Chapter IX: Statistics of Manufacturing. 289 (6)

Problems of Distribution.

1. What are the three great problems of economic
society? Page 119.

2. Define functional distribution; personal
distribution. Page 119.

3. What views are given as to whether functional
distribution is actually governed by natural law? Page 121.

4. Discuss briefly the distribution of rent. Page 122.

5. What is the socialists’ idea as to the profits which
a business manager receives for his services? Page 123.

6. State three theories which have been developed to
explain the distribution of wages. Page 124.

7. How was the wealth of the United States distributed
in 1893? Page 125.

8. Are the poor becoming poorer? Page 127. 411

Saving and Spending.

1. What is the relation between saving and spending? Page 129.

2. What is the real goal of all rational economic
endeavor? Page 130.

3. Give the arguments which are put forth condemning
luxury. Page 132.

4. What arguments are put forth to show that luxury
is an indispensable stimulus to progress? Page 133.

5. What is the attitude toward luxury taken by
economists? Page 133.

6. What is meant by “a socialization of luxury”? Page 135.

7. Give an illustration of a waste in consumption due
to lack of knowledge and training. Page 135.

Money and Banking.

1. What determines the value of money? Page 137.

2. Give the attempts made in the United States to create
a slow, steady inflation. Page 139.

3. State three arguments in favor of bimetallism. Page 139.

4. Where can we find a sufficient answer to the arguments
in favor of government paper money? State the answer. Page 141.

5. Of what does the money of the United States consist? Page 141.

6. What essential quality of good bank money do bank
notes lack? Explain. Page 143.

7. Enumerate the suggestions which have been made as
to a new basis for the issue of bank notes. Page 143.

8. Name two other problems connected with the banking
system of the United States. Page 144.

Transportation and Communication. 412

1. Describe the three kinds of discrimination. Page 147.

2. How do the state commissions differ in power? Page 148.

3. Explain the monopoly character of express companies. Page 149.

4. Show the importance of the internal natural waterways
of the United States. Page 151.

5. What problem is offered by our canal system? Page 151.

6. Show why the causes for the decline in tonnage of
American vessels are economic rather than political. Page 152.

Taxation and Tariff.

1. What is John Fiske’s definition of taxes? Page 154.

2. What rules of taxation were laid down by Adam Smith? Page 154.

3. What is the benefit theory of taxation? How does
this theory fail? Page 155.

4. What is the faculty principle of taxation? Page 155.

5. What measures have been suggested as to how to
measure ability? Give the objection to each. Page 155.

6. What are the arguments supporting progressive
taxation? Page 156.

7. Where does the Federal Treasury derive its revenue? Page 157.

8. What tax is the main reliance of the state and local
governments? Page 158.

9. Describe an ideal system of taxation for the United
States. What is the advantage of such a system? Page 159.

10. What is the character of the considerations in
determining tariff policies? Page 160.

11. Explain the home market argument in support of 413
protection; the wages argument. Page 161.

12. What is the doctrine of comparative costs? Page 162.

13. How do free traders answer the home market argument?
The infant industries argument? Page 162.

The Functions of the Government.

1. Name the economic functions of the Government. Page 163.

2. What is the theory of anarchism? Page 165.

3. Explain Herbert Spencer’s theory of extreme
individualism. Page 165.

4. What is the theory of government most generally held
by economists and writers in the United States? Page 166.

5. In what country is the culture state theory very
generally held? Explain the theory. Page 167.

6. What does the view known as state socialism advocate? Page 167.

7. Give Professor Ely’s definition of socialism. Page 167.

8. Explain the cardinal and distinctive element of
socialism. Page 168.

9. Enumerate the socialists’ criticisms of our present
methods of production. Page 168.

10. What do socialists urge as bases of distribution?
What basis do socialists of today agree is the best
one to meet the requirements of justice? Page 170.

11. What were Henry George’s arguments against private
ownership of lands? Page 171.

12. What is the real issue as to the municipalization of
local public utilities? Page 172.

Economic Progress.

1. What improvement has been made in the condition of
the working class in the United States? In Great
Britain? Page 173.

2. What factors have aided in the enormous expansion 414
of production? Page 174.

3. Give two reasons why labor has not profited more
by the great increase of wealth. Page 175.

4. State some lines along which reform is needed. Page 176.

Manufacturing.

