Chapter II: Part 2

Owing to the timely submission of the monks to the Turks after the capture of Salonica (1430), their privileges were respected by successive sultans: a tribute is paid to the Turkish government, which is represented by a resident _kaimakam_, and the community is allowed to maintain a small police force. Under the present constitution, which dates from 1783, the general affairs of the commonwealth are entrusted to an assembly ([Greek: oynaxis]) of twenty members, one from each monastery; a committee of four members, chosen in turn, styled _epistatae_ ([Greek: epistatai]), forms the executive. The president of the committee ([Greek: ho protos]) is also the president of the assembly, which holds its sittings in the village of Karyes, the seat of government since the 10th century. The twenty monasteries, which all belong to the order of St Basil, are: Laura ([Greek: ae Laura]), founded in 963; Vatopedi ([Greek: Batopedios]), said to have been founded by the emperor Theodosius; Rossikon ([Greek: 'Rossikon]), the Russian monastery of St Panteleimon; Chiliandari ([Greek: Chiliantarios]: supposed to be derived from [Greek: chilioi andres] or [Greek: chilia leontaria]), founded by the Servian prince Stephen Nemanya (1159-1195); Iveron ([Greek: ae monae ton Ibaeron]), founded by Iberians, or Georgians; Esphigmenu ([Greek: tou Esphigmenou]: the name is derived from the confined situation of the monastery); Kutlumush ([Greek: Koutloumousae]); Pandocratoros ([Greek: tou Pantokratoros]); Philotheu ([Greek: Philotheou]); Caracallu ([Greek: tou Karakallou]); St Paul ([Greek: tou agiou Paulou]); St Denis ([Greek: tou agiou Dionusiou]); St Gregory ([Greek: tou agiou Graegoriou]); Simopetra ([Greek: Simopetra]); Xeropotamu ([Greek: tou Xaeropotamou]); St Xenophon ([Greek: tou agiou Xenophontos]); Dochiariu ([Greek: Docheiareiou]); Constamonitu ([Greek: Konstamonitou]); Zographu ([Greek: tou Zographou]); and Stavronikitu ([Greek: tou Stavronikitou], the last built, founded in 1545). The "coenobian" monasteries ([Greek: koinobia]), each under the rule of an abbot ([Greek: aegoumenos]), are subjected to severe discipline; the brethren are clothed alike, take their meals (usually limited to bread and vegetables) in the refectory, and possess no private property. In the "idiorrhythmic" monasteries ([Greek: idiorrythma]), which are governed by two or three annually elected wardens ([Greek: epitropoi]), a less stringent rule prevails, and the monks are allowed to supplement the fare of the monastery from their private incomes. Dependent on the several monasteries are twelve _sketae_ ([Greek: skaetai]) or monastic settlements, some of considerable size, in which a still more ascetic mode of life prevails: there are, in addition, several farms ([Greek: metochia]), and many hundred sanctuaries with adjoining habitations ([Greek: kellia]) and hermitages ([Greek: askaetaeria]). The monasteries, with the exception of Rossikon (St Panteleimon) and the Serbo-Bulgarian Chiliandari and Zographu, are occupied exclusively by Greek monks. The large _skete_ of St Andrew and some others belong to the Russians; there are also Rumanian and Georgian _sketae_. The great monastery of Rossikon, which is said to number about 3000 inmates, has been under a Russian abbot since 1875; it is regarded as one of the principal centres of the Russian politico-religious propaganda in the Levant. The tasteless style of its modern buildings is out of harmony with the quaint beauty of the other monasteries. Furnished with ample means, the Russian monks neglect no opportunity of adding to their possessions on the holy mountain; their encroachments are resisted by the Greek monks, whose wealth, however, was much diminished by the secularization of their estates in Rumania (1864). The population of the holy mountain numbers from 6000 to 7000; about 3000 are monks ([Greek: kalogeroi]), the remainder being lay brothers ([Greek: kosmikoi]). The monasteries, which are all fortified, generally consist of large quadrangles enclosing churches; standing amid rich foliage, they present a wonderfully picturesque appearance, especially when viewed from the sea. Their inmates, when not engaged in religious services, occupy themselves with husbandry, fishing and various handicrafts; the standard of intellectual culture is not high. A large academy, founded by the monks of Vatopedi in 1749, for a time attracted students from all parts of the East, but eventually proved a failure, and is now in ruins. The muniment rooms of the monasteries contain a marvellous series of documents, including chrysobulls of various emperors and princes, _sigilla_ of the patriarchs, _typica_, irades and other documents, the study of which will throw an important light on the political and ecclesiastical history and social life of the East from the middle of the 10th century. Up to comparatively recent times a priceless collection of classical manuscripts was preserved in the libraries; many of them were destroyed during the War of Greek Independence (1821-1829) by the Turks, who employed the parchments for the manufacture of cartridges; others fell a prey to the neglect or vandalism of the monks, who, it is said, used the material as bait in fishing; others have been sold to visitors, and a considerable number have been removed to Moscow and Paris. The library of Simopetra was destroyed by fire in 1891, and that of St Paul in 1905. There is now little hope of any important discovery of classical manuscripts. The codices remaining in the libraries are for the most part theological and ecclesiastical works. Of the Greek manuscripts, numbering about 11,000, 6618 have been catalogued by Professor Spyridion Lambros of Athens; his work, however, does not include the MSS. in some of the _sketae_, or those in the libraries of Laura and Vatopedi, of which catalogues (hitherto unpublished) have been prepared by resident monks. The canonic MSS. only of Vatopedi and Laura have been catalogued by Benessevich in the supplement to vol. ix. of the _Bizantiyskiy Vremennik_ (St Petersburg, 1904). The Slavonic and Georgian MSS. have not been catalogued. Apart from the illuminated MSS., the mural paintings, the mosaics, and the goldsmith's work of Mount Athos are of infinite interest to the student of Byzantine art. The frescoes in general date from the 15th or 16th century: some are attributed by the monks to Panselinos, "the Raphael of Byzantine painting," who apparently flourished in the time of the Palaeologi. Most of them have been indifferently restored by local artists, who follow mechanically a kind of hieratic tradition, the principles of which are embodied in a work of iconography by the monk Dionysius, said to have been a pupil of Panselinos. The same spirit of conservatism is manifest in the architecture of the churches, which are all of the medieval Byzantine type. Some of the monasteries were seriously damaged by an earthquake in 1905.

