Chapter X: Part 10

AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDME ARMAND GASTON, DUC D' (1823-1905), French statesman, was the grand-nephew and adopted son of Baron Etienne Denis Pasquier. He was created duke in 1844, and became auditor at the council of state in 1846. After the revolution of 1848 he retired to private life. Under the empire he was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the legislature, but was elected in February 1871 to the National Assembly, and became president of the right centre in 1873. After the fall of Thiers, he directed the negotiations between the different royalist parties to establish a king in France, but as he refused to give up the tricolour for the flag of the old _regime_, the project failed. Yet he retained the confidence of the chamber, and was its president in 1875 when the constitutional laws were being drawn up. Nominated senator under the new constitution, he likewise was president of the senate from March 1876 to 1879 when his party lost the majority. Henceforth he was less prominent in politics. He was distinguished by his moderation and uprightness; and he did his best to dissuade MacMahon from taking violent advisers. In 1878 he was elected to the French Academy, but never published anything.

AUDIT and AUDITOR. An audit is the examination of the accounts kept by the financial officers of a state, public corporations and bodies, or private persons, and the certifying of their accuracy. In the United Kingdom the public accounts were audited from very early times, though, until the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in no very systematic way. Prior to 1559 this duty was carried out, sometimes by auditors specially appointed, at other times by the auditors of the land revenue, or by the auditor of the exchequer, an office established as early as 1314. But in 1559 an endeavour was made to systematize the auditing of the public accounts, by the appointment of two auditors of the imprests. These officers were paid by fee and did their work by deputy, but as the results were thoroughly unsatisfactory the offices were abolished in 1785. An audit board, consisting of five commissioners, was appointed in their place, but in order to concentrate under one authority the auditing of the accounts of the various departments, some of which had been audited separately, as the naval accounts, the Exchequer and Audit Act of 1866 was passed. This statute, which sets forth at length the duties of the audit office, empowered the sovereign to appoint a "comptroller and auditor-general," with the requisite staff to examine and verify the accounts prepared by the different departments of the public service. In examining accounts of the appropriation of the several supply grants, the comptroller and auditor-general "ascertains first whether the payments which the account department has charged to the grant are supported by vouchers or proofs of payments; and second, whether the money expended has been applied to the purpose or purposes for which such grant was intended to provide." The treasury may also submit certain other accounts to the audit of the comptroller-general. All public moneys payable to the exchequer (q.v.) are paid to the "account of His Majesty's exchequer" at the Bank of England, and daily returns of such payments are forwarded to the comptroller. Quarterly accounts of the income and charge of the consolidated fund are prepared and transmitted to him, and in case of any deficiency in the consolidated fund, he may certify to the bank to make advances.

In the United States the auditing of the Federal accounts is in the charge of the treasury department, under the supervision of the comptroller of the treasury, under whom are six auditors, (1) for the treasury department, (2) for the war, (3) for the interior, (4) for the navy, (5) for the state, &c., (6) for the post office, as well as a register and assistant register, who keep all general receipt and expenditure ledgers; there are official auditors in most of the states and in many cities. In practically all European countries there is a department of the administration, charged with the auditing of the public accounts, as the _cour des comptes_ in France, the _Rechnungshof des deutschen Reiches_ in Germany, &c. All local boards, large cities, corporations, and other bodies have official auditors for the purpose of examining and checking their accounts and looking after their expenditure. So far as regards the work which auditors discharge in connexion with the accounts of joint-stock companies, building societies, friendly societies, industrial and provident societies, savings banks, &c., the word auditor is now almost synonymous with "skilled accountant," and his duties are discussed in the article ACCOUNTANTS.

In Scotland there is an "auditor" who is an official of the court of session, appointed to tax costs in litigation, and who corresponds to the English taxing-master. In France there are legal officers, called auditors, attached to the _Conseil d'Etat_, whose duties consist in drawing up briefs and preparing documents. On the continent of Europe, lawyers skilled in military law are called "auditors" (see MILITARY LAW).

Auditor is also the designation of certain officials of the Roman curia. The _auditores Rotae_ are the judges of the court of the Rota (so called, according to Hinschius, probably from the form of the panelling in the room where they originally met). These were originally ecclesiastics appointed to _hear_ particular questions in dispute and report to the pope, who retained the decision in his own hands. In the _Speculum juris_ of Durandus (published in 1272 and re-edited in 1287 and 1291) the _auditores palatii domini papae_ are cited as permanent officials appointed to instruct the pope on questions as they arose. The court of the Rota appears for the first time under this name in the bull _Romani Pontificis_ of Martin V. in 1422, and the auditores by this time had developed into a permanent tribunal to which the definitive decision of certain disputes, hitherto relegated to a commission of cardinals or to the pope himself, was assigned. From this time the powers of the auditores increased until the reform of the curia by Sixtus V., when the creation of the congregations of cardinals for specific purposes tended gradually to withdraw from the Rota its most important functions. It still, however, ranks as the supreme court of justice in the papal curia, and, as members of it, the auditores enjoy special privileges. They are prelates, and, besides the rights enjoyed by these, have others conceded by successive popes, e.g. that of holding benefices in plurality, of non-residence, &c. When the pope says mass pontifically the subdeacon is always an auditor. The auditores must be in priest's or deacon's orders, and have always been selected--nominally at least--after severe tests as to their moral and intellectual qualifications. They are twelve in number, and, by the constitution of Pius IV., four of them were to be foreigners; one French, one Spanish, one German and one Venetian; while the nomination of others was the privilege of certain, cities. No bishop, unless _in partibus_ (see BISHOP), may be an auditor. On the other hand, from the auditores, as the intellectual _elite_ of the curia, the episcopate, the nunciature and the cardinalate are largely recruited. The _auditor camerae_ (_uditore generale della reverenda camera apostolica_) is an official formerly charged with important executive functions. In 1485, by a bull of Innocent VIII., he was given extensive jurisdiction over all civil and criminal causes arising in the curia, or appealed to it from the papal territories. In addition he received the function of watching over the execution of all sentences passed by the curia. This was extended later, by Pius IV., to a similar executive function in respect of all papal bulls and briefs, wherever no special executor was named. This right was confirmed by Gregory XVI. in 1834, and the auditor may still in principle issue letters monitory. In practice, however, this function was at all times but rarely exercised, and, since 1847, has fallen to a prelate _locum tenens_, who also took over the auditor's jurisdiction in the papal states (Hinschius, _Kathol. Kirchenrecht_, i. 409, &c.).