1. How does the word “manufactures” as it is ordinarily
used today differ from its original meaning? Page 180.

2. What conditions have made western Europe and the
eastern part of the United States great manufacturing
sections? Page 183.

Modern Manufacturing Systems.

1. What new occupations did the factory system develop? Page 186.

2. How did the use of steam affect the location of
factories? Page 187.

3. What factors made the price of silk so high before
the nineteenth century? Page 188.

4. Why is Gary, Indiana, an advantageous location for
a manufacturing center? Page 189.

5. How is it possible to operate by water power, a factory
located a hundred miles from a waterfall? Give
two examples. Page 190.

6. Illustrate the use of electricity in a typical modern
factory. Page 192.

Use of Machinery in Manufacturing.

1. Describe the first machine used in the making of yarn. Page 193.

2. Enumerate some of the machines invented in the
eighteenth century. Page 195.

3. How did the invention of machinery affect the
importation of cotton? Page 196.

4. Show the need of machinery in the iron and steel 415
industry. Page 197.

5. Describe the earliest process of making pig iron. Page 198.

6. What is the Bessemer process of making steel? Page 201.

7. What have been the causes of the great development
of the iron and steel industry? Page 201.

8. What is the difference between English and American
steel works? Page 202.

Development of the Factory System.

1. State reasons for the early development of the factory
system in England. Page 204.

2. Why was the United States slow about developing
manufacturing industries? Page 205.

3. Why is any comparison of the value of the manufactures
of the United States with that of other countries
defective? Page 210.

4. Name an article which is the product of one factory
but which becomes the manufacturing material of
another. Page 211.

5. What factors have contributed toward making the
United States the world’s greatest manufacturing
nation? Page 212.

6. How can it be judged as to whether the value of
manufactures of a country is in excess of the consuming
capacity? Page 214.

Capital in Manufacturing.

1. Show the part capital plays in building up a company. Page 214.

2. What are the advantages gained by having a business
in the hands of a company or corporation? Page 215.

3. Compare the durability of gold with that of other
products. Page 217.

4. What was the amount of capital employed in 416
manufacturing industries in 1850? In 1905? Page 218.

5. How did the Census of 1905 differ from previous
censuses in the matter of manufacturing establishments? Page 219.

6. How does the growth in capitalization rank with that
of the other important branches of manufacturing? Page 220.

Trusts and Combinations.

1. What principle was the cause of the origin of the
modern company or corporation? Page 222.

2. Explain the provisions of a pool. Page 223.

3. How were the defects of the pool overcome? Page 224.

4. What are the advantages of a trust or combination? Page 225.

5. What has been the effect of trusts on prices? On
wages? Page 226.

6. Name and classify according to product the companies
of which the United States Steel Corporation was
formed. Page 228.

The Iron and Steel Industry.

1. What was the number of establishments for the iron
and steel industry in the United States in 1880? In
1905? What does this show? Page 233.

2. What method was used by the early Germans for
extracting the iron from the ore? By the English
in 1700? By the early American colonists? Page 236.

3. Why was coke used in the smelting of iron ore in
England much earlier than in America? Page 238.

4. How did the development of railways aid in the
preservation of our forests? Page 239.

5. What is the puddling process? Why is it necessary? Page 240.

6. What process took the place of the puddling process? Page 241.

7. What is steel? How is iron obtained by the Bessemer 417
process made into steel? Page 245.

The Textile Industry.

1. What is the most important of the textile industries? Page 247.

2. Compare the value of textile manufactures in the
principal countries of Europe during the period from
1800 to 1896, inclusive, with that of the United
States during the same period. Page 247.

3. Define textiles. How are they made? Page 251.

4. What were the so-called “Manchester cottons”? Page 254.

5. Who invented the spinning jenny? What was its use? Page 255.

6. Up until the invention of the water frame, why was
the making of cloth entirely from cotton impracticable?
Page 256.

7. What was the spinning mule? By whom was it invented? Page 257.

8. What is the purpose of the cotton gin? Page 257.

9. What factors have made cotton the most important
textile? Page 258.

10. Why is the cotton industry moving toward the South? Page 262.

Manufacturing Industries of the United States.