AUTHORITIES.--R.N.C. Curzon, _Visits to Monasteries in the Levant_
(London, 1849); J.P. Fallmerayer, _Fragmenta aus dem Orient_
(Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1845); V. Langlois, _Le Mont Athos et ses
monasteres_, with a complete bibliography (Paris, 1867); Duchesne and
Bayet, _Memoirs sur une mission en Macedoine et au Mont Athos_ (Paris,
1876); Texier and Pullan, _Byzantine Architecture_ (London, 1864); H.
Brockhaus, _Die Kunst in den Athosklostern_ (Leipzig, 1891); A. Riley,
_Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks_ (London, 1887); S. Lambros,
_Catalogue of the Greek Manuscripts on Mount Athos_ (2 vols.,
Cambridge, 1895 and 1900); M.I. Gedeon, [Greek: o Athos]
(Constantinople, 1885); P. Meyer, "Beitrage zur Kenntniss der neueren
Geschichte und des gegenwartigen Zustandes der Athoskloster," in
_Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte_, 1890; _Die Haupturkunden fur die
Geschichte der Athoskloster_ (Leipzig, 1894); G. Millet, J. Pargoire
and L. Petit, _Recueil des inscriptions chretiennes de l'Athos_
(Paris, 1904); H. Gelzer, _Vom Heiligen Berge und aus Makedonien_
(Leipzig, 1904); K. Vlachu (Blachos), [Greek: Ae Chersonaesos tou
Hagiou Orous] (Athens, 1903); G. Smurnakes, [Greek: To Hagiou
Archaiologia Orous Atho], (Athens, 1904). (J. D. B.)

ATHY (pronounced Athy), a market-town of Co. Kildare, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, 45 m. S.W. of Dublin on a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3599. It is intersected by the river Barrow, which is here crossed by a bridge of five arches. The crossing of the river here was guarded and disputed from the earliest times, and the name of the town is derived from a king of Munster killed here in the 2nd century. There are picturesque remains of Woodstock Castle of the 12th or 13th century, and White Castle built in 1506, and rebuilt in 1575 by a member of the family whose name it bears, and still occupied. Both were erected to defend the ford of the Barrow. There are also an old town gate, and an ancient cemetery with slight monastic remains. Previous to the Union Athy returned two members to the Irish parliament. The trade, chiefly in grain, is aided by excellent water communication, by a branch of the Grand Canal to Dublin, and by the river Barrow, navigable from here to Waterford harbour.

ATINA, the name of three ancient towns of Italy.

1. A town (mod. _Atena_) of Lucania, upon the Via Popillia, 7 m. N. of Tegianum, towards which an ancient road leads, in the valley of the river now known as Diano. Its ancient importance is vouched for by its walls of rough cyclopean work, which may have had a total extent of some 2 m. (see G. Patroni in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1897, 112; 1901, 498). The date of these walls has not as yet been ascertained, recent excavations, which led to the discovery of a few tombs in which the earliest objects showing Greek influence may go back to the 7th century B.C., not having produced any decisive evidence on the point. To the Roman period belong the remains of an amphitheatre and numerous inscriptions.

2. A town (mod. _Atina_) of the Volsci, 12 m. N. of Casinum, and about 14 m. E. of Arpinum, on a hill 1607 ft. above sea-level. The walls, of carefully worked polygonal blocks of stone, are still preserved in parts, and the modern town does not fill the whole area which they enclose. Cicero speaks of it as a prosperous country town, which had not as yet fallen into the hands of large proprietors; and inscriptions show that under the empire it was still flourishing. One of these last is a boundary stone relating to the assignation of lands in the time of the Gracchi, of which six other examples have been found in Campania and Lucania.

3. A town of the Veneti, mentioned by Pliny, _H.N._ iii. 131.

ATITLAN, or SANTIAGO DE ATITLAN, a town in the department of Solola, Guatemala, on the southern shore of Lake Atitlan. Pop. (1905) about 9000, almost all Indians. Cotton-spinning is the chief industry. Lake Atitlan is 24 m. long and 10 m. broad, with 64 m. circumference. It occupies a crater more than 1000 ft. deep and about 4700 ft. above sea-level. The peaks of the Guatemala Cordillera rise round it, culminating near its southern end in the volcanoes of San Pedro (7000 ft.) and Atitlan (11,719 ft.). Although the lake is fed by many small mountain torrents, it has no visible outlet, but probably communicates by an underground channel with one of the rivers which drain the Cordillera. Mineral springs abound in the neighbourhood. The town of Solola (q.v.) is near the north shore of the lake.

ATKINSON, EDWARD (1827-1905), American economist, was born at Brookline, Massachusetts, on the 10th of February 1827. For many years he was engaged in managing various business enterprises, and became, in 1877, president of the Boston Manufacturers' Mutual Fire Insurance Company, a post which he held till his death. He was a strong controversialist and a prolific writer on such economic subjects as banking, railways, cotton manufacture, the tariff and free trade, and the money question. He was appointed in 1887 a special commissioner to report upon the status of bimetallism in Europe. He also made a special study of mill construction and fire prevention, and invented an improved cooking apparatus, called the "Aladdin oven." He was an active supporter of anti-imperialism. He died at Boston on the 11th of December 1905.

His principal works were _Right Methods of Preventing Fires in Mills_
(1881); _Distribution of Products_ (1885); _Industrial Progress of the
Nation_ (1889); _Taxation and Work_ (1892); _Science of Nutrition_
(10th ed., 1898).

ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT (1831-1892), British colonial statesman, prime minister and speaker of the legislative council, New Zealand, was born at Chester in 1831, and in 1855 emigrated to Taranaki, New Zealand, where he became a farmer. In 1860 the Waitara war broke out, and from its outset Atkinson, who had been selected as a captain of the New Plymouth Volunteers, distinguished himself by his contempt for appearances and tradition, and by the practical skill, energy and courage which he showed in leading his Forest Rangers in the tiresome and lingering bush warfare of the next five years. For this work he was made a major of militia, and thanked by the government. Elected to the house of representatives in 1863, he joined Sir Frederick Weld's ministry at the end of November 1864 as minister of defence, and, during eleven months of office, was identified with the well-known "self-reliance" policy, a proposal to dispense with imperial regulars, and meet the Maori with colonials only. Parliament accepted this principle, but turned out the Weld ministry for other reasons. For four years Atkinson was out of parliament; in October 1873 he re-entered it, and a year later became minister of lands under Sir Julius Vogel. Ten months later he was treasurer, and such was his aptitude for finance that, except during six months in 1876, he thenceforth held that post whenever his party was in power. From October 1874 to January 1891 Atkinson was only out of office for about five years. Three times he was premier, and he was always the most formidable debater and fighter in the ranks of the Conservative opponents of the growing Radical party which Sir George Grey, Sir Robert Stout and John Ballance led in succession. It was he, who was mainly responsible for the abolition of the provinces into which the colony was divided from 1853 to 1876. He repealed the Ballance land-tax in 1879, and substituted a property-tax. He greatly reduced the cost of the public service in 1880, and again in 1888. In both these years he raised the customs duties, amongst other taxes, and gave them a quasi-protectionist character. In 1880 he struck 10% off all public salaries and wages; in 1887 he reduced the salary of the governor by one-third, and the pay and number of ministers and members of parliament. By these resolute steps revenue was increased, expenditure checked, and the colony's finance reinstated. Atkinson was an advocate of compulsory national assurance, and the leasing as opposed to the selling of crown lands. Defeated in the general election of December 1890, he took the appointment of speaker of the legislative council. There, while leaving the council chamber after the sitting of the 28th of June 1892, he was struck down by heart disease and died in a few minutes. Though brusque in manner and never popular, he was esteemed as a vigorous, upright and practical statesman. He was twice married, and had seven children, of whom three sons and a daughter survived him. (W. P. R.)

ATLANTA, the capital and the largest city of Georgia, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Fulton county, situated at an altitude of 1000-1175 ft., in the N.W. part of the state, near the Chattahoochee river. Pop. (1860) 9554; (1880) 37,409; (1890) 65,533; (1900) 89,872, of whom 35,727 were negroes and 2531 were foreign-born; (1910) 154,839. It is served by the Southern, the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Seaboard Air Line, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis (which enters the city over the Western & Atlantic, one of its leased lines), the Louisville & Nashville, the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic, and the Atlanta & West Point railways. These railway communications, and the situation of the city (on the Piedmont Plateau) on the water-parting between the streams flowing into the Atlantic Ocean and those flowing into the Gulf of Mexico, have given Atlanta its popular name, the "Gate City of the South." Atlanta was laid out in the form of a circle, the radius being 1-3/4 m. and the centre the old railway station, the Union Depot (the new station is called the Terminal); large additions have been made beyond this circle, including West End, Inman Park on the east, and North Atlanta. Among the best residence streets are Peachtree and West Peachtree streets to the north, and the older streets to the south of the business centre of the city--Washington Street, Whitehall, Pryor and Capitol Avenues. Among the principal office buildings are the Empire, the Equitable, the Prudential, the Fourth National, the Austell, the Peters, the Century, the English-American and the Candler buildings; and there are many fine residences, particularly in Peachtree and Washington streets, Inman Park and Ponce de Leon Circle. Among prominent public buildings are the State Capitol (completed 1889), containing a law library of about 65,000 volumes and a collection of portraits of famous Georgians, the north-west front of the Capitol grounds containing an equestrian statue (unveiled in 1907) of John Brown Gordon (1832-1904), a distinguished Confederate general in the American Civil War and governor of Georgia in 1887-1890; the court house; the Carnegie library, in which the young men's library, organized in 1867, was merged in 1902; the post office building; and the Federal prison (about 4 m. south of the city). The principal parks are: the Piedmont (189 acres), the site of the Piedmont Exposition of 1887 and of the Cotton States and International Exposition of 1895; the Grant, given to the city by L.P. Grant, an Atlanta railroad builder, in 1882, and subsequently enlarged by the city (in its south-east corner is Fort Walker); the Lakewood, 6 m. south of the city; and Ponce de Leon Park, owned by an electric railway company and having mineral springs and a fine baseball ground. Four miles south of the centre of Atlanta is Fort McPherson, an important United States military post, occupying a reservation of 40 acres and having barracks for the accommodation of 1000 men. In Oakland Cemetery is a large monument to Confederate soldiers; another monument in Oakland, "To the unknown Confederate Dead," is a reproduction of the Lion of Lucerne; in West View Cemetery (4 m. west of the city) is a memorial erected by the United Confederate Veterans. The city obtains its water-supply from the Chattahoochee river (above the mouth of Peachtree Creek), whence the water is pumped by four pumps, which have a daily capacity of 55,000,000 gallons. Atlanta is widely known for its public spirit and enterprise, to which the expositions of 1881, 1887 and 1895 bear witness. The air is bracing, largely because of the city's altitude; the mean annual temperature is 60.8 deg. F. (winter 44.1 deg., spring 60.5 deg., summer 77 deg., autumn 61.5 deg.).