_Auditores_ (listeners), in the early Church, was another name. for catechumens (q.v.).

AUDLEY, or AUDELEY, SIR JAMES (c. 1316-1386), one of the original knights, or founders, of the order of the Garter, was the eldest son of Sir James Audley of Stratton Audley in Oxfordshire. When the order of the Garter was founded, he was instituted as one of the first founders, and his stall in St George's chapel, Windsor, was the eleventh on the side of Edward, the Black Prince. He appears to have served in France in 1346, and in August 1350 took part in the naval fight off Sluys. When hostilities were renewed between England and France in 1354 Sir James was in constant attendance upon the Black Prince, and earned a great reputation for valour. At the battle of Poitiers on the 19th of September 1356 he took his stand in front of the English army, and after fighting for a long time was severely wounded and carried from the fight. After the victory, the prince inquired for Sir James, who was brought to the royal tent, where Edward told him he had been the bravest knight on his side, and granted him an annuity of five hundred marks. Sir James made over this gift to the four esquires who had attended him during the battle, and received from the prince a further pension of six hundred marks. In 1359 he was one of the leaders of an expedition into France, in 1360 he took the fortress of Chaven in Brittany, and was present at Calais when peace was made between England and France in October 1360. He was afterwards governor of Aquitaine and great seneschal of Poitou, and took part in the capture of the town of La Roche-sur-Yon by Edmund, earl of Cambridge. He died in 1386 at Fontenay-le-Comte, where he had gone to reside, and was buried at Poitiers.

See Jean Froissart, _Chronigues_, translated by T. Johnes (Hafod,
1810); G.F. Beltz, _Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter_
(London, 1841).

AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY, BARON (c. 1488-1544), lord chancellor of England, whose parentage is unknown, is believed to have studied at Buckingham College, Cambridge. He was educated for the law, entered the Middle Temple (becoming autumn reader in 1526), was town clerk of Colchester, and was on the commission of the peace for Essex in 1521. In 1523 he was returned to parliament for Essex, and represented this constituency in subsequent parliaments. In 1527 he was groom of the chamber, and became a member of Wolsey's household. On the fall of the latter in 1529, he was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and the same year speaker of the House of Commons, presiding over the famous assembly styled the Black or Long Parliament of the Reformation, which abolished the papal jurisdiction. The same year he headed a deputation of the Commons to the king to complain of Bishop Fisher's speech against their proceedings. He interpreted the king's "moral" scruples to parliament concerning his marriage with Catherine, and made himself the instrument of the king in the attack upon the clergy and the preparation of the act of supremacy. In 1531 he had been made a serjeant-at-law and king's serjeant; and on the 20th of May 1532 he was knighted, and succeeded Sir Thomas More as lord keeper of the great seal, being appointed lord chancellor on the 26th of January 1533. He supported the king's divorce from Catherine and the marriage with Anne Boleyn; and presided at the trial of Fisher and More in 1535, at which his conduct and evident intention to secure a conviction has been generally censured. Next year he tried Anne Boleyn and her lovers, was present on the scaffold at the unfortunate queen's execution, and recommended to parliament the new act of succession. In 1537 he condemned to death as traitors the Lincolnshire and the Yorkshire rebels. On the 29th of November 1538 he was created Baron Audley of Walden; and soon afterwards presided as lord steward at the trials of Henry Pole, Lord Montacute, and of the unfortunate marquess of Exeter. In 1539, though inclining himself to the Reformation, he made himself the king's instrument in enforcing religious conformity, and in the passing of the Six Articles Act. On the 24th of April 1540 he was made a knight of the Garter, and subsequently managed the attainder of Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, and the dissolution of Henry's marriage with Anne of Cleves. In 1542 he warmly supported the privileges of the Commons in the case of George Ferrers, member for Plymouth, arrested and imprisoned in London, but his conduct was inspired as usual by subservience to the court, which desired to secure a subsidy, and his opinion that the arrest was a flagrant contempt has been questioned by good authority. He resigned the great seal on the 21st of April 1544, and died on the 30th, being buried at Saffron Walden, where he had prepared for himself a splendid tomb. He received several grants of monastic estates, including the priory of Christ Church in London and the abbey of Walden in Essex, where his grandson, Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, built Audley End, doubtless named after him. In 1542 he re-endowed and re-established Buckingham College, Cambridge, under the new name of St Mary Magdalene, and ordained in the statutes that his heirs, "the possessors of the late monastery of Walden," should be visitors of the college _in perpetuum_. _A Book of Orders for the Warre both by Sea and Land_ (Harleian MS. 297, f. 144) is attributed to his authorship. He married (1) Christina, daughter of Sir Thomas Barnardiston, and (2) Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Grey, marquess of Dorset, by whom he had two daughters. His barony became extinct at his death.

AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR (1797-1841), French naturalist, was born at Paris on the 27th of April 1797. He began the study of law, but was diverted from it by his strong predilection for natural history, and entered the medical profession. In 1824 he was appointed assistant to P.A. Latreille (1762-1833) in the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural history, and succeeded him in 1833. In 1838 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. He died in Paris on the 9th of November 1841. His principal work, _Histoire des insectes nuisibles a la vigne_ (1842), was completed after his death by Henry Milne-Edwards and Emile Blanchard. His papers mostly appeared in the _Annales des sciences naturelles_, which, with A.T. Brongniart and J.B.A. Dumas, he founded in 1824, and in the proceedings of the Societe Entomologique de France, of which he was one of the founders in 1832.