1. Why was manufacturing neglected by the early settlers
of the United States? Page 263.

2. What manufactories sprang up in the nineteenth
century? Page 266.

3. Name the four greatest producers of manufactures for
exportation. Page 270.

4. When was the largest growth of agricultural exports
in the United States? Of exports of manufactures? Page 272.

5. What articles are the chief requisites of 418
manufacturing? Page 272.

6. How do you account for the rapid growth of copper
as an export of manufacture? Page 277.

7. Illustrate the fact that the United States does not
need to invade foreign markets with its manufactures. Page 278.

8. Distinguish between the gross value of the factory
product of manufactures and the net value of the same. Page 284.

9. Compare the growth of the exportation of manufactures
with that of the production. Page 286.

10. Under what head does the Bureau of Statistics classify
boots and shoes; flour; salted meats; illuminating
oil; pig iron. Page 287.

Concrete and Steel.

1. How do concrete and steel supplement each other? Page 322.

2. Of what is the standardization of concrete applications
indicative? Page 323.

3. What is a corrugated bar? Page 324.

4. Give an example showing the durability of the
Hennibique construction. Page 326.

5. What advantages over the wooden bearing pile has
the concrete bearing pile? Page 327.

6. How may the resistivity of usual concretes be
reinforced? Page 329.

7. Explain the use of wales in reinforcing a water front. Page 331.

8. How are the bearing piles of a wharf in the tropics
made? Page 332.

9. Enumerate various uses to which concrete has been
put in construction. Pages 333, 334.

10. What is the problem of the concrete telegraph pole?
How may this be overcome? Page 336.

11. How is the Corell tie made? The Percival tie? Page 337. 419

12. What part does steel play in the construction of the
Gatun Locks of the Panama Canal? Page 337.

13. Give an illustration of the use of steel for molding
concrete. Page 339.

Chemistry and the Industries.

1. Why has it been necessary to put industry on a
scientific basis? Page 342.

2. Why is chemistry so closely related to the industries? Page 343.

3. Tell in your own words the story of the development
of the soda industry. Page 344.

4. Name three important industries which grew out of
the soda industry. Page 346.

5. Give an example of how science has led the way for
industry. Page 348.

6. What are the great achievements before the chemistry
of the future? Page 350.

The Producer-Gas Power Plant.

1. What was the drawback to the early development of
the gas engine? Page 353.

2. Why was the suction producer not practical? Page 354.

3. What led to the introduction of the pressure producer? Page 355.

4. What is the advantage of the down-draft producer? Page 355.

5. What is the ideal relative efficiency of the
producer-gas plant and the steam plant? The actual
relative efficiency? Page 360.

6. What defects in producer-gas plants were learned
from the inspection in 1908? Page 364.

7. Where are the producer-gas plants of England located? Page 366.

8. How can the price of power developed from fuel be 420
kept down? Page 369.

Efficiency in Shop Operations.

1. What is the reason for the failure of many cost
systems? Page 371.

2. Upon what does the efficiency of a workman depend? Page 372.

3. What should be used as a standard for the measurement
of time? Page 373.

4. When should a bonus begin? Page 375.

5. What effect does the giving of bonuses have on the
efficiency of the foreman? Page 375.

6. What advantages are gained from having proper time
cards for the workmen of a concern? Page 377.

7. To be successful, how should efficiency methods be
introduced? Page 379.

The Bridge between Labor and Capital.

1. What is the chief cause at the bottom of all labor
disputes? Page 380.

2. When and how was the labor problem brought about? Page 381.

3. What three methods of solution are proposed for the
present problem of distribution? Page 382.

4. In your opinion which method is the best?

The Unemployed.

1. What is the central cause of the want of employment? Page 385.

2. Show the evil effect of ill-advised charity upon the
unemployed. Page 387.

3. What does the practice of giving old-age pensions
indicate as to the fairness of the distribution of the
returns of production? Page 387.

4. Name three ways in which the problem of the unemployed 421
can be reduced. Page 389.

5. What are the effects of ignorance and indolence upon
society? Page 391.

6. If employment were remunerative, what would be the
results? Page 393.

7. What lines of industry should society court? Page 396.

8. What are the evils connected with industrial
corporations? Page 397.

9. Summarize the remedies for the want of employment. Page 401.

INDEX

BUSINESS ECONOMICS

ACTS--
factory, 88, 89.

AGRICULTURE--
character of, in U. S., 14.
most important branch of, 15.
reorganization of, 15.