Atlanta is an important educational centre. Its public-school system was organized in 1871. Here are the Georgia School of Technology, founded in 1885 (opened 1888) as a branch of the university of Georgia; the Atlanta College of Physicians and Surgeons (established in 1898 by the union of the Atlanta Medical College, organized in 1855, and the Southern Medical College, organized in 1878); the Atlanta School of Medicine (1905); the Georgia College of Eclectic Medicine; the Atlanta Theological Seminary (1901, Congregational), the only theological school of the denomination in the South in 1908; the Atlanta Dental College; the Southern College of Pharmacy (1903); Washington Seminary (1877) for girls; and the following institutions for negroes--Atlanta University, founded in 1869, which is one of the best institutions in the country for the higher education of negroes, standing particularly for "culture" education (as opposed to industrial training), which has done particularly good work in the department of sociology, under the direction of Prof. W.E.B. du Bois (b. 1868), one of the most prominent teachers of negro descent in the country, and which had in 1908 339 students; Clark University, founded in 1870 by the Freedman's Aid and Southern Educational Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church; the Atlanta Baptist College, founded in 1867; Morris Brown College (African Methodist Episcopal, founded in 1882, and opened in 1885), which has college preparatory, scientific, academic, normal and missionary courses, correspondence courses in English and theology, an industrial department, and departments of law, theology (Turner Theological Seminary), nurse-training, music and art; the Gammon Theological Seminary (Methodist Episcopal, chartered in 1888), which has its buildings just outside the city limits; and the Spelman Seminary for women and girls (Baptist) opened in 1881 as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary--the present name being adopted in 1883 in honour of the parents of Mrs John D. Rockefeller--and incorporated in 1888. At Decatur (pop. 1418 in 1900), a residential suburb, 6 m. east-north-east of Atlanta, is the Agnes Scott College (1890) for white girls; connected with the college is a school of music, art and expression, and an academy.

The city's principal charitable institutions are the Grady Memorial hospital (opened in 1892), supported by the city and named in honour of Henry W. Grady; the Presbyterian hospital; the Baptist Tabernacle Infirmary; the Wesley Memorial hospital; St Joseph's infirmary; the Municipal hospital for contagious diseases; the Florence Crittenden home. Three miles south-east of the city is a (state) soldiers' home, for aged, infirm and disabled Confederate veterans. The Associated Charities of Atlanta was organized in 1905.

The principal newspapers are the _Constitution_ (morning), edited from 1880 until 1889 by Henry W. Grady (1851-1889),[1] one of the most eloquent of Southern orators, who did much to promote the reconciliation of the North and the South after the Civil War, and whose statue stands opposite the post office; the _Journal_ (evening), of which Hoke Smith (b. 1855), a prominent political leader, secretary of the interior in President Cleveland's cabinet in 1893-1896, and later governor of Georgia, was long the proprietor; and the _Georgian_ (evening), founded in 1906 as a Prohibition organ.

As regards commerce and manufactures, Atlanta ranks first among the cities of Georgia. In 1907 its whosesale and retail trade was estimated at $100,000,000. The city is said to receive two-fifths of the total freight delivered in the state of Georgia. From 1895 to 1907 the bank clearings increased from about $65,000,000 to about $260,000,000. In recognition of the city's financial strength, Atlanta has been designated by the secretary of the treasury as one of the cities whose bonds will be accepted as security for Federal deposits. Atlanta is the Southern headquarters for a number of fire and life insurance companies, and is the third city of the United States in the amount of insurance business written and reported to resident agents, the annual premium receipts averaging about $10,000,000. It is an important horse and mule market, and handles much tobacco.

The development of manufactures has been especially notable. In 1880 the capital invested in manufacturing industries was approximately $2,468,000; in 1890 it was $9,508,962; in 1900 it had increased to $16,045,156; and in 1905, when only establishments under the "factory system" were counted in the census, to $21,631,162. In 1900 the total product was valued at $16,707,027, and the factory product at $14,418,834; and in 1905 the factory product was valued at $25,745,650, an increase of 78.6% in five years. Among the products are cotton goods (the product value of which in 1905 was 14% of the total value of the city's manufactures), foundry and machine-shop products, lumber, patent medicines, confectionery, men's clothing, mattresses, spring-beds and other furniture. Since 1904 part of the power utilized for manufacturing has been obtained from the Chattahoochee river, 15 m. from the city. There are many manufactories just outside the city limits.

_History._--Atlanta owes its origin to the development of pioneer railroads of Georgia. In 1836 the Western & Atlantic, the first road built into North Georgia, was chartered, and the present site of Atlanta was chosen as its southern terminal, which it reached in 1843, and which was named "Terminus." The Georgia and the Central of Georgia then projected branches to Terminus in order to connect with the Western & Atlantic, and completed them in 1845 and 1846. The town charter of 1843 changed the name to Marthasville, in honour of the daughter of Governor Wilson Lumpkin; and the city charter of 1847 changed this to Atlanta. The population in 1850 was 2572; in 1860, 9554. Manufacturing interests soon became important, and during the Civil War Atlanta was the seat of Confederate military factories and a depot of supplies. In 1864 it was the objective point of the first stage of General William T. Sherman's invasion of Georgia (see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR), which is therefore generally known as the "Atlanta campaign."