AUDRAN, the name of a family of French artists and engravers. The first who devoted himself to the art of engraving was Claude Audran, born 1597, and the last was Benoit, Claude's great-grandson, who died in 1772. The two most distinguished members of the family are Gerard and Jean.

GERARD, or GIRARD, AUDRAN, the most celebrated French engraver, was the third son of Claude Audran, and was born at Lyons in 1640. He was taught the first principles of design and engraving by his father; and, following the example of his brother, went to Paris to perfect himself in his art. He there, in 1666, engraved for Le Brun "Constantine's Battle with Maxentius," his "Triumph," and the "Stoning of Stephen," which gave great satisfaction to the painter, and placed Audran in the very first rank of engravers at Paris. Next year he set out for Rome, where he resided three years, and engraved several fine plates. That great patron of the arts, J.B. Colbert, was so struck with the beauty of Audran's works, that he persuaded Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On his return he applied himself assiduously to engraving, and was appointed engraver to the king, from whom he received great encouragement. In the year 1681 he was admitted to the council of the Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings of Le Brun's "Battles of Alexander" are regarded as the best of his numerous works. "He was," says the Abbe Fontenay, "the most celebrated engraver that ever existed in the historical line. We have several subjects, which he engraved from his own designs, that manifested as much taste as character and facility. But in the 'Battles of Alexander' he surpassed even the expectations of Le Brun himself." Gerard published in 1683 a work entitled _Les Proportions du corps humain mesurees sur les plus belles figures de l'antiquite_.

JEAN AUDRAN, nephew of Gerard, was born at Lyons in 1667. After having received instructions from his father, he went to Paris to perfect himself in the art of engraving under his uncle, next to whom he was the most distinguished member of his family. At the age of twenty his genius began to display itself in a surprising manner; and his subsequent success was such, that in 1707 he obtained the title of engraver to the king, Louis XIV., who allowed him a pension, with apartments in the Gobelins; and the following year he was made a member of the Royal Academy. He was eighty years of age before he quitted the graver, and nearly ninety when he died. The best prints of this artist are those which appear not so pleasing to the eye at first sight. In these the etching constitutes a great part; and he has finished them in a bold, rough style. The "Rape of the Sabines," after Poussin, is considered his masterpiece.

AUDRAN, EDMOND (1842-1901), French musical composer, was born at Lyons on the 11th of April 1842. He studied music at the Ecole Niedermeyer, where he won the prize for composition in 1859. Two years later he accepted the post of organist of the church of St Joseph at Marseilles. He made his first appearance as a dramatic composer at Marseilles with _L'Ours et le Pacha_ (1862), a musical version of one of Scribe's vaudevilles. This was followed by _La Chercheuse d'Esprit_ (1864), a comic opera, also produced at Marseilles. Audran wrote a funeral march on the death of Meyerbeer, which was performed with some success, and made various attempts to win fame as a writer of sacred music. He produced a mass (Marseilles, 1873), an oratorio, _La Sulamite_ (Marseilles, 1876), and numerous minor works, but he is known almost entirely as a composer of the lighter forms of opera. His first Parisian success was made with _Les Noces d'Olivette_ (1879), a work which speedily found its way to London and (as _Olivette_) ran for more than a year at the Strand theatre (1880-1881). Audran's music has, in fact, met with as much favour in England as in France, and all save a few of his works have been given in a more or less adapted form in London theatres. Besides those already mentioned, the following have been the most undeniably successful of Audran's many comic operas: _Le Grand Mogol_ (Marseilles, 1876; Paris, 1884; London, as _The Grand Mogul_, 1884), _La Mascotte_ (Paris, 1880; London, as _The Mascotte_, 1881), _Gillette de Narbonne_ (Paris, 1882; London, as _Gillette_, 1883), _La Cigale et la Fourmi_ (Paris, 1886; London, as _La Cigale_, 1890), _Miss Helyett_ (Paris, 1890; London, as _Miss Decima_ 1891), _La Poupee_ (Paris, 1896; London, 1897). Audran was one of the best of the successors of Offenbach. He had little of Offenbach's humour, but his music is distinguished by an elegance and a refinement of manner which lift it above the level of opera bouffe to the confines of genuine opera comique. He was a fertile if not a very original melodist, and his orchestration is full of variety, without being obtrusive or vulgar. Many of his operas, _La Mascotte_ in particular, reveal a degree of musicianship which is rarely associated with the ephemeral productions of the lighter stage. He died in Paris on the 16th of August 1901.

AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D' (c. 1305-1370), French soldier, was born at Audrehem, in the present department of Pas de Calais, near St Omer. Nothing is known of his career before 1332, when he is heard of at the court of the king of France. Between 1335 and 1342 he went three times to Scotland to aid King David Bruce in his wars. In 1342 he became captain for the king of France in Brittany; then he seems to have served in the household of the duke of Normandy, and in 1346, as one of the main defenders of Calais, was taken as a prisoner to England by Edward III. From 1349 he holds an important place in the military history of France, first as captain in Angouleme, and from June 1351, in succession to the lord of Beaujeu, as marshal of France. In March 1352 he was appointed lieutenant for the king in the territory between the Loire and the Dordogne, in June 1353 in Normandy, and in 1355 in Artois, Picardy and the Boulonnais. It was Audrehem who arrested Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, and his partisans, at the banquet given by the dauphin at Rouen in 1356. At Poitiers he was one of those who advised King John to attack the English, and, charging in the front line of the French army, was slightly wounded and taken prisoner. From England he was several times given safe-conducts to France, and he took an active part in the negotiations for the treaty of Bretigny, recovering his liberty the same time as King John. In 1361, as the king's lieutenant in Languedoc, he prevented the free companies from seizing the castles, and negotiated the treaty with their chiefs under which they followed Henry, count of Trastamara (later Henry II. of Castile), into Spain. In 1365 he himself joined du Guesclin in the expedition to Spain, was taken prisoner with him by the Black Prince at the battle of Najera (1367), and was unable to pay his ransom until 1369. In 1368, on account of his age, he was relieved of the office of marshal, being appointed bearer of the oriflamme, with a pension of 2000 livres. He was sent to Spain in 1370 by Charles V., to urge his friend du Guesclin to return to France, and in spite of his age he took part in the battle of Pontvallain (December 1370), but fell ill and died, probably at Saumur, in the latter part of December 1370.

