Chapter XIII: Part 13

The first care of the new elector was to come to terms with John Frederick, and to strengthen his own hold upon the electoral position. This object was secured by a treaty made at Naumburg in February 1554, when, in return for the grant of Altenburg and other lands, John Frederick recognized Augustus as elector of Saxony. The elector, however, was continually haunted by the fear that the Ernestines would attempt to deprive him of the coveted dignity, and his policy both in Saxony and in Germany was coloured by this fear. In imperial politics Augustus acted upon two main principles: to cultivate the friendship of the Habsburgs, and to maintain peace between the contending religious parties. To this policy may be traced his share in bringing about the religious peace of Augsburg in 1555, his tortuous conduct at the diet of Augsburg eleven years later, and his reluctance to break entirely with the Calvinists. On one occasion only did he waver in his allegiance to the Habsburgs. In 1568 a marriage was arranged between John Casimir, son of the elector palatine, Frederick III., and Elizabeth, a daughter of Augustus, and for a time it seemed possible that the Saxon elector would support his son-in-law in his attempts to aid the revolting inhabitants of the Netherlands. Augustus also entered into communication with the Huguenots; but his aversion to foreign complications prevailed, and the incipient friendship with the elector palatine soon gave way to serious dislike. Although a sturdy Lutheran the elector hoped at one time to unite the Protestants, on whom he continually urged the necessity of giving no cause of offence to their opponents, and he favoured the movement to get rid of the clause in the peace of Augsburg concerning ecclesiastical reservation, which was offensive to many Protestants. His moderation, however, prevented him from joining those who were prepared to take strong measures to attain this end, and he refused to jeopardize the concessions already won.

The hostility between the Albertines and the Ernestines gave serious trouble to Augustus. A preacher named Matthias Flacius held an influential position in ducal Saxony, and taught a form of Lutheranism different from that taught in electoral Saxony. This breach was widened when Flacius began to make personal attacks on Augustus, to prophesy his speedy downfall, and to incite Duke John Frederick to make an effort to recover his rightful position. Associated with Flacius was a knight, William of Grumbach, who, not satisfied with words only, made inroads into electoral Saxony and sought the aid of foreign powers in his plan to depose Augustus. After some delay Grumbach and his protector, John Frederick, were placed under the imperial ban, and Augustus was entrusted with its execution. His campaign in 1567 was short and successful. John Frederick surrendered, and passed his time in prison until his death in 1595; Grumbach was taken and executed; and the position of the elector was made quite secure.

The form of Lutheranism taught in electoral Saxony was that of Melanchthon, and many of its teachers and adherents, who were afterwards called Crypto-Calvinists, were favoured by the elector. When Augustus, freed from the fear of an attack by the Ernestines, became gradually estranged from the elector palatine and the Calvinists, he seemed to have looked with suspicion upon the Crypto-Calvinists, who did not preach the pure doctrines of Luther. Spurred on by his wife the matter reached a climax in 1574, when letters were discovered, which, while revealing a hope to bring over Augustus to Calvinism, cast some aspersions upon the elector and his wife. Augustus ordered the leaders of the Crypto-Calvinists to be seized, and they were tortured and imprisoned. A strict form of Lutheranism was declared binding upon all the inhabitants of Saxony, and many persons were banished from the country. In 1576 he made a serious but unsuccessful attempt to unite the Protestants upon the basis of some articles drawn up at Tolgau, which inculcated a strict form of Lutheranism. The change in Saxony, however, made no difference to the attitude of Augustus on imperial questions. In 1576 he opposed the proposal of the Protestant princes to make a grant for the Turkish War conditional upon the abolition of the clause concerning ecclesiastical reservation, and he continued to support the Habsburgs.

Much of the elector's time was devoted to extending his territories. In 1573 he became guardian to the two sons of John William, duke of Saxe-Weimar, and in this capacity was able to add part of the county of Henneberg to electoral Saxony. His command of money enabled him to take advantage of the poverty of his neighbours, and in this way he secured Vogtland and the county of Mansfeld. In 1555 he had appointed one of his nominees to the bishopric of Meissen, in 1561 he had secured the election of his son Alexander as bishop of Merseburg, and three years later as bishop of Naumburg; and when this prince died in 1565 these bishoprics came under the direct rule of Augustus.

As a ruler of Saxony Augustus was economical and enlightened. He favoured trade by encouraging Flemish emigrants to settle in the country, by improving the roads, regulating the coinage and establishing the first posts. He was specially interested in benefiting agriculture, and added several fine buildings to the city of Dresden. His laws were numerous and comprehensive. The constitution of 1572 was his work, and by these laws the church, the universities and the police were regulated, the administration of justice was improved, and the raising of taxes placed upon a better footing (see SAXONY).

In October 1585 the electress Anna died, and a few weeks later Augustus married Agnes Hedwig, a daughter of Joachim Ernest, prince of Anhalt. His own death took place at Dresden on the 21st of January 1586, and he was buried at Freiberg. By his first wife he had fifteen children, but only four of these survived him, among whom was his successor, the elector Christian I. (1560-1591). Augustus was a covetous, cruel and superstitious man, but these qualities were redeemed by his political caution and his wise methods of government. He wrote a small work on agriculture entitled _Kunstlich Obstund Gartenbuchlein_.

See C.W. Bottiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte Sachsens_, Band ii.
(Gotha, 1870); M. Ritter, _Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der
Gegenreformation_, Band i. (Stuttgart, 1890); R. Calinich, _Kampf und
Untergang des Melanchthonismus in Kursachsen_ (Leipzig, 1866); J.
Falke, _Geschichte des Kurfursten August in volkswirtschaftlicher
Beziehung_ (Leipzig, 1868); J. Janssen, _Geschichte des Deutschen
Volks seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters_ (Freiburg, 1885-1894); W.
Wenck, _Kurfurst Moritz und Herzog August_ (Leipzig, 1874).