After the battles around Marietta (q.v.), and the crossing of the Chattahoochee river on the 8th and 9th of July, Sherman continued his advance against Atlanta. His plan of operations was directed primarily to the seizure of the Decatur railway, by which the Confederate commander, General J.E. Johnston, might receive support from Virginia and the Carolinas. The three Union armies under Sherman's command, outnumbering the Confederates about 3 to 2, began their movement on the 16th of July; the Army of the Cumberland (Gen. G.H. Thomas) on the right marching from Marietta by the fords of the Upper Chattahoochee on Atlanta, the Army of the Ohio (Gen. J.M. Schofield) in the centre direct on Decatur, and the Army of the Tennessee (Gen. J.B. McPherson) still farther east towards Stone Mountain. At the moment of marching out to meet the enemy, Johnston was relieved of his command and was replaced by Gen. J.B. Hood (July 17). Hood at once prepared to attack Thomas as soon as that general should have crossed Peachtree Creek (6 m. north of the city) and thus isolated himself from Schofield and McPherson. Sherman's confidence in Thomas and his troops was, however, justified. Hood's attack (battle of Peachtree Creek, July 20) was everywhere repulsed, and Schofield and McPherson closed up at the greatest speed. Hood had to retire to Atlanta, with a loss of more than 4000 men, and the three Union armies gradually converged on the north and east sides of the city. But Hood, who had been put in command as a fighting general, was soon ready to attack afresh. This time he placed Gen. W.J. Hardee's corps, the largest of his army, to the south of Atlanta, facing the left flank of McPherson's army. As Hardee's attack rolled up the Union army from left to right, the remainder of the Confederate army was to issue from the Atlanta fortifications and join in the battle. Hardee opened his attack at noon on the 22nd of July (battle of Atlanta). The troops of the Army of the Tennessee were swiftly driven back, and their commander, McPherson, killed; but presently the Federals re-formed and a severe struggle ensued, in which most of Hood's army joined. The veterans of the Army of the Tennessee, led by Gen. J.A. Logan, offered a stubborn resistance, however, and Schofield's army now intervened. After prolonged attacks lasting to nightfall, Hood had once more to draw off, with about 10,000 men killed and wounded. The Confederates now abandoned all idea of regaining the Decatur line, and based themselves on Jonesboro' and the Macon railway. Sherman quickly realized this, and the Army of the Tennessee, now commanded by Gen. O.O. Howard, was counter-marched from left to right, until it formed up on the right of the Union line about Ezra Church (about 4 m. west of Atlanta). The railway from Chattanooga to Atlanta, destroyed by Johnston as he fell back in May and June, was now repaired and working up to Thomas's camps. Hood had meanwhile extended his entrenchments southwards to cover the Macon railway, and Howard's movement led to another engagement (battle of Ezra Church, July 28) in which the XV. corps under Logan again bore the brunt of Hood's attack. The Confederates were once more unsuccessful, and the losses were so heavy that the "fighting" policy ordered by the Confederate government was countermanded. Sherman's cavalry had hitherto failed to do serious damage to the railway, and the Federal general now proceeded to manoeuvre with his main body so as to cut off Hood from his Southern railway lines (August). Covered by Howard at Ezra Church, Schofield led this advance, but the new Confederate lines baffled him. A bombardment of the Atlanta fortifications was then begun, but it had no material result. Another cavalry raid effected but slight damage to the line, and Sherman now decided to take his whole force to the south side. This apparently dangerous movement (August 25) is a remarkable illustration of Sherman's genius for war, and in fact succeeded completely. Only a small force was left to guard the Chattanooga railway, and the Union forces, Howard on the right, Thomas in the centre, and Schofield on the left, reached the railway after some sharp fighting (action of Jonesboro', September 1). The defence of Atlanta was now hopeless; Hood's forces retreated southward the same evening, and on the 2nd of September the Union detachment left behind on the north side entered Atlanta unopposed.

All citizens were now ordered to leave, the place was turned into a military camp, and when Sherman started on his "March to the Sea," on the 15th of November, a large part of the city was burned. Consequently the present city is a product of the post-bellum development of Georgia. The military government of Georgia was established here in 1865. In 1868 Atlanta was made the capital of the state.

In 1881 an International Cotton Exposition was held in Atlanta. This was American, even local, in character; its inception was due to a desire to improve the cultivation and manufacture of cotton; but it brought to the notice of the whole country the industrial transformation wrought in the Southern states during the last quarter of the 19th century. In 1887 the Piedmont Exposition was held in Atlanta. The Cotton States and International Exposition, also held at Atlanta, in 1895, attracted widespread attention, and had exhibits from thirty-seven states and thirteen foreign countries.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Grady was succeeded as managing editor by Clark Howell (b. 1863);
and Joel Chandler Harris was long a member of the editorial staff.

ATLANTIC, a city and the county-seat of Cass county, Iowa, U.S.A., on East Nishnabatna river, about 80 m. W. by S. of Des Moines. Pop. (1890) 4351; (1900) 5046; (1905, state census) 5180 (625 foreign-born); (1910) 4560. It is served by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railway, and by an inter-urban electric line connecting with Elkhorn and Kimballton, and is the trade centre of a fine agricultural country; among its manufactures are machine-shop products, canned corn, flour, umbrellas, drugs and bricks. The municipality owns the water-works and electric-lighting plant. Atlantic was chartered as a city in 1869.

ATLANTIC CITY, a city of Atlantic county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Atlantic Ocean, 58 m. S.E. of Philadelphia and 137 m. S. by W. of New York. Pop. (1890) 13,055; (1900) 27,838, of whom 6513 were of negro descent and 3189 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 46,150. It is served by the Atlantic City (Philadelphia & Reading) and the West Jersey & Seashore (Pennsylvania system) railways. Atlantic City is the largest and most popular all-the-year-round resort in the United States, and has numerous fine hotels. The city extends for 3 m. along a low sandy island (Absecon Beach), 10 m. long by 3/4 m. wide, separated from the mainland by a narrow strip of salt water and 4 or 5 m. of salt marshes, partly covered with water at highest storm tide. There are good bathing, boating, sailing, fishing and wild-fowl shooting. A "Board Walk" stretches along the beach for about 5 m.--the newest part of it is of concrete--and along or near this walk are the largest hotels, and numerous shops, and places of amusement; from the walk into the ocean extend several long piers. Other features of the place are the broad driveway (Atlantic Avenue) and an automobile boulevard. There are several seaside sanitoriums and hospitals, including the Atlantic City hospital, the Mercer Memorial home, and the Children's Seashore home. On the north end of the beach is Absecon Lighthouse, 160 ft. high. The municipality owns the water-works. Oysters are dredged here and are shipped hence in large quantities. There was a settlement of fishermen on the island in the latter part of the 18th century. In 1852 a movement was made to develop it as a seaside resort for Philadelphia, and after the completion of the Camden & Atlantic City railway in 1854 the growth of the place was rapid. A heavy loss occurred by fire on the 3rd of April 1902.