See Emile Molinier, "Etude sur la vie d'Arnoul d'Audrehem, marechal de
France," in _Memoires presentes par divers savants a l'academie des
inscriptions et belles-lettres_, 2^e serie, iv. (1883).

AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES (1780-1851), American naturalist, is said to have been born on the 5th of May 1780 in Louisiana, his father being a French naval officer and his mother a Spanish Creole. He was educated in Paris, where he had lessons from the painter, J.L. David. Returning to America in 1798 he settled on a farm near Philadelphia, and gave himself up to the study of natural history, and especially to drawing birds. In 1826 he went to England in the hope of getting his drawings published, and by the following year he had obtained sufficient subscribers to enable him to begin the publication of his _Birds of America_, which on its completion in 1838 consisted of 435 coloured plates, containing 1055 figures of birds the size of life. Cuvier called it "le plus magnifique monument que l'art ait encore eleve a la nature." The descriptive matter to accompany the plates appeared at Edinburgh in 5 vols. from 1831 to 1839 under the title of _American Ornithological Biography._ During the publication of these works Audubon divided his time between Great Britain and America, devoting his leisure to expeditions to various parts of the United States and Canada for the purpose of collecting new material. In 1842 he bought an estate on the Hudson, now Audubon Park in New York City. In 1844 he published in America a popular octavo edition of his _Birds of America._ He also took up the preparation of a new work, _The Quadrupeds of America_, with the collaboration of John Bachman, the publication of which was begun in New York in 1846 and finished in 1853-1854. He died at New York on the 27th of January 1851.

See ORNITHOLOGY; also _Audubon and his Journals_ (1897), by his
grand-daughter Maria R. Audubon, with notes by Elliot Coues.

AUE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, at the confluence of the Mulde and Schwarzwasser, 21 m. S.W. from Chemnitz on the railway to Adorf. It has a school of lace-making, foundries, and manufactures of machinery, tin-plate and cotton goods. Pop. (1905) 17,102.

AUERBACH, BERTHOLD (1812-1882), German novelist, was born on the 28th of February 1812 at Nordstetten in the Wurttemberg Black Forest. His parents were Jews, and he was intended for the ministry; but after studying philosophy at Tubingen, Munich and Heidelberg, and becoming estranged from Jewish orthodoxy by the study of Spinoza, he devoted himself to literature. He made a fortunate beginning in a romance on the life of Spinoza (1837), so interesting in itself, and so close in its adherence to fact, that it may be read with equal advantage as a novel or as a biography. _Dichter und Kaufmann_ followed in 1839, and a translation of Spinoza's works in 1841, when Auerbach turned to the class of fiction which has made him famous, the _Schwarzwalder Dorfgeschichten_ (1843), stories of peasant life in the Black Forest. In these, as well as in _Barfussele_ (1856), _Edelweiss_ (1861), and other novels of greater compass, he depicts the life of the south German peasant as "Jeremias Gotthelf" (Albrecht Bitzius) had painted the peasantry of Switzerland, but in a less realistic spirit. When this vein was exhausted Auerbach returned to his first phase as a philosophical novelist, producing _Auf der Hohe_ (1865), _Das Landhaus am Rhein_ (1869), and other romances of profound speculative tendencies, turning on plots invented by himself. With the exception of _Auf der Hohe_, these works did not enjoy much popularity, and suffer from lack of form and concentration. Auerbach's fame continues to rest upon his _Dorfgeschichten_, although the celebrity of even these has been impaired by the growing demand for a more uncompromising realism. Auerbach died at Cannes on the 8th of February 1882.

The first collected edition of Auerbach's _Schriften_ appeared in 22
vols. in 1863-1864; the best edition is in 18 vols. (1892-1895).
Auerbach's _Briefe an seinen Freund J. Auerbach_ (with a preface by F.
Spielhagen) were published in 2 vols. (1884). See E. Zabel, _B.
Auerbach_ (1882); and E. Lasker, _B. Auerbach, ein Gedenkblatt_
(1882).

AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER, GRAF VON (1806-1876), Austrian poet, who wrote under the pseudonym of ANASTASIUS GRUN, was born on the 11th of April 1806, at Laibach, the capital of the Austrian duchy of Carniola, and was head of the Thurn-am-Hart branch of the Carniolan cadet line of the house of Auersperg. He received his university education first at Graz and then at Vienna, where he studied jurisprudence. In 1830 he succeeded to his ancestral property, and in 1832 appeared as a member of the estates of Carniola on the _Herrenbank_ of the diet at Laibach. Here he distinguished himself by his outspoken criticism of the Austrian government, leading the opposition of the duchy to the exactions of the central power. In 1832 the title of "imperial chamberlain" was conferred upon him, and in 1839 he married Maria, daughter of Count Attems. After the revolution of 1848 at Vienna he represented the district of Laibach at the German national assembly at Frankfort-on-the-Main, to which he tried in vain to persuade his Slovene compatriots to send representatives. After a few months, however, disgusted with the violent development of the revolution, he resigned his seat, and again retired into private life. In 1860 he was summoned to the remodelled _Reichsrat_ by the emperor, who next year nominated him a life member of the Austrian upper house (_Herrenhaus_), where, while remaining a keen upholder of the German centralized empire, as against the federalism of Slavs and Magyars, he greatly distinguished himself as one of the most intrepid and influential supporters of the cause of liberalism, in both political and religious matters, until his death at Graz on the 12th of September 1876.