AUGUSTUS II., king of Poland, and, as FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I., elector of Saxony (1670-1733), second son of John George III., elector of Saxony, was born at Dresden on the 12th of May 1670. He was well educated, spent some years in travel and in fighting against France, and on account of his immense strength was known as "the Strong." On the death of his brother, John George IV., in 1694, he became elector of Saxony, and in 1695 and 1696 led the imperial troops against the Turks, but without very much success. When John Sobieski died in 1696, Augustus was a candidate for the Polish throne, and in order to further his chances became a Roman Catholic, a step which was strongly resented in Saxony. By a lavish expenditure of money, and by his promptness in entering the country, he secured his election and coronation in September 1697, and his principal rival F.L. de Bourbon, prince of Conti, abandoned the contest and returned to France. Augustus continued the war against the Turks for a time, and being anxious to extend his influence and to find a pretext for retaining the Saxon troops in Poland, made an alliance in 1699 with Russia and Denmark against Charles XII. of Sweden. The Poles would not assist, and at the head of the Saxons Augustus invaded Livonia, but for various causes the campaign was not a success, and in July 1702 he was defeated by Charles at Klissow. Augustus was then deposed in Poland, and after holding Warsaw for a short time he fled to Saxony. The alliance with Russia was renewed and in reply Charles invaded Saxony in 1706, and compelled the elector to sign the treaty of Altranstadt in September of that year, to recognize Stanislaus Leszczynski as his successor in Poland, and to abandon the Russian alliance. During the War of the Spanish Succession, Augustus fought with the imperialists in the Netherlands, but after the defeat of Charles XII. at Poltawa in July 1709, he turned his attention to the recovery of Poland. Declaring the treaty of Altranstadt void and renewing his alliance with Russia and Denmark, he quickly recovered the Polish crown. He then attacked Swedish Pomerania. He was handicapped by the mutual jealousy of the Saxons and the Poles, and a struggle broke out in Poland which was only ended when the king promised to limit the number of his army in that country to 18,000 men. Peace was made with Sweden in December 1719 at Stockholm after the death of Charles XII., and Augustus was recognized as king of Poland. His remaining years were spent in futile plans to make Poland a hereditary monarchy, to weaken the power of the Saxon nobles, and to gain territory for his sons in various parts of Europe. He was a man of extravagant and luxurious tastes, and, although he greatly improved the city of Dresden, he cannot be called a good ruler. He sought to govern Saxony in an absolute fashion, and, in spite of his declaration that his conversion to Roman Catholicism was personal only, assisted the spread of the teachings of Rome. His wife was Christine Eberhardine, a member of the Hohenzollern family, who left him when he became a Roman Catholic, and died in 1727. Augustus died at Warsaw on the 1st of February 1733, leaving a son Frederick Augustus, who succeeded him in Poland and Saxony, and many illegitimate children, among whom was the famous general, Maurice of Saxony, known as Marshal Saxe (q.v.).

See Otwikowski, _History of Poland under Augustus II._ (Cracow, 1849);
F. Forster, _Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im achtzehnten
Jahrhtmdert_ (Potsdam, 1839); Jarochowski, _History of Augustus II._
(Posen, 1856-1874); C.W. Bottiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte des
Kurstaates und Konigreichs Sachsen_ (Gotha, 1867-1873).

AUGUSTUS III., king of Poland, and, as FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II., elector of Saxony (1696-1763), the only legitimate son of Augustus II. ("the Strong"), was born at Dresden on the 17th of October 1696. Educated as a Protestant, he followed his father's example by joining the Roman Catholic Church in 1712, although his conversion was not made public until 1717. In August 1719 he married Maria Josepha, daughter of the emperor Joseph I., and seems to have taken very little part in public affairs until he became elector of Saxony on his father's death in February 1733. He was then a candidate for the Polish crown; and having purchased the support of the emperor Charles VI. by assenting to the Pragmatic Sanction, and that of the czarina Anne by recognizing the claim of Russia to Courland, he was elected king of Poland in October 1733. Aided by the Russians, his troops drove Stanislaus Leszczynski from Poland; Augustus was crowned at Cracow in January 1734, and was generally recognized as king at Warsaw in June 1736. On the death of Charles VI. in October 1740, Augustus was among the enemies of his daughter Maria Theresa, and, as a son-in-law of the emperor Joseph I., claimed a portion of the Habsburg territories. In 1742, however, he was induced to transfer his support to Maria Theresa, and his troops took part in the struggle against Frederick the Great during the Silesian wars, and again when the Seven Years' War began in 1756. Saxony was in that year attacked by the Prussians, and with so much success that not only was the Saxon army forced to capitulate at Pirna in October, but the elector, who fled to Warsaw, made no attempt to recover Saxony, which remained under the dominion of Frederick. When the treaty of Hubertsburg was concluded in February 1763, he returned to Saxony, where he died on the 5th of October 1763. He left five sons, the eldest of whom was his successor in Saxony, Frederick Christian; and five daughters, one of whom was the wife of Louis, the dauphin of France, and mother of Louis XVI. Another daughter was the wife of Charles III., king of Spain, but she predeceased her father. Augustus, who showed neither talent nor inclination for government, was content to leave Poland under the influence of Russia, and Saxony to the rule of his ministers. He took great interest in music and painting, and added to the collection of art treasures at Dresden.

See C.W. Bottiger and T. Flathe, _Geschichte des Kurstaates und
Konigreichs Sachsen_ (Gotha, 1867-1873); R. Ropell, _Polen um die
Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts_ (Gotha, 1876).

AUGUSTUSBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 10 m. E. from Dresden, close to Radeberg, in a pleasant valley. Pop. 900. It has five saline chalybeate springs, used both for drinking and bathing, and specific in feminine disorders, rheumatism, paralysis and neuralgia. The spa is largely frequented in summer and has agreeable public rooms and gardens.

AUK, a name commonly given to several species of sea-fowl. A special interest attaches to the great auk (_Alca impennis_), owing to its recent extinction and the value of its eggs to collectors. (See GAREFOWL; also GUILLEMOT, PUFFIN, RAZORBILL.)