ATLANTIC OCEAN,

Extent.

a belt of water, roughly of an S-shape, between the western coasts of Europe and Africa and the eastern coasts of North and South America. It extends northward to the Arctic Basin and southward to the Great Southern Ocean. For purposes of measurement the polar boundaries are taken to be the Arctic and Antarctic circles, although in discussing the configuration and circulation it is impossible to adhere strictly to these limits. The Atlantic Ocean consists of two characteristic divisions, the geographical equator forming a fairly satisfactory line of division into North and South Atlantic. The North Atlantic, by far the best-known of the main divisions of the hydrosphere, is remarkable for the immense length of its coast-line and for the large number of enclosed seas connected with it, including on the western side the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of St Lawrence and Hudson Bay, and on the eastern side the Mediterranean and Black Sea, the North Sea and the Baltic. The North Atlantic is connected with the Arctic Basin by four main channels: (1) Hudson Strait, about 60 m. wide, communicating with the gulfs and straits of the North American Arctic archipelago; (2) Davis Strait, about 200 m. wide, leading to Baffin Bay; (3) Denmark Strait, between Greenland and Iceland, 130 m. wide; and (4) the "Norwegian Sea," about 400 m. wide, extending from Iceland to the Faeroe Islands, the Shetland Islands and the coast of Norway. The width of the North Atlantic in lat. 60 deg., approximately where it breaks up into the branches just named, is nearly 2000 m.; in about lat. 50 deg. N. the coasts of Ireland and Newfoundland approach to 1750 m.; the breadth then increases rapidly to lat. 40 deg. N., and attains its maximum of 4500 m. in lat. 25 deg. N.; farther south the minimum breadth is reached between Africa and South America, Cape Palmas being only 1600 m. distant from Cape St Roque. In marked contrast to this, the South Atlantic is distinguished by great simplicity of coast-line; inland seas there are none, and it attains its greatest breadth as it merges with the Southern Ocean; in lat. 35 deg. S. the width is 3700 m.

The total area of the North Atlantic, not counting inland seas connected with it, is, according to G. Karstens, 36,438,000 sq. kilometres, or 10,588,000 sq. m.; including the inland seas the area is 45,641,000 sq. kilometres or 13,262,000 sq. m. The area of the South Atlantic is 43,455,000 sq. kilometres, or 12,627,000 sq. m. Although not the most extensive of the great oceans, the Atlantic has by far the largest drainage area. The "long slopes" of the continents on both sides are directed towards the Atlantic, which accordingly receives the waters of a large proportion of the great rivers of the world, including the St Lawrence, the Mississippi, the Orinoco, the Amazon, the rivers of the La Plata, the Congo, the Niger, the Loire, the Rhine, the Elbe and the great rivers of the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Sir J. Murray estimates the total area of land draining to the Atlantic to be 13,432,000 sq. m., or with the Arctic area nearly 20,000,000 sq. m., nearly four times the area draining to the Pacific Ocean, and almost precisely four times the area draining to the Indian Ocean. Murray's calculations give the amount of precipitation received on this area at 15,800 cub. m. annually, and the river discharge from it at 3900 cub. m.

Relief of the bed.

The dominant feature of the relief of the Atlantic basin is a submarine ridge running from north to south from about lat. 50 deg. N. to lat. 40 deg. S., almost exactly in the central line, and following the S-shape of the coasts. Over this ridge the average depth is about 1700 fathoms. Towards its northern end the ridge widens and rises to the plateau of the Azores, and in about 50 deg. N. lat. it merges with the "Telegraph Plateau," which extends across nearly the whole ocean from Ireland to Newfoundland. North of the fiftieth parallel the depths diminish towards the north-east, two long submarine ridges of volcanic origin extend north-eastwards to the south-west of Iceland and to the Faeroe Islands, and these, with their intervening valleys, end in a transverse ridge connecting Greenland, through Iceland and the Faeroe Islands, with North-western Scotland and the continental mass of Europe. The mean depth over this ridge is about 250 fathoms, and the maximum depth nowhere reaches 500 fathoms. The main basin of the Atlantic is thus cut off from the Arctic basin, with which the area north of the ridge has complete deep-water communication. This intermediate region, which has Atlantic characteristics down to 300 fathoms, and at greater depths belongs more properly to the Arctic Sea, commonly receives the name of Norwegian Sea. On both sides of the central ridge deep troughs extend southwards from the Telegraph plateau to the Southern Ocean, the deep water coming close to the land all the way down on both sides. In these troughs the depth is seldom much less than 3000 fathoms, and this is exceeded in a series of patches to which Murray has given the name of "Deeps." In the eastern trough the Peake Deep lies off the Bay of Biscay in 20 deg. W. long., Monaco Deep and Chun Deep off the north-west of Africa, Moseley Deep off the Cape Verde Islands, Krech Deep off the Liberian coast, and Buchanan Deep off the mouth of the Congo. The western trough extends northwards into Davis Strait, forming a depression in the Telegraph plateau; to the south of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia are Sigsbee Deep, Libbey Deep and Suhm Deep, each of small area; north-east of the Bahamas Nares Deep forms the largest and deepest depression in the Atlantic, in which a sounding of 4561 fathoms was obtained (70 m. north of Porto Rico) by the U.S. ship "Blake" in 1883. Immediately to the south of Nares Deep lies the smaller Makarov Deep; and off the coast of South America are Tizard Deep and Havergal Deep.