Count Auersperg's first publication, a collection of lyrics, _Blatter der Liebe_ (1830), showed little originality; but his second production, _Der letzte Ritter_ (1830), brought his genius to light. It celebrates the deeds and adventures of the emperor Maximilian I. (1493-1519) in a cycle of poems written in the strophic form of the _Nibelungenlied_. But Auersperg's fame rests almost exclusively on his political poetry; two collections entitled _Spaziergange eines Wiener Poeten_ (1831) and _Schutt_ (1835) created a sensation in Germany by their originality and bold liberalism. These two books, which are remarkable not merely for their outspoken opinions, but also for their easy versification and powerful imagery, were the forerunners of the German political poetry of 1840-1848. His _Gedichte_ (1837), if anything, increased his reputation; his epics, _Die Nibelungen im Frack_ (1843) and _Der Pfaff vom Kahlenberg_ (1850), are characterized by a fine ironic humour. He also produced masterly translations of the popular Slovenic songs current in Carniola (_Volkslieder aus Krain_, 1850), and of the English poems relating to "Robin Hood" (1864).

Anastasius Grun's _Gesammelte Werke_ were published by L.A. Frankl in
5 vols. (Berlin, 1877); his _Briefwechsel mit L.A. Frankl_ (Berlin,
1897). A selection of his _Politische Reden und Schriften_ has been
published by S. Hock (Vienna, 1906). See P. von Radics, _Anastasius
Grun_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1879).

AUFIDENA, an ancient city of the Samnites Caraceni, the site of which is just north of the modern Alfedena,[1] Italy, a station on the railway between Sulmona and Isernia, 37 m. from the latter. Its remains are fully and accurately described by L. Mariani in _Monumenti dei Lincei_ (1901), 225 seq.: cf. _Notizie degli scavi_, 1901, 442 seq.; 1902, 516 seq. The ancient city occupied two hills, both over 3800 ft. above sea-level (in the valley between were found the supposed remains of the later forum), and the walls, of rough Cyclopean work, were over a mile in length. A fortified outpost lay on a still higher hill to the north. Not very much is as yet known of the city itself (though one public building of the 5th century B.C. was excavated in 1901, and a small sanctuary in 1902), attention having been chiefly devoted to the necropolis which lay below it; 1400 tombs had already been examined in 1908, though this number is conjectured to be only a sixteenth of the whole. They are all inhumation burials, of the advanced iron age, and date from the 7th to the 4th century B.C., falling into three classes--those without coffin, those with a coffin formed of stone slabs, and those with a coffin formed of tiles. The objects discovered are preserved in a museum on the spot. In the Roman period we find Aufidena figuring as a post station on the road between Sulmo and Aesernia, which, however, runs past Castel di Sangro, crossing the river by an ancient bridge some 5 m. to the north-east. Castel di Sangro has remains of ancient walls, but these are attributed to a road by Mariani, and in any case the fortified area there was quite small, only one-sixteenth the size of Aufidena. The attempted identification of Castel di Sangro with Aufidena must therefore be rejected, though we must allow that it was probably the Roman post station; the ancient city, since its capture by the Romans in the 3rd century B.C., having lost something of its importance. (T. As.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Two churches here contain paintings of interest in the history of
Abruzzese art, and one of them, the Madonna del Campo, contained
fragments of a temple of considerable size.

AUGEAS, or AUGEIAS, in Greek legend, a son of Helios, the sun-god, and king of the Epeians in Elis. He possessed an immense wealth of herds, including twelve bulls sacred to Helios, and white as swans. Eurystheus imposed upon Heracles the task of clearing out all his stalls unaided in one day. This he did by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through them. Augeas had promised him a tenth of the herd, but refused this, alleging that Heracles had acted only in the service of Eurystheus. Heracles thereupon sent an army against him, and, though at first defeated, finally slew Augeas and his sons.

Apollodorus ii. 5, 7; Pindar, _Olympia_, xi, 24; Diodorus iv. 13;
Theocritus, _Idyll_ 25.

AUGER (from the O. Eng. _nafu-gar_, nave-borer; the original initial n having been lost, as in "adder," through a confusion in the case of a preceding indefinite article), a tool for boring (q.v.) or drilling.

AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANCOIS CHARLES, duke of Castiglione (1757-1816), marshal of France, was born in Paris in a humble station of life. At the age of seventeen he enlisted in the carabineers and thereafter came into note as a duellist. Having drawn his sword upon an officer who insulted him, he fled from France and roamed about in the Levant. He served in the Russian army against the Turks; but afterwards escaped into Prussia and enlisted in the guards. Tiring of this, he deserted with several others and reached the Saxon frontier. Service in the Neapolitan army and a sojourn in Portugal filled up the years 1788-1791; but the events of the French Revolution brought him back to his native land. He served with credit against the Vendeans and then joined the troops opposing the Spaniards in the south. There he rose rapidly, becoming general of division on the 23rd of December 1793. His division distinguished itself even more when transferred to the army of Italy; and under Bonaparte he was largely instrumental in gaining the battle of Millesimo and in taking the castle of Cosseria and the camp of Ceva. At the battle of Lodi (May 10, 1796), the turning movement of Augereau and his division helped to decide the day. But it was at Castiglione that he rendered the most signal services. Marbot describes him as encouraging even Bonaparte himself in the confused situation that prevailed before that battle, and, though this is exaggerated, there is no doubt that Augereau largely decided the fortunes of those critical days. Bonaparte thus summed up his military qualities: "Has plenty of character, courage, firmness, activity; is inured to war; is well liked by the soldiery; is fortunate in his operations." In 1797 Bonaparte sent him to Paris to encourage the Jacobinical Directors, and it was Augereau and the troops led by him that coerced the "moderates" in the councils and carried through the _coup d'etat_ of 18 Fructidor (4th of September) 1797. He was then sent to lead the united French forces in Germany; but peace speedily ensued; and he bore a grudge against the Directors and Bonaparte for their treatment of him at that time. He took no part in the _coup d'etat_ of Brumaire 1799, and did not distinguish himself in the Rhenish campaign which ensued. Nevertheless, owing to his final adhesion to Bonaparte's fortunes, he received a marshal's baton at the beginning of the Empire (May 19, 1804). In the campaign of 1805 he did good service around Constance and Bregenz, and at Jena (October 14, 1806) his corps distinguished itself. Early in 1807 he fell ill of a fever, and at the battle of Eylau he had to be supported on his horse, but directed the movements of his corps with his wonted bravery. His corps was almost annihilated and the marshal himself received a wound from which he never quite recovered. When transferred to Catalonia, he gained some successes but tarnished his name by cruelty. In the campaign of 1812 in Russia and in the Saxon campaign of 1813 his conduct was little more than mediocre. Before the battle of Leipzig (October 16, 18, 19, 1813), Napoleon reproached him with not being the Augereau of Castiglione; to which he replied, "Give me back the old soldiers of Italy, and I will show you that I am." In 1814 he had command of the army of Lyons, and his slackness exposed him to the charge of having come to an understanding with the Austrian invaders. Thereafter he served Louis XVIII., but, after reviling Napoleon, went over to him during the Hundred Days. The emperor repulsed him and charged him with being a traitor to France in 1814. Louis XVIII., when restored to the throne, deprived him of his military title and pension. He died at his estate of La Houssaye on the 12th of June 1816. In person he was tall and commanding, but his loud and vulgar behaviour frequently betrayed the soldier of fortune.

As authorities consult: Kock's _Memoires de Massena_; Bouvier,
_Bonaparte en Italie_; Count A.F. Andreossi, _La Campagne sur le
Mein, 1800-1801_; Baron A. Ducasse, _Precis de la campagne de l'armee
de Lyon en 1814_; and the _Memoirs_ of Marbot. (J. Hl. R.)

AUGHRIM, or AGHRIM, a small village in Co. Galway, Ireland, 4 m. W. by S. of Ballinasloe. It is rendered memorable by the decisive victory gained here on the 12th of July 1691 by the forces of William III. under General Ginkel, over those of James II. under the French general St Ruth, who fell in the fight. The Irish numbering 25,000, and strongly posted behind marshy ground, at first maintained a vigorous resistance; but Ginkel having penetrated their line of defence, and their general being struck down by a cannon ball at this critical moment, they were at length overcome and routed with terrible slaughter. The loss of the English did not exceed 700 killed and 1000 wounded; while the Irish, in their disastrous flight, lost about 7000 men, besides the whole material of the army. This defeat rendered the adherents of James in Ireland incapable of further efforts, and was speedily followed by the complete submission of the country.

AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR EMILE (1820-1889), French dramatist, was born at Valence, Drome, on the 17th of September 1820. He was the grandson of Pigault Lebrun, and belonged to the well-to-do _bourgeoisie_ in principles and in thought as well as by actual birth. He received a good education and studied for the bar. In 1844 he wrote a play in two acts and in verse, _La Cigue_, refused at the Theatre Francais, but produced with considerable success at the Odeon. This settled his career. Thenceforward, at fairly regular intervals, either alone or in collaboration with other writers--Jules Sandeau, Eugene-Marie Labiche, Ed. Foussier--he produced plays which were in their way eventful. _Le Fils de Giboyer_ (1862)--which was regarded as an attack on the clerical party in France, and was only brought out by the direct intervention of the emperor--caused some political excitement. His last comedy, _Les Fourchambault_, belongs to the year 1879. After that date he wrote no more, restrained by an honourable fear of producing inferior work. The Academy had long before, on the 31st of March 1857, elected him to be one of its members. He died in his house at Croissy on the 25th of October 1889. Such, in briefest outline, is the story of a life which Augier himself describes as "without incident"--a life in all senses honourable. Augier, with Dumas _fils_ and Sardou, may be said to have held the French stage during the Second Empire. The man respected himself and his art, and his art on its ethical side--for he did not disdain to be a teacher--has high qualities of rectitude and self-restraint. Uprightness of mind and of heart, generous honesty, as Jules Lemaitre well said, constituted the very soul of all his dramatic work. _L'Aventuriere_ (1848), the first of Augier's important works, already shows a deviation from romantic models; and in the _Mariage d'Olympe_ (1855) the courtesan is shown as she is, not glorified as in Dumas's _Dame aux Camelias_. In _Gabrielle_ (1849) the husband, not the lover, is the sympathetic, poetic character. In the _Lionnes pauvres_ (1858) the wife who sells her favours comes under the lash. Greed of gold, social demoralization, ultramontanism, lust of power, these are satirized in _Les Effrontes_ (1861), _Le Fils de Giboyer_ (1862), _Contagion_, first announced under the title of _Le Baron d'Estrigaud_ (1866), _Lions et renards_ (1869)--which, with _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_ (1854), written in collaboration with Jules Sandeau, reach the high-water mark of Augier's art; in _Philiberte_ (1853) he produced a graceful and delicate drawing-room comedy; and in _Jean de Thommeray_, acted in 1873 after the great reverses of 1870, the regenerating note of patriotism rings high and clear. His last two dramas, _Madame Caverlet_ (1876) and _Les Fourchambault_ (1879), are problem plays. But it would be unfair to suggest that Emile Augier was a preacher only. He was a moralist in the great sense, the sense in which the term can be applied to Moliere and the great dramatists--a moralist because of his large and sane outlook on life. Nor does the interest of his dramas depend on elaborate plot. It springs from character and its evolution. His men and women move as personality, that mysterious factor, dictates. They are real, several of them typical. Augier's first drama, _La Cigue_, belongs to a time (1844) when the romantic drama was on the wane; and his almost exclusively domestic range of subject scarcely lends itself to lyric outbursts of pure poetry. But his verse, if not that of a great poet, has excellent dramatic qualities, while the prose of his prose dramas is admirable for directness, alertness, sinew and a large and effective wit. Perhaps it wanted these qualities to enlist laughter on his side in such a war as he waged against false passion and false sentiment. (F. T. M.)