AULARD, FRANCOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE (1849- ), French historian, was born at Montbron in Charente in 1849. Having obtained the degree of doctor of letters in 1877 with a Latin thesis upon C. Asinius Pollion and a French one upon Giacomo Leopardi (whose works he subsequently translated into French), he made a study of parliamentary oratory during the French Revolution, and published two volumes upon _Les Orateurs de la constituante_ (1882) and upon _Les Orateurs de la legislative et de la convention_ (1885). With these works, which were reprinted in 1905, he entered a fresh field, where he soon became an acknowledged master. Applying to the study of the French Revolution the rules of historical criticism which had produced such rich results in the study of ancient and medieval history, he devoted himself to profound research in the archives, and to the publication of numerous most important contributions to the political, administrative and moral history of that marvellous period. Appointed professor of the history of the French Revolution at the Sorbonne, he formed the minds of students who in their turn have done valuable work. To him we owe the _Recueil des actes du comite de salut public_ (vol. i., 1889; vol. xvi., 1904); _La Societe des Jacobins; recueil de documents pour l'histoire du club des Jacobins de Paris_ (6 vols., 1889-1897); and _Paris pendant la reaction thermidorienne et sous le directoire, recueil de documents pour l'histoire de l'esprit public a Paris_ (5 vols., 1898-1902), which was followed by an analogous collection for Paris sous le consulat (2 vols., 1903-1904). For the Societe de l'Histoire de la Revolution Francaise, which brought out under his supervision an important periodical publication called _La Revolution francaise_, he produced the _Registre des deliberations du consulat provisoire_ (1894), and _L'Etat de la France en l'an VIII et en l'an IX_, with the reports of the prefects (1897), besides editing various works or memoirs written by men of the Revolution, such as J.C. Bailleul, Chaumette, Fournier (called the American), Herault de Sechelles, and Louvet de Couvrai. But these large collections of documents are not his entire output. Besides a little pamphlet upon Danton, he has written a _Histoire politique de la Revolution francaise_ (1901), and a number of articles which have been collected in volumes under the title _Etudes et lecons sur la Revolution francaise_ (5 vols., 1893-1908). In a volume entitled _Taine, historien de la Revolution francaise_ (1908), Aulard has submitted the method of the eminent philosopher to a criticism, severe, perhaps even unjust, but certainly well-informed. This is, as it were, the "manifesto" of the new school of criticism applied to the political and social history of the Revolution (see _Les Annales Revolutionnaires_, June 1908).

See A. Mathiez, "M. Aulard, historien et professeur," in the _Revue de
la Revolution francaise_ (July 1908). (C. B.*)

AULIC COUNCIL (_Reichshofrat_), an organ of the Holy Roman Empire, originally intended for executive work, but acting chiefly as a judicature, which worked from 1497 to 1806. In the early middle ages the emperor had already his _consiliarii_; but his council was a fluctuating body of personal advisers. In the 14th century there first arose an official council, with permanent and paid members, many of whom were legists. Its business was largely executive, and it formed something of a ministry; but it had also to deal with petitions addressed to the king, and accordingly it acted as a supreme court of judicature. It was thus parallel to the king's council, or _concilium continuum_, of medieval England; while by its side, during the 15th century, stood the _Kammergericht_, composed of the legal members of the council, in much the same way as the Star Chamber stood beside the English council. But the real history of the Aulic Council, as that term was understood in the later days of the Empire, begins with Maximilian I. in 1497-1498. In these years Maximilian created three organs (apparently following the precedent set by his Burgundian ancestors in the Netherlands)--a _Hofrat_, a _Hofkammer_ for finance, and a _Hofkanzlei._ Primarily intended for the hereditary dominions of Maximilian, these bodies were also intended for the whole Empire; and the _Hofrat_ was to deal with "all and every business which may flow in from the Empire, Christendom at large, or the king's hereditary principalities." It was thus to be the supreme executive and judicial organ, discharging all business except that of finance and the drafting of documents; and it was intended to serve Maximilian as a _point d'appui_ for the monarchy against the system of oligarchical committees, instituted by Berthold, archbishop of Mainz. But it was difficult to work such a body both for the Empire and for the hereditary principalities; and under Ferdinand I. it became an organ for the Empire alone (_circ._ 1558), the hereditary principalities being removed from its cognizance. As such an imperial organ, its composition and powers were fixed by the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. (1) It consisted of about 20 members--a president, a vice-president, the vice-chancellor of the Empire, and some 18 other members. These came partly from the Empire at large, partly (and in greater numbers) from the hereditary lands of the emperor. There were two benches, one of the nobles, one of doctors of civil law; six of the members must be Protestants. The council followed the person of the emperor, and was therefore stationed at Vienna; it was paid by the emperor, and he nominated its members, whose office terminated with his life--an arrangement which made the council more dependent than it should have been on the emperor's will. (2) Its powers were nominally both executive and judicial. (a) Its executive powers were small: it gradually lost everything except the formal business of investiture with imperial fiefs and the confirmation of charters, its other powers being taken over by the _Geheimrate._ These _Geheimrate_, a narrow body of secret counsellors, had already become a determinate _concilium_ by 1527; and though at first only concerned with foreign affairs, they acquired, from the middle of the 16th century onwards, the power of dealing with imperial affairs in lieu of the Aulic Council. (b) In its judicial aspect, the Aulic Council, exercising the emperor's judicial powers on his behalf, and thus succeeding, as it were, to the old _Kammergericht_, had exclusive cognizance of matters relating to imperial fiefs, criminal charges against immediate vassals of the Empire, imperial charters, Italian affairs, and cases "reserved" for the emperor. In all other matters, the Aulic Council was a competitor for judicial work with the Imperial Chamber[1] (_Reichskammergericht_, a tribunal dating from the great diet of Worms of 1495: see under IMPERIAL CHAMBER). It was determined in 1648 that the one of these two judicial authorities which first dealt with a case should alone have competence to pursue it. An appeal lay from the decision of the council to the emperor, and judgment on appeal was given by those members of the council who had not joined in the original decision, though in important cases they might be afforced by members of the diet. Neither the council nor the chamber could deal with cases of outlawry, except to prepare such cases for the decision of the diet. To-day the archives of the Aulic Council are in Vienna, though parts of its records have been given to the German states which they concern.