ANARCHISM--
theory of, 165.

AREA--
land, of U. S., 9.

BANKING, 142-145.

BAR--
corrugated, 324.

BARGAINING--
collective, 77.

BESSEMER--
process, 201, 241-246.

BIMETALLISM--
arguments in favor of, 139, 140.

BOARD--
of arbitration, 79.
of conciliation, 79.

BONUS--
use of, 375.

BRIDGES--
construction of, 324-326.

CAPITAL--
and labor, bridge between (article), 380-383.
in manufacturing, 214-222.

CEMENT--
Portland, 340.

CEREALS--
production of, in U. S., 15.

CHEMISTRY--
and the industries (article), 341-351.
a utilitarian science, 341.
how it creates industries, 348.
how it influences industries, 342.

CHILDREN--
at work, 86-89.

CLASS--
wage-earning, 61.

COAL--
waste of, 352.

COMBINATION--
advantages of, 43, 225.
causes of, illustrated, 227-230.
effects of, 46-49, 226.
upon competitors, 46.
upon consumers, 48, 226.
upon labor, 47.
upon opportunity, 49.
upon wages, 226.
forms of, 223-225.
in the railroad world, 146.
methods of, illustrated, 227-230.
phases of, 39, 40.

COMMISSION--
mandatory, 148.
supervisory, 148.

COMPANIES--
express, monopoly character of, 149.

COMPETITION--
defined, 4.
in modern industrial life, 4, 5.

CONCRETE--
and steel (article), 322-340.
applications of, 324-339.
as material of construction, 322.
chimneys of, 328.
effect of water on, 330, 333.
rapidity of construction of, 330.
resistivity of, 329.

CONSUMPTION--
economy in, 135, 136.

CO-OPERATION--
advantages of, 116, 117, 222, 223.
consumers’, 114.
defects of, 117, 118.
producers’, 116.

CORN--
production of, in U. S., 16.

CORPORATION--
advantages of, to industry, 41, 215.
industrial, 397.
United States Steel, 44, 227-230.

COTTON--
gin, 257.
manufacturing of, 247-262.
production of, in U. S., 17, 304.
world’s production of, 291.

CRISES--
credit theory of, 59.
defined, 55.
immediate cause of, 56.
must be regarded as unpreventable, 60.
over-production theory of, 38.
periodicity of, 57, 58.

DISCRIMINATION--
kinds of, 147.

DISTRIBUTION--
of interest, 122, 123.
of profits, 123.
of rent, 122.
of wages, 123, 124.
of wealth, functional, 119-121.
of wealth, personal, 120, 125-127.

DOMAIN--
public, 9.

DRY-FARMING, 11.

ECONOMICS--
practical (article), 1-178.
progress in, 172-178.

EDUCATION--
industrial, 106-110.

EFFICIENCY--
application of, to department heads, 375-377.
defined, 371.
increased, illustrated, 374.
in shop operation (article), 370-379.

ELECTRICITY--
applied to manufacturing, 190-192.

ENGINE--
gas, development of, 353-356.

EXCHANGES--
of natural products, 182.

EXPORTS--
from U. S., 269-288.

FACTORY--
acts, 88, 89.
described, 31.
system. (See System.)
town, rise of, 186.

FARMS--
number and size of, 11.

FISHERIES--
wasteful use of, 18, 19.

FREE TRADERS--
arguments of, 162.

GOLD--
production of, 216, 217.

GOVERNMENT--
functions of, 163-172.

HOMESTEAD--
defined, 9, 10.

INDIVIDUALISM--
extreme, 65, 165.
modified, 166.

INDUSTRY--
causes of rapid development in, 30.
cotton, 247-262.
how carried on, 41.
iron and steel, growth of, 198-202, 230-246.
localization of, 33.
manufacturing. (See Manufacturing.)
relation between chemistry and, 341-351.
soda, 344-346.
specialization of, 32, 33.
textile, 247-262.

INSURANCE--
against sickness and old age, 100.
compulsory accident, 99, 100.

IRON--
processes of making, 198-201, 235-246.

IRRIGATION, 10, 11.

LABOR--
American Federation of, 70.
and capital, bridge between (article), 380-383.
child, 80, 86-89.
division of, 32, 33.
Knights of, 70.
legislation, purpose of, 68.
organizations, 68-77.
previous systems of, compared with modern wage system, 64.
sale of, peculiarities of, 66, 67.
woman, 80-86.

