics before them, and ten or twenty thousand words at command, there is a wide field for variety. In addition to the care required in the general structure of the essay, that all its parts may be conformed to rule, the separate sentences must be framed in obedience to the laws of grouping and antithesis, so that there may be no infringement of the order of the words, as they stand in the ancient books.

424. Another class of antithetical propositions consists of such as correspond word for word with each other in structure and relative meaning. Many proverbs are of this kind.

債有生寃有頭 tsá‘ ’{y}eu ’tsû {y}ön ’{yeu} deu, {to every debt there is a
creditor, and to every enemy a foe}.

Obs. Prémare has a large collection of such proverbs, to which the reader is referred.

{Section} 10. {On Rhythmus}.

425. Chinese sentences spoken or written are symmetrically arranged. The same rhythmus that pleases and aids the reader, in such works as the Historical Novels exists in a less elaborated form in the colloquial medium of daily life. In the style of a fluent Chinese speaker, clauses of four words each, will be found to occur more frequently than of any other length. This measure may be called for the Shánghái dialect the Double Iambus, the accent being on the last syllable of a group of two words; e.g. 財主人家有喪事要請和尚道士做做攻德 ze-tsú-niun-ká ’{y}eu song zz‘ yau‘ ’t’sing {h}ú-zong‘-’{t}au-’zz tsú‘-tsú‘ kúng-tuh, {rich men at a funeral will invite Buddhist and Taúist priests, to perform a religious service}. Here there are 3 groups of four.

Obs. i. Chinese colloquial syntax might be divided into two heads, treating of grammatical (or syntactical), and prosodial (or rhythmical) relations respectively. Under the former might be placed, government, propositions, and a part of the system of groups. Under the latter would be properly found repetition, antithesis, and the remainder of the system of grouping. The latter might be called prosody, but that word is more properly applied to the laws of poetry. In the present work it has been thought more convenient to mix these divisions under a common heading.

Obs. ii. Words in the fourth tone are just as important in the groups as other words, unless they happen to be enclitics; e.g. 大關節目 {t}á‘ kwa{n} tsih móh, {the general object}. The last two words have no less emphasis of voice than the former, and 目 móh is distinctly accented.

Obs. iii. In dialects where the accent is on the penultimate syllable, the four-word measure might be called a Double Trochee. These classical names of feet are not strictly applicable, descriptive as they are of the long and short syllables of poetry. They are here used for want of better terms, just as is done by writers on English versification, to express the pronunciation of words as accented or not accented. At Súng-kiáng the fú city to which Shánghái belongs, the accent changes to the penultimate.

Obs. iv. In 讀起來看 {read}, and {t}ók ’k’í lé k’ö{n}‘, {read it and try}, the accent is on the first and last words of both these sentences, the middle words being enclitic.

426. The three-word foot may be called, if it consists of two unaccented, and one accented syllable, an {anapaest}; e.g. 壁立直 pih lih dzuh, {exactly straight}; 敲敲鼓 k’au k’au ’kú, {to beat a drum}; 梁惠王 liáng {w}é‘ {w}ong, {a king in Mencius}. If the accent is on the first word of three, the foot might be called a {dactyl}; e.g. 做末者 tsú‘ meh ’tsé, {do it}. Instances of such dactyls are rare and are chiefly confined to sentences containing enclitics, which reject the accent. In some cases, the accent is on the middle word as in 放颻子 fong‘ yau‘ ’tsz, {to fly a kite}; 子 ’tsz as an enclitic throws back the accent on the preceding word.

427. The number two occurs in innumerable combination, which may be called iambs; i.e. 上山 ’zong sa{n}, {ascend a hill}.

428. Common recognized groups numbering more than four coordinate words are not very numerous. They may be readily resolved into smaller feet of two, three, or four words, by attending to the {cæsura}, which will be always found in them; e.g. 喜怒哀懼愛惡欲 ’h’í nú‘ é gü‘ é‘ ú‘ {y}óh, {joy, anger, grief, fear, love, hatred, desire}. That mark of division occurs after the fourth word for groups of seven, and after the second for groups of five; others may be divided into groups of two or three words each.

Obs. i. The cæsura of seven word and five word versification in good poetry, and in street ballads, is generally after the fourth and second words, but variations occur according to the taste of the writer, and the exigencies of composition.

Obs. ii. By marking the cæsura, groups of four words may be divided into smaller divisions of two, and those of three words into parts of one and two words. Thus the secondary accent heard in the first part of the group, and referred to in the sections on tones may be accounted for, as properly belonging to the smaller groups, or single word, to which it is affixed.

Obs. iii. The accent here spoken of is, that which is understood by the word in English and French, viz. that emphasis which is predominantly on the penultimate or antepenultimate in the former, and on the last syllable in the latter language. It is one simply of position, and is so far independent of tones on the one hand, and of the quantity of vowels as long or short, on the other. English versification is entirely regulated by the accent of position, and not by the consideration of vowels and syllables being long and short. Thus in the line “our voices keep tune, and our oars keep time,” the quantity of “keep,” and “our” is long, yet they stand as short syllables. Chinese poetry is like that of England in possessing rhymes, and instead of a rhythmus of long and short vowel quantities, such as formed the framework of Greek and Latin versification, it has one of even and uneven tones.

Obs. iv. In some groups of four, the accent is on the first and fourth words; e.g. 鄕下百姓 h’iáng ’{a}u pák sing‘, {country people}. But it is most frequently on the 2nd and 4th, e.g. 富貴貧賤 fú‘ kwé‘ bing dzíe{n}‘, {rich and poor}; 去邪歸正 k’í‘ ziá kwé tsung‘, {to abandon vice and reform}. When it passes to the first or third, it is because the word on which it should be is an enclitic or has a weak tone. Cf.