AUTHORITIES.--R. Schroder, _Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_
(Leipzig, 1904), gives the main facts; S. Adler, _Die Organisation der
Centralverwaltung unter Maximilian I._ (Leipzig, 1886), deals with
Maximilian's reorganization of the Council; and J. St. Putter,
_Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung des Teutschen
Reichs_ (Gottingen, 1798-1799), may be consulted for its development
and later form. (E. Br.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The Aulic Council is the private court of the emperor, with its
members nominated by him; the Imperial Chamber is the public court of
the Empire, with its members nominated by the estates of the Empire.

AULIE-ATA, a town and fort of Russian Turkestan, province of Syr-darya, 152 m. N.E. of Tashkent, on the Talas river, at the western end of the Alexander range, its altitude being 5700 ft. The inhabitants are mostly Sarts and Tajiks, trading in cattle, horses and hides. Pop. (1897) 12,006.

AULIS, an ancient Boeotian town on the Euripus, situated on a rocky peninsula between two bays, near the modern village of Vathy, about 3 m. S. of Chalcis. Its fame was due to the tradition that it was the starting-place of the Greek fleet before the Trojan War, the scene of the sacrifice of Iphigenia. The temple of Artemis was still to be seen in the time of Pausanias.

AULNOY (or AUNOY), MARIE CATHERINE LE JUMEL DE BARNEVILLE DE LA MOTTE, BARONNE D' (c. 1650-1705), French author, was born about 1650 at Barneville near Bourg-Achard (Eure). She was the niece of Marie Bruneau des Loges, the friend of Malherbe and of J.G. de Balzac, who was called the "tenth Muse." She married on the 8th of March 1666 Francois de la Motte, a gentleman in the service of Cesar, duc de Vendome, who became Baron d'Aulnoy in 1654. With her mother, who by a second marriage had become marquise de Gudaigne, she instigated a prosecution for high treason against her husband. The conspiracy was exposed, and the two women saved themselves by a hasty flight to England. Thence they went (February 1679) to Spain, but were eventually allowed to return to France in reward for secret services rendered to the government. Mme. d'Aulnoy died in Paris on the 14th of January 1705. She wrote fairy tales, _Contes nouvelles ou les Fees a la mode_ (3 vols., 1698), in the manner of Charles Perrault. This collection (24 tales) included _L'Oiseau bleu, Finette Cendron, La Chatte blanche_ and others. The originals of most of her admirable tales are to be found in the _Pentamerone_ (1637) of Giovanni Battista Basile. Other works are: _L'Histoire d'Hippolyte, comte de Duglas_ (1690), a romance in the style of Madame de la Fayette, though much inferior to its model; _Memoires de la cour d'Espagne_ (1679-1681); and a _Relation du voyage d'Espagne_ (1690 or 1691) in the form of letters, edited in 1874-1876 as _La Cour et la ville de Madrid_ by Mme. B. Carey; _Histoire de Jean de Bourbon_ (1692); _Memoires sur la cour de France_ (1692); _Memoires de la cour d'Angleterre_ (1695). Her historical writings are partly borrowed from existing records, to which she adds much that must be regarded as fiction, and some vivid descriptions of contemporary manners.

The _Diverting Works of the Countess d'Anois_, including some
extremely untrustworthy "Memoirs of her own life," were printed in
London in 1707. _The Fairy Tales of Madame d'Aulnoy_, with an
introduction by Lady Thackeray Ritchie, appeared in 1892. For
biographical particulars see M. de Lescure's introduction to the
_Contes des Fees_ (1881).

AULOS (Gr. [Greek: aulos]; Lat. _tibia_; Egyptian hieroglyphic, _Ma-it_; medieval equivalents, _shalm, chalumeau, schalmei, hautbois_), in Greek antiquities, a class of wood-wind instruments with single or with double reed mouthpiece and either cylindrical or conical bore, thus corresponding to both oboe and clarinet. In its widest acceptation the _aulos_ was a generic term for instruments consisting of a tube in which the air column was set in vibration either directly by the lips of the performer, or through the medium of a mouthpiece containing a single or a double reed. Even the pipes of the pan-pipes (_syrinx polycalamus_,[1] [Greek: syrinx polykalamos]) were sometimes called auloi ([Greek: auloi]). The aulos is also the earliest prototype of the organ, which, by gradual assimilation of the principles of syrinx and bag-pipe, reached the stage at which it became known as the _Tyrrhenian aulos_ (Pollux iv. 70) or the _hydraulos_, according to the method of compressing the wind supply (see ORGAN: _Early History_; and SYRINX). The aulos in its earliest form, the reed pipe, during the best classical period had a cylindrical bore ([Greek: koilia]) like that of the modern clarinet, and therefore had the acoustic properties of the stopped pipe, whether the air column was set in vibration by means of a single or of a double reed, for the mouthpiece does not affect the harmonic series.[2] To the acoustic properties of open or stopped pipes are due those essential differences which underlie the classification of modern wind instruments. A stopped pipe produces its fundamental tone one octave lower than the tone of an open pipe of corresponding length, and overblows the harmonics of the twelfth, and of the third above the second octave of the fundamental tone, i.e. the odd numbers of the series; whereas the open pipe gives the whole series of harmonics, the octave, the twelfth, the double octave, and the third above it, &c.

To produce the diatonic scale throughout the octaves of its compass, the stopped pipe requires eleven lateral holes in the side of the pipe, at appropriate distances from each other, and from the end of the pipe, whereas the open pipe requires but six. The acoustic properties of the open pipe can only be secured in combination with a reed mouthpiece by making the bore conical. The late Romans (and therefore we may perhaps assume the Greeks also, since the Romans acknowledge their indebtedness to the Greeks in matters relating to musical instruments, and more especially to the cithara and aulos) understood the acoustic principle utilized to-day in making wind instruments, that a hole of small diameter nearer the mouthpiece may be substituted for one of greater diameter in the theoretically correct position. This is demonstrated by the 4th-century grammarian Macrobius, who says (_Comm. in Somn. Scip._ ii. 4, 5): "Nec secus probamus in tibiis, de quarum foraminibus vicinis inflantis ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino proximis gravior; item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per angusta" (see BASSOON). Aristotle gives directions for boring holes in the aulos, which would apply only to a pipe of cylindrical bore (_Probl_. xix. 23). At first the aulos had but three or four holes; to Diodorus of Thebes is due the credit of having increased this number (Pollux iv. 80). Pronomus, the musician, and teacher of Alcibiades (5th century B.C.), further improved the aulos by making it possible to play on one pair of instruments the three musical scales in use at his time, the Dorian, the Phrygian, and the Lydian, whereas previously a separate pair of pipes had been used for each scale (Pausanias ix. 12. 5; Athenaeus xiv. 31). These three modes would require a compass of a tenth in order to produce the fundamental octave in each.