LEGISLATION--
factory, 97.
labor, purpose of, 68.
of child labor, 87-89.

LIBERTY--
industrial, 5.
natural, theory of, 166.

LIVE STOCK--
production of, in U. S., 16.

LUXURY--
attitudes toward, 132-134.
socialization of, 135.

MACHINERY--
evils of, 101-106.
in iron and steel industry, 196-201.
in textile industry, 196.

MACHINES--
carding, 256.
early forms of, 193-196.

MANOR--
English, 1-3.
characteristics of, 2, 3.

MANUFACTURES--
census of, 207-211.
why misleading in U. S., 207, 211, 268.
concentration of, 33, 34.
exported from U. S., 269-272.
growth of, 30, 205-214.
growth of investment in, 218-222.
statistics of, 229-321.

MANUFACTURING--
application of electricity to, 190-192.
application of steam to, 187-189.
areas of the world, 181.
(article), 179-320.
capital in, 214-222.
cotton, 247-262.
establishments, 219-222, 233.
growth of, 205-214.
growth of investment in, 218-222.
industries of the U. S., 263-288.
machinery in, 193-203.
statistics of, 229-321.
systems of the world, 185-192.

MARINE--
merchant, 152-154.

MONEY--
government paper, 140, 141.
kinds of, in U. S., 141, 217.
value of, how determined, 137, 138.

MOVEMENT--
trust, 42.

OPERATIONS--
change in, opposition to, 372.
shop, efficiency in, (article), 370-379.

ORGANIZATIONS--
forms of, 223-225.
labor, 68-77.
growth of, 69.
objects and methods of, 71-77.

PARTNERSHIP, 41.

PENSIONS--
old-age, danger in, 387.

PILES--
bearing, 327.
sheet, 327.

POLICY--
land, of U. S., 9, 10.

POOLS, 40, 223.

POPULATION--
agricultural, decline in, 12, 13.

POWER--
water, of U. S., 27, 28.

POWER PLANT--
producer-gas, 352-369.
conditions favorable to, in U. S., 368, 369.
location of European, 366-368.
number and class of, 363.
relation of, to conservation of fuel resources, 352-369.
relative results of steam plant and, 356-363.

PRODUCTION--
capitalistic, 6, 29-39.
concentration of, 34.
large-scale, 35-37.
economics of, 35, 36.
peculiar to trusts, 44.
industrial effects of, 37.
in manufacturing, 36.
in retail trade, 37.
social effects of, 38.
of cotton, 291.
of cotton in U. S., 17, 304.
pig-iron, 230, 231.

PROFITS--
of promoters, 45.

PROFIT SHARING--
defined, 110.
economic theory of, 111.
methods of, 110, 111.
objections against, 111, 113.
origin of, 113.
purpose of, 110.

PROPERTY--
private, 3, 4.

PROTECTION--
arguments in support of, 160-162.

RAILROADS--
public nature of, 148.
public ownership of, 149.
rates, 147.

RATES--
railroad, 147.

REGULATION--
legislative, of trust evils, 50, 51.

RESOURCES--
agricultural, of U. S., 9-19.
forest, destruction of, 18.
mineral, of U. S., 19-29.
alarming condition of, 20-22.

REVENUE--
sources of, 157-159.

REVOLUTION--
industrial, 5, 6.

ROTATION--
three-year, 2.

SAVING--
relation of, to spending, 129, 130.
why necessary, 131.

SERVICE--
Forest, work of, 18.

SOCIALISM--
as a scheme of distribution, 170.
defined, 167, 168.
difficulties of establishing, 169.
state, 167.

SOCIETY--
industrial, 1-8.
Rochdale, 115.

SPECULATION, 51-55.

SPECULATOR--
social value of, 53.

SPENDING--
relation of, to saving, 129, 130.

SPINNING JENNY, 196, 255.

STANDARDIZATION--
system of, 38.

STANDARD OIL TRUST--
when formed, 42.

STATE--
as a regulator of industry, 7, 8.
culture, theory, 167.
ownership, 171, 172.

