Chapter XIX: Part 19

Australia contains four cities whose population exceeds 100,000, and fifteen with over 10,000. The principal cities and towns are Sydney (pop. 530,000), Newcastle, Broken Hill, Parramatta, Goulburn, Maitland, Bathurst, Orange, Lithgow, Tamworth, Grafton, Wagga and Albury, in New South Wales; Melbourne (pop. 511,900), Ballarat, Bendigo, Geelong, Eaglehawk, Warrnambool, Castlemaine, and Stawell in Victoria; Brisbane (pop. 128,000), Rockhampton, Maryborough, Townsville, Gympie, Ipswich, and Toowoomba in Queensland; Adelaide (pop. about 175,000), Port Adelaide and Port Pirie in South Australia; Perth (pop. 56,000), Fremantle, and Kalgoorlie in Western Australia; and Hobart (pop. 35,500) and Launceston in Tasmania.

_Defence._--Up to the end of the 19th century, little was thought of any locally-raised or locally-provided defensive forces, the mother-country being relied upon. But the Transvaal War of 1899-1902, to which Australia sent 6310 volunteers (principally mounted rifles), and the gradual increase of military sentiment, brought the question more to the front, and more and more attention was given to making Australian defence a matter of local concern. Naval defence in any case remained primarily a question for the Imperial navy, and by agreement (1903, for ten years) between the British government and the governments of the Commonwealth (contributing an annual subsidy of L200,000) and of New Zealand (L40,000), an efficient fleet patrolled the Australasian waters, Sydney, its headquarters, being ranked as a first-class naval station. Under the agreement a royal naval reserve was maintained, three of the Imperial vessels provided being utilized as drill ships for crews recruited from the Australian states. At the end of 1908 the strength of the naval forces under the Commonwealth defence department was: permanent, 217, naval militia, 1016; the estimated expenditure for 1908-1909 being L63,531. In 1908-1909 a movement began for the establishment by Australia of a local flotilla of torpedo-boat destroyers, to be controlled by the Commonwealth in peace time, but subject to the orders of the British admiralty in war time, though not to be removed from the Australian coast without the sanction of the Commonwealth; and by 1909 three such vessels had been ordered in England preparatory to building others in Australia. The military establishment at the beginning of 1909 was represented by a small permanent force of about 1400, a militia strength of about 17,000, and some 6000 volunteers, besides 50,000 members of rifle clubs and 30,000 cadets; the expenditure being (estimate, 1908-1909) L623,946. But a reorganization of the military forces, on the basis of obligatory national training, was already contemplated, though the first Bill introduced for this purpose by Mr Deakin's government (Sept. 1908) was dropped, and in 1909 the subject was still under discussion.

_Religion._--There is no state church in Australia, nor is the teaching of religion in any way subsidized by the state. The Church of England claims as adherents 39% of the population, and the Roman Catholic Church 22%; next in numerical strength are the Wesleyans and other Methodists, numbering 12%, the various branches of the Presbyterians 11%, Congregationalists 2%, and Baptists 2%. These proportions varied very little between 1881 and 1906, and may be taken as accurately representing the present strength of the various Christian denominations. Churches of all denominations are liberally supported throughout the states, and the residents of every settlement, however small, have their places of worship erected and maintained by their own contributions.

_Instruction._--Education is very widely distributed, and in every state it is compulsory for children of school ages to attend school. The statutory ages differ in the various states; in New South Wales and Western Australia it is from 6 to 13 years inclusive, in Victoria 6 to 12 years, in Queensland 6 to 11 years, and in South Australia 7 to 12 years inclusive. Religious instruction is not imparted by the state-paid teachers in any state, though in certain states persons duly authorized by the religious organizations are allowed to give religious instruction to children of their own denomination where the parents' consent has been obtained. According to the returns for 1905 there were 7292 state schools, with 15,628 teachers and 648,927 pupils, and the average attendance of scholars was 446,000. Besides state schools there were 2145 private schools, with 7825 teachers and 137,000 scholars, the average number of scholars in attendance being 120,000. The census of 1901 showed that about 83% of the whole population and more than 91% of the population over five years of age could read and write. There was, therefore, a residue of 9% of illiterates, most of whom were not born in Australia. The marriage registers furnish another test of education. In 1905 only ten persons in every thousand married were unable to sign their names, thus proving that the number of illiterate adults of Australian birth is very small.

Instruction at state schools is either free or at merely nominal cost, and high schools, technical colleges and agricultural colleges are maintained by appropriations from the general revenues of the states. There are also numerous grammar schools and other private schools. Universities have been established at Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Hobart, and are well equipped and numerously attended; they are in part supported by grants from the public funds and in part by private endowments and the fees paid by students. The number of students attending lectures is about 2500 and the annual income a little over L100,000. The cost of public instruction in Australia averages about 11s. 4d. per inhabitant, and the cost per scholar in average attendance at state schools is L4:13:9.