There are two ways in which this increased compass might have been obtained: (1) by increasing the number of holes and covering up those not required, (2) by means of contrivances for lowering the pitch of individual notes as required. We have evidence that both means were known to the Greeks and Romans. The simplest device for closing holes not in use was a band of metal left free to slide round the pipe, and having a hole bored through it corresponding in diameter with the hole in the pipe. Each hole was provided with a band, which was in some cases prevented from slipping down the pipe by narrow fixed rings of metal. The line on fig. 1 between r and s is thought to have been one of these rings.

Some pipes had two holes pierced through the bands and the bone, in such a manner that only one could be exposed at a time. This is clearly shown in the diagram (fig. 1) of fragments of an aulos from the museum at Candia, for which the writer is greatly indebted to Professor John L. Myres, by whom measured drawings were made from the instrument in 1893. These highly interesting remains, judging from the closed end (5), seem to belong to a side-blown reed-pipe similar to the Maenad pipes in the Castellani collection at the British Museum, illustrated below; they are constructed like modern flutes, but played by means of a reed inserted into the lateral embouchure.

In the Candia pipe, it seems likely that Nos. 1 and 2 represented the bell end, slightly expanded, No. 3 joining the broken end of No. 2 at l; there being a possible fit at the other end at s with a in No. 4 (the drawings must in this case be imagined as reversed for parts 3 and 4), and No. 5 joining on to No. 4 at k.

According to Professor Myres there are fragments of a pair of pipes in the Cyprus Museum of precisely the same construction as the one in Candia. In the drawing, the shape and relative position of the holes _on the circumference_ is approximate only, but their position lengthways is measured.

(From a drawing by Prof. John L. Myres.)

a, Triple wrapping of bronze as well as slide.
b, Slide with hole.
c, Slides with two holes not uncovered together.
d, Slides with two holes not uncovered together, one hole at back.
e, Slide.
f, Slide missing.
g, Slide missing, scars of slide holes.
h, Slide.
i and j, Slide.
k, Socket.
l, Male half of joint.
m, n, o, Slides, the top hole being in the slide only.
p and q, Slides, with two holes; the small hole shown is in the
pipe, there being a corresponding hole in the slide at the back.
r, Bronze covering (and slide?).
s, Male joint.
t, The wavy line shows the extreme length of fragment.
u, 13 mm. inside diameter, 14 mm. outside diameter.
w, Engraved lines and conical form of bronze covering.
x, Wavy line shows extreme length of fragment.
y, Stopped end of pipe with engraved lines.

The line between r and s is either a turned ring or part of bronze
cover. The double lines to the right of t are engraved lines.]

Bands of silver were found on the ivory pipes from Pompeii[3] (fig. 2), as well as on two pipes belonging to the Castellani collection (fig. 4) and on one from Halicarnassus, in the British Museum. In order to enable the performer to use these bands conveniently, a contrivance such as a little ring, a horn or a hook termed keras (Greek: keras) was attached to the band.[4]

Thirteen of the bands on the Pompeian pipes still have sockets which probably originally contained _kerata_. Pollux (iv. 80) mentions that Diodorus of Thebes, in order to increase the range of the aulos, made lateral channels for the air ([Greek: plagiai hodoi]). These consisted of tubes inserted into the holes in the bands for the purpose of lengthening the column of air, and lowering individual notes at will, the sound being then produced at the extremity of the tube, instead of at the surface of the pipe. It is possible that some of the double holes in the slides of the Candia pipe were intended for the reception of these tubes. These lateral tubes form the archetype of the modern crook or piston.[5] The mouthpiece of the aulos was called _zeugos_ ([Greek: zeugos]),[6] the reed tongue _glossa_[7] or _glotta_ ([Greek: glossa] or [Greek: glotta]), and the socket into which the reed was fixed _glottis_[8] ([Greek: glottis]).

The double reed was probably used at first, being the simplest form of mouthpiece; the word _zeugos_, moreover, signifies a pair of like things. There is, however, no difficulty in accepting the probability that a single beating reed or clarinet mouthpiece was used by the Greeks, since the ancient Egyptians used it with the as-it or arghoul (q.v.).

(Drawn from a photo by Brogi.)]

The beak-shaped mouthpiece of a pipe found at Pompeii (fig. 3) has all the appearance of the beak of the clarinet, having, on the side not shown, the lay on which to fix a single or beating reed.[9] It may, however, have been the cap of a covered reed, or even a whistle mouthpiece in which the lip does not show in the photograph. It is difficult to form a conclusion without seeing the real instrument. On a mosaic of Monnus in Treves[10] is represented an aulos which also appears to have a beak-shaped mouthpiece.