AUGITE, an important member of the pyroxene (q.v.) group of rock-forming minerals. The name (from [Greek: augae], lustre) has at various times been used in different senses; it is now applied to aluminous pyroxenes of the monoclinic series which are dark-greenish, brownish or black in colour. Like the other pyroxenes it is characterized crystallographically by its distinct cleavages parallel to the prism-faces (M), the angle between which is 87 deg. A typical crystal is represented in fig. 1, whilst fig. 2 shows a crystal twinned on the orthopinacoid (r'). Such crystals, of short prismatic habit and black in colour, are common as phenocrysts in many basalts, and are hence known as "basaltic augite"; when the containing rock weathers to a clayey material the augite is left as black isolated crystals, and such specimens, usually from Bohemia, are represented in all mineral collections. Though typical of basaltic rocks, augite is also an important constituent of many other kinds of igneous rocks, and a rock composed almost wholly of augite is known as augitite. It also occurs in metamorphic rocks; for example, in the crystalline limestones of the Fassathal in Tirol, where the variety known as fassaite is found as pistachio-green crystals resembling epidote in appearance.

Chemically, augite resembles diopside in consisting mainly of CaMgSi2O6, but it contains in addition alumina and ferric iron as (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"')2 SiO6; the acmite (NaFe"'Si2O6,) and jadeite (NaAlSi2O6) molecules are also sometimes present. Variations in the amount of iron in mixtures of these isomorphous molecules are accompanied by variations in the optical characters of the augite. (L. J. S.)

AUGMENT (Lat. _augere_, to increase), in Sanskrit and Greek grammar the vowel prefixed to indicate the past tenses of a verb; in Greek grammar it is called _syllabic_, when only the [epsilon] is prefixed; _temporal_, when it causes an initial vowel in the verb to become a diphthong or long vowel.

AUGMENTATION, or enlargement, a term in heraldry for an addition to a coat of arms; in music, for the imitation in longer notes of an original theme; in biology, an addition to the normal number of parts; in Scots law, an increase of a minister's stipend by an action called "Process of Augmentation." The "Court of Augmentation" in Henry VIII.'s time was established to try cases affecting the suppression of monasteries, and was dissolved in Mary's reign.

AUGSBURG, a city and episcopal see of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, chief town of the district of Swabia. Pop. (1885) 65,905; (1900) 89,109; (1905) 93,882. It lies on a high plateau, 1500 ft. above the sea, between the rivers Wertach and Lech, which unite below the city, 39 m. W.N.W. from Munich, with which, as with Regensburg, Ingolstadt and Ulm, it is connected by main lines of railway. It consists of an upper and a lower town, the old Jakob suburb and various modern suburbs. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1703 and have since been converted into public promenades. Maximilian Street is remarkable for its breadth and architectural beauty. One of its most interesting edifices is the Fugger Haus, of which the entire front is painted in fresco. Among the public buildings of Augsburg most worthy of notice is the town-hall in Renaissance style, one of the finest in Germany, built by Elias Holl in 1616-1620. One of its rooms, called the "Golden Hall," from the profusion of its gilding, is 113 ft. long, 59 broad and 53 high. The palace of the bishops, where the memorable Confession of Faith was presented to Charles V., is now used for government offices. Among the seventeen Reman Catholic churches and chapels, the cathedral, a basilica with two Romanesque towers, dates in its oldest portions from the 10th century. The church of St Ulrich and St Afra, built 1474-1500, is a Late Gothic edifice, with a nave of magnificent proportions and a tower 300 ft. high. The church stands on the spot where the first Christians of the district suffered martyrdom, and where a chapel was erected in the 6th century over the grave of St Afra. There are also a Protestant church, St Anne's, a school of arts, a polytechnic institution, a picture gallery in the former monastery of St Catherine, a museum, observatory, botanical gardens, an exchange, gymnasium, deaf-mute institution, orphan asylum, several remarkable fountains dating from the 16th century, &c. Augsburg is particularly well provided with special and technical schools. The newer buildings, all in the modern west quarter of the city, include law courts, a theatre, and a municipal library with 200,000 volumes. The "Fuggerei," built in 1519 by the brothers Fugger, is a miniature town, with six streets or alleys, three gates and a church, and consists of a hundred and six small houses let to indigent Roman Catholic citizens at a nominal rent. The manufactures of Augsburg are of great importance. It is the chief seat of the textile industry in south Germany, and its cloth, cotton goods and linen manufactories employ about 10,000 hands. It is also noted for its bleach and dye works, its engine works, foundries, paper factories, and production of silk goods, watches, jewelry, mathematical instruments, leather, chemicals, &c. Augsburg is also the centre of the acetylene gas industry of Germany. Copper-engraving, for which it was formerly noted, is no longer carried on; but printing, lithography and publishing have acquired a considerable development, one of the best-known Continental newspapers being the _Allgemeine Zeitung_ or _Augsburg Gazette_. On the opposite side of the river, which is here crossed by a bridge, lies the township of Lechhausen.