Before the Antarctic expeditions of 1903-1904 our knowledge of the form of the sea bottom south of 40 deg. S. lat. was almost wholly derived from the soundings of the expedition of Sir J.C. Ross in the "Erebus" and "Terror" (1839-1843), and the bathymetrical maps published were largely the result of deductions based on one sounding taken by Ross in 68 deg. 34' S. lat., 12 deg. 49' W. long., in which he recorded a depth exceeding 4000 fathoms. The Scottish Antarctic expedition has shown this sounding to be erroneous; the "Scotia" obtained samples of bottom, in almost the same spot, from a depth of 2660 fathoms. Combining the results of recent soundings, Dr W.S. Bruce, the leader of the Scottish expedition, finds that there is a ridge "extending in a curve from Madagascar to Bouvet Island, and from Bouvet Island to the Sandwich group, whence there is a forked connexion through the South Orkneys to Graham's Land, and through South Georgia to the Falkland Islands and the South American continent." Again, the central ridge of the South Atlantic extends a thousand miles farther south than was supposed, joining the east and west ridge, just described, between the Bouvet Islands and the Sandwich group.

The foundations of our knowledge of the relief of the Atlantic basin may be said to have been laid by the work of H.M.S. "Challenger" (1873-1876), and the German ship "Gazelle" (1874-1876), the French expedition in the "Travailleur" (1880), and the U.S. surveying vessel "Blake" (1877 and later). Large numbers of additional soundings have been made in recent years by cable ships, by the expeditions of H.S.H. the prince of Monaco, the German "Valdivia" expedition under Professor Chun (1898), and the combined Antarctic expeditions (1903-1904).

Islands.

The Atlantic Ocean contains a relatively small number of islands. The only continental groups, besides some islands in the Mediterranean, are Iceland, the British Isles, Newfoundland, the West Indies, and the Falklands, and the chief oceanic islands are the Azores, Madeira, the Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, Ascension, St Helena, Tristan da Cunha and Bouvet Island.

Mean depth, and bottom deposits.

The mean depth of the North Atlantic is, according to G. Karstens, 2047 fathoms. If we include the enclosed seas, the North Atlantic has a mean depth of 1800 fathoms. The South Atlantic has a mean depth of 2067 fathoms.

The greater part of the bottom of the Atlantic is covered by a deposit of Globigerina ooze, roughly the area between 1000 and 3000 fathoms, or about 60% of the whole. At a depth of about 3000 fathoms, i.e. in the "Deeps," the Globigerina ooze gradually gives place to red clay. In the shallower tropical waters, especially on the central ridge, considerable areas are covered by Pteropod ooze, a deposit consisting largely of the shells of pelagic molluscs. Diatom ooze is the characteristic deposit in high southern latitudes. The terrigenous deposits consist of blue muds, red muds (abundant along the coast of Brazil, where the amount of organic matter present is insufficient to reduce the iron in the matter brought down by the great rivers to produce blue muds), green muds and sands, and volcanic and coral detritus.

The question of the origin of the Atlantic basin, like that of the other great divisions of the hydrosphere, is still unsettled. Most geologists include the Atlantic with the other oceans in the view they adopt as to its age; but E. Suess and M. Neumayr, while they regard the basin of the Pacific as of great antiquity, believe the Atlantic to date only from the Mesozoic age. Neumayr finds evidence of the existence of a continent between Africa and South America, which protruded into the central North Atlantic, in Jurassic times. F. Kossmat has shown that the Atlantic had substantially its present form during the Cretaceous period.

Distribution of temperature.

In describing the mean distribution of temperature in the waters of the Atlantic it is necessary to treat the northern and southern divisions separately. The heat equator, or line of maximum mean surface temperature, starts from the African coast in about 5 deg. N. lat., and closely follows that parallel to 40 deg. W. long., where it bends northwards to the Caribbean Sea. North of this line, near which the temperature is a little over 80 deg. F., the gradient trends somewhat to the east of north, and the temperature is slightly higher on the western than on the eastern side until, in 45 deg. N. lat., the isothermal of 60 deg. F. runs nearly east and west. Beyond this parallel the gradient is directed towards the north-west, and temperatures are much higher on the European than on the American side. From the surface to 500 fathoms the general form of the isothermals remains the same, except that instead of an equatorial maximum belt there is a focus of maximum temperature off the eastern coast of the United States. This focus occupies a larger area and becomes of greater relative intensity as the depth increases until, at 500 fathoms, it becomes an elongated belt extending right across the ocean in about 30 deg. N. lat. Below 500 fathoms the western centres of maximum disappear, and higher temperatures occur in the eastern Atlantic off the Iberian peninsula and north-western Africa down to at least 1000 fathoms; at still greater depths temperature gradually becomes more and more uniform. The communication between the Atlantic and Arctic basins being cut off, as already described, at a depth of about 300 fathoms, the temperatures in the Norwegian Sea below that level are essentially Arctic, usually below the freezing-point of fresh water, except where the distribution is modified by the surface circulation. The isothermals of mean surface temperature in the South Atlantic are in the lower latitudes of an ~-shape, temperatures being higher on the American than on the African side. In latitudes south of 30 deg. S. the curved form tends to disappear, the lines running more and more directly east and west. Below the surface a focus of maximum temperature appears off the coast of South America in about 30 deg. S. lat., and of minimum temperature north and north-east of this maximum. This distribution is most marked at about 300 fathoms, and disappears at 500 fathoms, beyond which depth the lines tend to become parallel and to run east and west, the gradient slowly diminishing.

Salinity.

The Atlantic is by far the saltest of the great oceans. Its saltest waters are found at the surface in two belts, one extending east and west in the North Atlantic between 20 deg. and 30 deg. N. lat., and another of almost equal salinity extending eastwards from the coast of South America in 10 deg. to 20 deg. S. lat. In the equatorial region between these belts the salinity is markedly less, especially in the eastern part. North of the North Atlantic maximum the waters become steadily fresher as latitude increases until the channels opening into the Arctic basin are reached. In all of these water of relatively high salinity usually appears for a long distance towards the north on the eastern side of the channel, while on the western side the water is comparatively fresh; but great variations occur at different seasons and in different years. In the higher latitudes of the South Atlantic the salinity diminishes steadily and tends to be uniform from east to west, except near the southern extremity of South America, where the surface waters are very fresh. Our knowledge of the salinity of waters below the surface is as yet very defective, large areas being still unrepresented by a single observation. The chief facts already established are the greater saltness of the North Atlantic compared with the South Atlantic at all depths, and the low salinity at all depths in the eastern equatorial region, off the Gulf of Guinea.