The upper part of the aulos, as in the Pompeian pipes, frequently had the form of a flaring cup supported on a pear-shaped bulb, respectively identified as the _holmos_ ([Greek: holmos]) and the _hypholmion_ ([Greek: hypholmion]), the support of the _holmos_. An explanation of the original nature and construction of the bulb and flaring cup, so familiar in the various representations of the aulos, and in the real instruments found in Pompeii, is provided by an ancient Egyptian flute belonging to the collection of G. Maspero, illustrated and described by Victor Loret.[11] Loret calls the double bulb the beak mouthpiece of the instrument, and describes its construction; it consists of a piece of reed of larger diameter than that of the flute, and eight centimetres long; this reed has been forcibly compressed a little more than half way down by means of a ligature of twine, thus reducing the diameter from 6 mm. to 4 mm. The end of the pipe, covered by rows of waxed thread, fits into the end of the smaller bulb, to which it was also bound by waxed thread exactly as in the Elgin pipe at the British Museum, described below. There is no indication of the manner in which the pipe was sounded, and Loret assumes that there was once a whistle or flageolet mouthpiece. To the present writer, however, it seems probable that the constricted diameter between the two bulbs formed a socket into which the double reed or straw was inserted, and that, in this case at least, the reed was not taken into the mouth, but vibrated in the upper bulb or air-chamber. This simple contrivance was probably also employed in the earliest Greek pipes, and was later copied and elaborated in wood, bone or metal, the upper bulb being made shorter and developing into the flaring cup, in order that the reeds might be taken directly into the mouth. During the best period of Greek music the reeds were taken directly into the mouth[12] and not enclosed in an air-chamber. The two pipes were kept in position while the fingers stopped the holes and turned the bands by means of the [Greek: phorbeia] (Lat. _capistrum_), a bandage encircling mouth and cheeks, and having holes through which the reed-mouthpiece passed into the mouth of the performer; the _phorbeia_ also relieved the pressure of the breath on the cheeks and lips,[13] which is felt more especially by performers on oboe and bassoon at the present day.

(From a photo by Brogi.)]

In the pair of wooden pipes belonging to the Elgin collection at the British Museum, one of the bulbs, partly broken, but preserved in the same case as the pipes, was fastened to the pipes by means of waxed thread, the indented lines being still visible on the rim of the bulb. The aulos was kept in a case called _sybene_[14] ([Greek: sybaenae]) or _aulotheke_[15] ([Greek: aulothaekae]), and the little bag or case in which the delicate reeds were carried was known by the name of _glottokomeion_[15] ([Greek: glottokomeion]).[16] Two Egyptian flute cases are extant, one in the Louvre,[17] and the other in the museum at Leiden. The latter case is of sycamore wood, cylindrical in shape, with a stopper of the same wood; there is no legend or design upon it. The case contained seven pipes, five pieces of reed without bore or holes, and three pieces of straw suitable for making double-reed mouthpieces.[18]

Aristoxenus gives the full compass of a single pipe or pair of pipes as over three octaves:--"For doubtless we should find an interval greater than the above mentioned three octaves between the highest note of the soprano clarinet (aulos) and the lowest note of the bass-clarinet (aulos); and again between the highest note of a clarinet player performing with the speaker open, and the lowest note of a clarinet player performing with the speaker closed."[19]

This, according to the tables of Alypius, would correspond to the full range of the Greek scales, a little over three octaves from to . It is evident that the ancient Greeks obtained this full compass on the aulos by means of the harmonics. Proclus (_Comm. in Alcibiad._ chap. 68) states that from each hole of the pipe at least three tones could be produced. Moreover, classic writers maintain that if the performer press the _zeugos_ or the _glottai_ of the pipes, a sharper tone is produced.[20] This is exactly how a performer on a modern clarinet or oboe produces the higher harmonics of the instrument.[21] The small bore of the aulos in comparison to its length facilitated the production of the harmonics (cf. Zamminer p. 218), as does also the use of a small hole near the mouthpiece, called in Greek _syrinx_ ([Greek: syrinx]) and in the modern clarinet the "speaker," which when open enables the performer to overblow with ease the first harmonic of the lowest fundamental tones. To Mr Albert A. Howard of Harvard University is due the credit of having identified the _syrinx_ of the aulos with the speaker of the clarinet.[22] This assumption is doubtless correct, and is supported by classical grammarians,[23] who state that the _syrinx_ was one of the holes of the aulos. It renders quite clear certain passages in Aristoxenus, Aristotle and Plutarch, and a scholion to Pindar's 12th _Pythian_, which before were difficult to understand (see SYRINX).

The aulos or tibia existed in a great number of varieties enumerated by Pollux (_Onomast._ iv. 74 et seq.) and Athenaeus (iv. 76 et seq.). They fall into two distinct classes, the single and the double pipes. There were three principal single pipes, the _monaulos_, the _plagiaulos_ and the _syrinx monocalamos_. The double pipes were used by the great musicians of ancient Greece, and notably at the musical contests at Delphi, and what has been said above concerning the construction of the aulos refers mainly to the double pipes. The _monaulos_, a single pipe of Egyptian origin, which, by inference, we assume to have been played from the end by means of a reed, may have been the archetype of the oboe or clarinet. The _plagiaulos photinx_ or _tibia obliqua_, invented by the Libyans (Pollux iv. 74), or, according to Pliny (vii. 204), by Midas of Phrygia, was held like the modern flute, but was played by means of a mouthpiece containing a reed. Three of the existing pipes at the British Museum (the two in the Castellani collection, and the pipe from Halicarnassus) belong to this type. The mouthpiece projects from the side of the pipe and communicates with the main bore by means of a slanting passage; the end nearest the mouthpiece is stopped as in the modern flute; in the latter, however, the embouchure is not closed by the lips when playing, and therefore the flute has the acoustic properties of the open pipe, whereas the _plagiaulos_ having a reed mouthpiece gave the harmonics of a closed pipe. The double pipes existed in five sizes according to pitch, in the days of Aristoxenus, who, in a treatise on the construction of the auloi ([Greek: Peri aulon traeseos]), unfortunately not extant,[24] divides them thus:--

(1) _Parthenioi auloi_ ([Greek: parthenioi auloi]), the maiden's _auloi_, corresponding to the soprano compass.

(2) _Paidikoi auloi_ ([Greek: paidikoi auloi]), the boy's pipes or alto _auloi_, used to accompany boys' songs and also in double pairs at feasts.

(3) _Kitharisterioi auloi_ ([Greek: kitharistaerioi auloi]), used to accompany the cithara.

(4) _Teleioi auloi_, the perfect aulos, or tenor's pipes; also known as the _pythic auloi_ ([Greek: pythikoi auloi]); used for the paeans and for solos at the Pythean games (without chorus). It was the _pythic auloi_ and the _kitharisterioi auloi_ more especially which were provided with the speaker (syrinx) in order to improve the harmonic notes (see SYRINX).