STATISTICS--
accidents in German industries traceable to different causes, 97.
cause of idleness, members of trade unions (1900), 93.
cause of poverty, 92.
course of wages during 19th century, 173.
expenditures for different purposes in different places, 128.
growth of manufactures in 19th century, 30.
hand and machine methods compared, 103.
industrial and commercial gas trusts in U. S., (1860-1900), 42, 43.
of commerce in U. S., 308, 309.
of manufactures, 229-321.
annual value of, 289.
capital invested, 313, 314.
exportation of, 291.
importation of, 289.
summary of, in U. S., 299.
value of products of, 318-321.
wage-earners employed (1900), 315.
of population engaged in manufacturing in U. S., 310.

STEEL--
and concrete (article), 322-340.
as material of construction, 322.
re-inforcement, styles of, 324-326.

STRIKE--
defined, 78.
losses from, in U. S., 78.

SYSTEM--
canal, 151, 152.
domestic, 7.
factory,
beneficial results of, 60, 61.
development of, 203-214.
in England, 214.
in U. S., 205, 206.
evils of early, 80, 101-106.
origin of, 185.
independent treasury, 144.
industrial, modern, 1-8.
characteristics of, 3.
of interchangeable parts, 38, 39.
of standardization, 38.
three-field, 2.
wage, modern, 60-68.

TAX--
defined, 154.
general property, 158.
inheritance, 159.

TAXATION--
powers of, 154.
problems of, 155, 156.
rules of, 154, 155.

TEXTILES--
described, 251, 252.
manufacturing of, 247-262.

TRADE UNIONS--
local, 69.
national, 69.
object and methods of, 71-77.

TRANSPORTATION, 145-154.
inland water, 151.
ocean water, 151.

TRUSTS--
advantages of, 225.
and combinations, 222-230.
defined, 216.
economics of production peculiar to, 44.
effects of,
upon competitors, 46.
upon consumers, 48, 226.
upon labor, 47.
upon opportunity, 49.
upon wages, 226.
evils of, remedied by legislative regulation, 50, 51.
industrial and gas, organized in U. S. (1860-1900), 42, 43.
reasons for growth of, 43, 45, 46.

UNEMPLOYED--
classified, 91.
the (article), 384-402.

UNEMPLOYMENT--
a permanent problem, 95.
cause of, 91-95, 384-386.
extent of, 90.
remedies for, 95, 387-390, 393-401.

WAGES--
iron law of, 124.

WATER FRAME, 256.

WEALTH--
functional distribution of, 119-121.
personal distribution of, 120, 125-127.

WOMEN--
at work, 80-86.
economic position of, 84.

* * * * * *

Transcriber’s note:

Obvious printing errors, such as backwards, upside down, or partially printed letters, were corrected. The last two lines of the Table of Contents, printed in reverse order, were corrected. Final stops unprinted at the end of sentences were added.

Dialect, obsolete and alternative spellings were left unchanged. Pittsburgh (PA) is spelled without the final “h” throughout the book. Omitted words were not added to the text.

Footnotes in the text were renumbered sequentially and moved to the end of the article in which the anchor occurs. Footnotes within tables were changed to letters and were moved to follow the table in which the anchor occurs. In some tables, a footnote may have more than one anchor.

Wide tables were split for easier viewing on small screens.

The following items were changed:

‘Bimettalism’ to ‘Bimetallism’ in the Table of Contents, XV
added space between ‘Ph. D.’ for Ernest Ludlow Bogard byline, page 1
‘whch’ to ‘which’ …by which iron and steel…, page 201
‘1880’ to ‘1800’ …ten times as much as in 1800…, page 231
‘hamp’ to ‘hemp’ …flax, hemp and jute…, page 251
‘million’ to ‘millions’ …and 1908, 99 millions…, page 276
‘manfactures’ to ‘manufactures’ …was manufactures ready…, page 281
‘guns’ to ‘gums’ …the oils, gums and resins,… page 341
‘ultilitarianism’ to ‘utilitarianism’ …The utilitarianism of…, pg 342
‘guns’ to ‘gums’ …of gums; of sugar and…, pg 343
‘grinding’ to ‘guiding’ …also the guiding spirit…, page 346
‘lead’ to ‘led’ …has led the way…, page 349
‘notions’ to ‘notion’ …democratic notion of…, page 399
‘lead’ to ‘led’ …science has led the way…, page 419
added comma to index entry: STRIKES losses from, in U. S., 78.