Augsburg (the _Augusta Vindelicorum_ of the Romans) derives its name from the Roman emperor Augustus, who, on the conquest of Rhaetia by Drusus, established here a Roman colony about 14 B.C. In the 5th century it was sacked by the Huns, and afterwards came under the power of the Frankish kings. It was almost entirely destroyed in the war of Charlemagne against Tassilo III., duke of Bavaria; and after the dissolution and division of that empire, it fell into the hands of the dukes of Swabia. After this it rose rapidly into importance as a manufacturing and commercial town, becoming, after Nuremberg, the centre of the trade between Italy and the north of Europe; its merchant princes, the Fuggers and Welsers, rivalled the Medici of Florence; but the alterations produced in the currents of trade by the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries occasioned a great decline. In 1276 it was raised to the rank of a free imperial city, which it retained, with many changes in its internal constitution, till 1806, when it was annexed to the kingdom of Bavaria. Meanwhile, it was the scene of numerous events of historical importance. It was besieged and taken by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, and in 1635 it surrendered to the imperial forces; in 1703 it was bombarded by the electoral prince of Bavaria, and forced to pay a contribution of 400,000 dollars; and in the war of 1803 it suffered severely. Of its conventions the most memorable are those which gave birth to the Augsburg confession (1530) and to the Augsburg alliance (1686).

See Wagenseil, _Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg_ (Augs., 1820-1822);
Werner, _Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg_ (1899); Roth, _Augsburg's
Reformationsgeschichte_ (1902).

AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF, the most important Protestant statement of belief drawn up at the Reformation. In summoning a diet for April 1530, Charles V. offered a fair hearing to all religious parties in the Empire. Luther, Justus Jonas, Melanchthon and Johann Bugenhagen were appointed to draw up a statement of the Saxon position. These "Torgau Articles" (March 1530) tell merely why Saxony had abolished certain ecclesiastical abuses. Melanchthon, however, soon found that, owing to attacks by Johann Eck of Ingolstadt ("404 Articles"), Saxony must state its position in doctrinal matters as well. Taking the Articles of Marburg (see MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF) and of Schwabach as the point of departure, he repudiated all connexion with heretics condemned by the ancient church. On the 11th of May he sent the draft to Luther, who approved it, adding that he himself "could not tread so softly and gently." On the 23rd of June the Confession, originally intended as the statement of Electoral Saxony alone, was discussed and signed by a number of other Protestant princes and cities, and read before the diet on the 25th of June. Articles 1-21 attempt to show that the Evangelicals had deviated from current doctrine only in order to restore the pure and original teaching of the church. In spite of significant omissions (the sole authority of scripture; rejection of transubstantiation), the Confession contains nothing contradictory to Luther's position, and in its emphasis on justification by faith alone enunciates a cardinal concept of the Evangelical churches. Articles 22-28 describe and defend the reformation of various "abuses." On the 3rd of August, shorn of much of its original bitterness, the so-called _Confutatio pontificia_ was read; it well expresses the views approved in substance by the emperor and all the Catholic party. In answer, Melanchthon was ordered to prepare an Apology of the Confession, which the emperor refused to receive; so Melanchthon enlarged it and published the _editio princeps_ of both Confession and Apology in 1531.

As he felt free to make slight changes, the first edition does not
represent the exact text of 1530; the edition of 1533 was further
improved, while that of 1540, rearranged and in part rewritten, is
known as the _Variata_. Dogmatic changes in this seem to have drawn
forth no protest from Luther or Brenz, so Melanchthon made fresh
alterations in 1542. Later, the _Variata_ of 1540 became the creed of
the Melanchthonians and even of the Crypto-calvinists; so the framers
of the Formula of Concord, promulgated in 1580, returned to the text
handed in at the Diet. By mistake they printed from a poor copy and
not from the original, from which their German text varies at over 450
places. Their Latin text, that of Melanchthon's _editio princeps_, is
more nearly accurate. The _textus receptus_ is that of the Formula of
Concord, the divergent Latin and German forms being equally binding.

Acceptance of the Confession and Apology was made a condition of membership in the Schmalkalden League. The Wittenberg Concord (1536) and the Articles of Schmalkalden (1537) reaffirmed them. The Confession was the ultimate source of much of the Thirty-nine Articles. The Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555) recognized no Protestants save adherents of the Confession; this was modified in 1648. To-day the _Invariata_ is of symbolical authority among Lutherans generally, while the _Variata_ is accepted by the Reformed churches of certain parts of Germany (see Lober, pp. 79-83.)

Editions of the received text: J.T. Muller, _Die symbolischen Bucher
der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche_ (10th ed., Gutersloh, 1907), with
a valuable historical introduction by Th. Kolde; Theodor Kolde, _Die
Augsburgische Konfession_ (Gotha, 1896), (contains also the Marburg,
Schwabach and Torgau Articles, the _Confutatio_ and the _Variata_ of
1540). For translations of these, as well as of Zwingli's Reckoning of
his Faith, and of the Tetrapolitan Confession, see H.E. Jacobs, _The
Book of Concord_ (Philadelphia, 1882-83). The texts submitted to the
emperor, lost before 1570, are reconstructed and compared with the
_textus receptus_ by P. Tschackert, _Die unveranderte Augsburgische
Konfession_ (Leipzig, 1901). For the genesis of the Confession, see
Th. Kolde, _Die alteste Redaktion der Augsburger Konfession_
(Gutersloh, 1906), also Kolde's article, "Augsburger Bekenntnis," in
Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed., vol. ii., Leipzig, 1897).
The standard commentary is still G.L. Plitt, _Einleitung in die
Augustana_ (Erlangen, 1867 ff.); compare also J. Ficker, _Die
Konfutation des Augsburgischen Bekenntnisses in ihrer ersten Gestalt_
(Leipzig, 1891); also A. Petzold, _Die Konfutation des
Vierstadtebekenntnisses_ (Leipzig, 1900). On its present use see G.
Lober, _Die im evangelischen Deutschland geltenden
Ordinationsverpflichtungen geschichtlich geordnet_ (Leipzig, 1905), 79
ff. (W. W. R.*)