(5) _Hyperteleioi auloi_ ([Greek: hyperteleioi auloi]) or _andreioi auloi_ ([Greek: andreioi ayloi]) (see Athenaeus iv. 79), the bass-auloi.

The Phrygian pipes or _auloi Elymoi_[25] were made of box-wood and were tipped with horn; they were double pipes, but differed from all others in that the two pipes were unequal in length and in the diameter of their bores;[26] sometimes one of the pipes was curved upwards and terminated in a horn bell;[27] they seem to have had a conical bore, if representations on monuments are to be trusted. We may conclude that the archetype of the oboe with conical bore was not unknown to the Greeks; it was frequently used by the Etruscans and Romans, and appears on many has-reliefs, mural paintings and other monuments. For illustrations see Wilhelm Froehner, _Les Musees de France_, pl. iii., "Marsyas playing the double pipes." There the bore is decidedly conical in the ratio of at least 1:4 between the mouthpiece and the end of the instrument; the vase is Roman, from the south of France. See also _Bulletino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma_, Rome, 1879, vol. vii., 2nd series, pl. vii. and p. 119 et seq., "Le Nozze di Elena e Paride," from a bas-relief in the monastery of S. Antonio on the Esquiline; Wilhelm Zahn, _Die schonsten Ornamente und die merkwurdigsten Gemalde aus Pompeji, Herkulaneum und Stabiae_ (German and French), vol. iii., pl. 43 and 51 (Berlin, 1828-1859).

For further information on the aulos, consult Albert A. Howard, "The
Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv., 1893; Francois A. Gevaert,
_Histoire de la musique dans l'antiquite_, vol. ii. p. 273 et seq.;
Carl von Jan's article "Flote" in August Baumeister's _Denkmaler des
klassischen Altertums_ (Munich, 1884-1888), vol. i.; Dr Hugo Riemann,
_Handbuch der Musikgeschichte_, Bd. I.T. 1, pp. 93-112 (Leipzig,
1904); Caspar Bartholinus, _De Tibiis Veterum_ (Amsterdam, 1779).
(K. S.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See Pollux, _Onom._ iv. 69.

[2] See Friedrich Zamminer, _Die Musik und musikalischen Instrumente
in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik_ (Giessen, 1855), p.
305.

[3] These pipes were discovered during the excavations in 1867, and
are now in the museum at Naples. Excellent reproductions and
descriptions of them are given in "The Aulos or Tibia," by Albert A.
Howard, _Harvard Studies_, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893), pl. ii. and pp.
48-55.

[4] For illustrations of _auloi_ provided with these contrivances,
see illustration (fig. 2) of an aulos from Pompeii; a relief in
Vatican, No. 535; Helbig's _Wandgemalde_, Nos. 56, 69, 730, 765, &c.

[5] For illustrations of [Greek: hodoi] showing the holes at the ends
of the tubes, see _Description des marbres antiques du Musee
Campana_, by H. d'Escamps, pl. 25; Wilhelm Froehner's _Catalogue of
the Louvre_, No. 378; Glyptothek Museum at Munich, No. 188; Albert A.
Howard, "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv. (Boston, 1893),
pl. 1, No. 1.

[6] For a description of the reed calamus from which pipe and
mouthpiece were made see Theophrastus, _Hist. Plant._ iv. 11.

[7] Aeschines 86. 29; Aristotle, _H.A._ 6, 10, 9, &c.

[8] Lucian, _Harm._ 1.

[9] Cf. article MOUTHPIECE.

[10] See _Antike Denkmaler_, Deutsches archaol. Inst., Berlin, 1891,
vol. i. pi. 49.

[11] See "Les Flutes egyptiennes antiques," _Journal asiatique_, 8th
ser. vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 212-215.

[12] See Aristotle, _De Audib._ p. 802 b, 18, and p. 804a; Festus,
ed. Mueller, p. 116.

[13] See Albert A. Howard, op. cit. p. 29, and Dr Hugo Riemann,
_Gesch. d. Musik_, Bd. i. T. 1, p. 111 (Leipzig, 1904).

[14] Pollux, _Onomasticon_, vii. 153.

[15] Hesychius.

[16] Pollux ii. 108, vii. 153, x. 153-154; A.A. Howard, op. cit. pp.
26-27. An illustration of the little bag is given in _Denkmaler des
klassischen Altertums_, by August Baumeister, vol. i. p. 554, fig.
591.

[17] Two Egyptian pipes now in the Louvre were found in a case
ornamented with a painting of a female musician playing a double
pipe. See E. de Rouge, _Notice sommaire des monuments egyptiens
exposes dans les galeries du Louvre_, p. 87.

[18] See Victor Loret, "Les Flutes egyptiennes antiques," in _Journal
asiatique_, vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 199, 200 and 201 (note), pp.
207, 211 and 217, and Conrad Leemans, _Description raisonnee des
monuments egyptiens du Musee d'Antiquites de Leyde_, p. 132, No. 489;
contents of case Nos. 474-488.

[19] Aristoxenus, _Harm._ bk. i. 20 and 21, H.S. Macran's edition
with translation (Oxford, 1902), p. 179.

[20] Aristotle, _De audib._ p. 804a; Porphyry, ed. Wallis, p. 249;
_ibid._ p. 252.

[21] Zamminer, _op. cit._ p. 301.

[22] _Op. cit._ p. 32-35.

[23] See _Etymologicum magnum_ (Augsburg. 1848), s.v. "Syrinx."

[24] See Athenaeus xiv. 634, who quotes from Didymus.

[25] Pollux iv. 74.

[26] Servius _ad Aen._ ix. 615.

[27] Tibullus ii. 85; Virg. _Aen._ xi. 735; Ovid, _Met._ iii. 533,
_Ex Ponto_ i. 1. 39.