Meteorology.

The wind circulation over the Atlantic is of a very definite character. In the South Atlantic the narrow land surfaces of Africa and South America produce comparatively little effect in disturbing the normal planetary circulation. The tropical belt of high atmospheric pressure is very marked in winter; it is weaker during the summer months, and at that season the greater relative fall of pressure over the land cuts it off into an oval-shaped anticyclone, the centre of which rests on the coolest part of the sea surface in that latitude, near the Gulf of Guinea. South of this anticyclone, from about the latitude of the Cape, we find the region where, on account of the uninterrupted sea surface right round the globe, the planetary circulation is developed to the greatest extent known; the pressure gradient is steep, and the region is swept continuously by strong westerly winds--the "roaring forties."

In the North Atlantic the distribution of pressure and resulting wind circulation are very largely modified by the enormous areas of land and frozen sea which surround the ocean on three sides. The tropical belt of high pressure persists all the year round, but the immense demand for air to supply the ascending currents over the heated land surfaces in summer causes the normal descending movement to be largely reinforced; hence the "North Atlantic anticyclone" is much larger, and its circulation more vigorous, in summer than in winter. Again, during the winter months pressure is relatively high over North America, Western Eurasia and the Arctic regions; hence vast quantities of air are brought down to the surface, and circulation must be kept up by ascending currents over the ocean. The Atlantic anticyclone is, therefore, at its weakest in winter, and on its polar side the polar eddy becomes a trough of low pressure, extending roughly from Labrador to Iceland and Jan Mayen, and traversed by a constant succession of cyclones. The net effect of the surrounding land is, in fact, to reverse the seasonal variations of the planetary circulation, but without destroying its type. In the intermediate belt between the two high-pressure areas the meteorological equator remains permanently north of the geographical equator, moving between it and about 11 deg. N. lat.

Currents.

The part of this atmospheric circulation which is steadiest in its action is the trade winds, and this is, therefore, the most effective in producing drift movement of the surface waters. The trade winds give rise, in the region most exposed to their influence, to two westward-moving drifts--the equatorial currents, which are separated in parts of their course by currents moving in the opposite direction along the equatorial belt. These last may be of the nature of "reaction" currents; they are collectively known as the equatorial counter-current. On reaching the South American coast, the southern equatorial current splits into two parts at Cape St Roque: one branch, the Brazil current, is deflected southwards and follows the coast as a true stream current at least as far as the river Plate. The second branch proceeds north-westwards towards the West Indies, where it mingles with the waters of the northern equatorial; and the two drifts, blocked by the <-shape of the land, raise the level of the surface in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and in the whole area outside the West Indies. This congestion is relieved by what is probably the most rapid and most voluminous stream current in the world, the Gulf Stream, which runs along the coast of North America, separated from it by a narrow strip of cold water, the "cold wall," to a point off the south-east of Newfoundland. At this point the Gulf Stream water mixes with that from the Labrador current (see below), and a drift current eastwards is set up under the influence of the prevailing westerly winds: this is generally called the Gulf Stream drift. When the Gulf Stream drift approaches the eastern side of the Atlantic it splits into two parts, one going southwards along the north-west coast of Africa, the Canaries current, and another turning northwards and passing to the west of the British Isles. Most of the Canaries current re-enters the northern equatorial, but a certain proportion keeps to the African coast, unites with the equatorial return currents, and penetrates into the Gulf of Guinea. This last feature of the circulation is still somewhat obscure; it is probably to be accounted for by the fact that on this part of the coast the prevailing winds, although to a considerable extent monsoonal, are off-shore winds, blowing the surface waters out to sea, and the place of the water thus removed is filled up by the water derived either from lower levels or from "reaction" currents.

The movements of the northern branch of the Gulf Stream drift have been the object of more careful and more extended study than all the other currents of the ocean put together, except, perhaps, the Gulf Stream itself. The cruises of the "Porcupine" and "Lightning" which led directly to the despatch of the "Challenger" expedition, were altogether within its "sphere of influence"; so also was the great Norwegian Atlantic expedition. More recently, the area has been further explored by the German expedition in the ss. "National," the Danish "Ingolf" expedition, and the minor expeditions of the "Michael Sars," "Jackal," "Research," &c., and since 1902 it has been periodically examined by the International Council for the Study of the Sea. Much has also been done by the discussion of observations made on board vessels belonging to the mercantile marine of various countries. It may now be taken as generally admitted that the current referred to breaks into three main branches. The first passes northwards, most of it between the Faeroe and Shetland Islands, to the coast of Norway, and so on to the Arctic basin, which, as Nansen has shown, it fills to a great depth. The second, the Irminger stream, passes up the west side of Iceland; and the third goes up to the Greenland side of Davis Strait to Baffin Bay. These branches are separated from one another at the surface by currents moving southwards: one passes east of Iceland; the second, the Greenland current, skirts the east coast of Greenland; and the third, the Labrador current already mentioned, follows the western side of Davis Strait.

The development of the equatorial and the Brazil currents in the South Atlantic has already been described. On the polar side of the high-pressure area a west wind drift is under the control of the "roaring forties," and on reaching South Africa part of this is deflected and sent northwards along the west coast as the cold Benguella current which rejoins the equatorial. In the central parts of the two high-pressure areas there is practically no surface circulation. In the North Atlantic this region is covered by enormous banks of gulf-weed (_Sargassum bucciferum_), hence the name Sargasso Sea. The Sargasso Sea is bounded, roughly, by the lines of 20 deg.-35 deg. N. lat. and 40 deg.-75 deg. W. long.