AUMALE, HENRI EUGENE PHILIPPE LOUIS D'ORLEANS, DUC D' (1822-1897), French prince and statesman, fifth son of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, afterwards king of the French, and of Marie Amelie, princess of the Two Sicilies, was born at Paris on the 16th of January 1822. While still young he inherited a large fortune from the prince de Conde. Brought up by his parents with great simplicity, he was educated at the college of Henri IV., on leaving which at the age of seventeen he entered the army with the rank of a captain of infantry. He distinguished himself during the conquest of Algeria, and was appointed governor of that colony, in which capacity he received the submission of the amir Abd-el-Kader. After the revolution of 1848 he retired to England and busied himself with historical and military studies, replying in 1861 by a _Letter upon the History of France_ to Prince Napoleon's violent attacks upon the house of Orleans. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War he volunteered for service in the French army, but his offer was declined. Elected deputy for the Oise department, he returned to France, and succeeded to the _fauteuil_ of the comte de Montalembert in the French Academy. In March 1872 he resumed his place in the army as general of division; and in 1873 he presided over the court-martial which condemned Marshal Bazaine to death. About this period, being appointed commandant of the VII. army corps at Besancon, he retired from political life, and in 1879 became inspector-general of the army. By the act of exception passed in 1883 all members of families that had reigned in France serving in the army were deprived of their military positions; consequently the duc d'Aumale was placed on the unemployed supernumerary list. Subsequently, in 1886, another law was promulgated which expelled from French territory the heads of former reigning families, and provided that henceforward all members of those families should be disqualified for any public position or function, and for election to any public body. The duc d'Aumale protested energetically, and was himself expelled. By his will of the 3rd of June 1884, however, he had bequeathed to the Institute of France his Chantilly estate, with all the art-collection he had gathered there. This generosity led the government to withdraw the decree of exile, and the duke returned to France in 1889. He died at Zucco in Sicily on the 7th of May 1897. Of his marriage, contracted in 1844 with his first cousin, Caroline de Bourbon, daughter of the prince of Salerno, were born two sons: the prince de Conde (d. 1866), and the due de Guise (d. 1872). The due d'Aumale's principal literary work was an _Histoire des princes de Conde_, which he left unfinished.

See Georges Picot, _M. le duc d'Aumale_ (Paris, 1898); Ernest Daudet,
_Le duc d'Aumale_ (Paris, 1898). (M. P.*)

AUMALE, a town of northern France, in the department of Seine-Inferieure, on the left bank of the Bresle, 47 m. N.E. of Rouen on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 1999. The church is an interesting building of the 16th and 17th centuries, and has a portal attributed to Jean Goujon. The town has glass and steel works.

The territory of Aumale (Albemarle, Aubemale, Aumerle; Lat. _Alba Marla_) in Normandy, a dependency of the archbishopric of Rouen, was granted to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law of William the Conqueror, who founded the first line of counts of Aumale. Hawise (Hadwide, Havoise or Avoie), countess of Aumale, after the death of her first husband William de Mandeville, earl of Essex (d. 1189), married William des Forts (de Fors, or de Fortz; Lat. de Fortibus), a military adventurer who had been one of the commanders of the fleet under Richard I. during his first crusade. He died in 1195, and his widow married Baldwin de Betun, who became count of Aumale in her right. He died in 1213, and in 1214 William de Fortibus, son of Hawise by her second husband, was confirmed by King John in all his mother's lands. Meanwhile, however, the territory of Aumale shared the fate of the rest of Normandy, and was annexed to the French crown by King Philip Augustus; but the title of earl of Albemarle, derived from it, continued to be borne in England by William de Fortibus, and was passed on to his heirs (see ALBEMARLE). Aumale itself was conferred by Philip Augustus as an appanage on his son Philip. It was subsequently granted by Louis VIII. to Simon, count of Dammartin, whose daughter, Jeanne, countess of Dammartin, transferred it, together with the countship of Ponthieu, to the house of Castile, by her marriage with Ferdinand III., king of Castile, called the Saint (1238). It then remained in the possession of a branch of her descendants bearing the name of Ponthieu, until it passed to the house of Harcourt on the marriage of Blanche of Ponthieu with John, count of Harcourt (1340). Marie d'Harcourt (d. 1476), heiress of Aumale, married Anthony of Lorraine, count of Vaudemont, and Aumale was created a duchy in the peerage of France for Claude and Francis of Lorraine in 1547. By the marriage of Anne of Lorraine with the duke of Nemours in 1618 the duchy of Aumale passed to the house of Savoy-Nemours. In 1686 Marie Jeanne Baptiste, duchess of Nemours and of Aumale, and wife of Charles Emmanuel II., duke of Savoy, sold Aumale to Louis XIV., who gave it to his natural son, the duke of Maine. After the death of that prince, the dukedom devolved upon his brother, the count of Toulouse, subsequently passing to the latter's son, the duke of Penthievre, whose daughter married the duke of Orleans. Since the reign of Louis Philippe, king of the French, the title of duke of Aumale has been borne by a son of the duke of Orleans.

AUMONT, the name of a family which played an important part in French history. The origin of the name is uncertain, but it has usually been derived from Aumont, now a small commune in the department of the Somme. The family was of great antiquity, a Jean, sire d'Aumont, having accompanied Louis IX. on crusade. It was already powerful in the 14th century, and during the English wars of that period its members fought in the armies of the kings of France. Towards the end of the century, the family took the part of the dukes of Burgundy, but returned to the side of France on the death of Charles the Bold. Jean d'Aumont, lieutenant-general to the king of France in the government of Burgundy, rendered important services to Louis XII. and Francis I. Another Jean d'Aumont (d. 1595), a marshal of France and knight of the order of the Holy Ghost since its institution in 1578, fought against the Huguenots under the last of the Valois kings; but he was among the first to recognize Henry IV., and was appointed governor of Champagne and of Brittany, where he had to fight against the League. His grandson Antoine (1601-1669) was also a marshal of France (1651), governor of Paris (1662), duke and peer (1665). Louis Marie Augustin, duc d'Aumont (1709-1782), was a celebrated collector of works of art. Louis Marie Celeste d'Aumont, due de Piennes, afterwards duc d'Aumont (1762-1831), emigrated during the Revolution and served in the army of the royalists, as also in the Swedish army. During the Hundred Days he effected a descent upon Normandy in the Bourbon interest, and succeeded in capturing Bayeux and Caen.