_Pastoral and Agricultural Industries._--The continent is essentially a pastoral one, and the products of the flocks and herds constitute the chief element in the wealth of Australia. Practically the whole of the territory between the 145 deg. meridian and the Great Dividing Range, as well as extensive tracts in the south and west, are a natural sheep pasture with climatic conditions and indigenous vegetation pre-eminently adapted for the growth of wool of the highest quality. Numerically the flocks of Australia represent one-sixth of the world's sheep, and in just over half a century (1851-1905) the exports of Australian wool alone reached the value of L650,000,000. During the same period, owing to the efforts of pastoralists to improve their flocks, there was a gradual increase in the weight of wool produced per sheep from 3-1/4 lb. to an average of over 7 lb. The cattle and horse-breeding industries are of minor importance as compared with wool-growing, but nevertheless represent a great source of wealth, with vast possibilities of expansion in the over-sea trade. The perfection of refrigeration in over-sea carriage, which has done so much to extend the markets for Australian beef and mutton, has also furthered the expansion of dairying, there being an annual output of over 160 million lb. of butter, valued at L6,000,000; of this about 64 million lb., valued at L2,500,000, is exported annually to British markets.

Next to the pastoral industry, agriculture is the principal source of Australian wealth. At the close of 1905 the area devoted to tillage was 9,365,000 acres, the area utilized for the production of breadstuffs being 6,270,000 acres or over two-thirds of the whole extent of cultivation. At first wheat was cultivated solely in the coastal country, but experience has shown that the staple cereal can be most successfully grown over almost any portion of the arable lands within the 20 to 40 in. rainfall areas. The value of Australian wheat and flour exported in 1905 was L5,500,000.

Other important crops grown are--maize, 324,000 acres; oats, 493,000 acres; other grains, 160,000 acres; hay, 1,367,000 acres; potatoes, 119,000 acres; sugar-cane, 141,000 acres; vines, 65,000 acres; and other crops, 422,000 acres. The chief wheat lands are in Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales; the yield averages about 9 bushels to the acre; this low average is due to the endeavour of settlers on new lands to cultivate larger areas than their resources can effectively deal with; the introduction of scientific farming should almost double the yield. Maize and sugar-cane are grown in New South Wales and Queensland. The vine is cultivated in all the states, but chiefly in South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales. Australia produces abundant quantities and nearly all varieties of fruits; but the kinds exported are chiefly oranges, pineapples, bananas and apples. Tobacco thrives well in New South Wales and Victoria, but kinds suitable for exportation are not largely grown. Compared with the principal countries of the world, Australia does not take a high position in regard to the gross value of the produce of its tillage, the standard of cultivation being for the most part low and without regard to maximum returns, but in value per inhabitant it compares fairly well; indeed, some of the states show averages which surpass those of many of the leading agricultural countries. For 1905 the total value of agricultural produce estimated at the place of production was L18,750,000 sterling, or about L4:13:4 per inhabitant.

_Timber Industry._--Although the timbers of commercial value are confined practically to the eastern and a portion of the western coastal belt and a few inland tracts of Australia, they constitute an important national asset. The early settlement of heavily timbered country was characterized by wanton destruction of vast quantities of magnificent timber; but this waste is a thing of the past, and under the pressure of a demand for sound timber both for local use and for exportation, the various governments are doing much to conserve the state forests. In Western Australia, New South Wales, Tasmania and Queensland there are many hundreds of well-equipped saw-mills affording employment to about 5000 men. The export of timber is in ordinary years valued at a million sterling and the total production at L2,250,000.

_Fisheries._--Excellent fish of many varieties abound in the Australian seas and in many of the rivers. In several of the states, fish have been introduced successfully from other countries. Trout may now be taken in many of the mountain streams. At one time whaling was an important industry on the coasts of New South Wales and Tasmania, and afterwards on the Western Australian coasts. The industry gravitated to New Zealand, and finally died out, chiefly through the wasteful practice of killing the calves to secure the capture of the mothers. Of late years whaling has again attracted attention, and a small number of vessels prosecute the industry during the season. The only source of maritime wealth that is now being sufficiently exploited to be regarded as an industry is the gathering of pearl-oysters from the beds off the northern and north-western coasts of the continent. In Queensland waters there are about 300 vessels, and on the Western Australian coast about 450 licensed craft engaged in the industry, the annual value of pearl-shell and pearls raised being nearly half a million sterling. Owing to the depletion of some of the more accessible banks, and to difficulties in connexion with the employment of coloured crews, many of the vessels have now gone farther afield. As the pearl-oyster is remarkably prolific, it is considered by experts that within a few years of their abandonment by fishing fleets the denuded banks will become as abundantly stocked as ever.

Gold.

_Mineral Production._--Australia is one of the great gold producers of the world, and its yield in 1905 was about L16,000,000 sterling, or one-fourth of the gold output of the world; and the total value of its mineral production was approximately L25,000,000. Gold is found throughout Australia, and the present prosperity of the states is largely due to the discoveries of this metal, the development of other industries being, in a country of varied resources, a natural sequence to the acquisition of mineral treasure. From the date of its first discovery, up to the close of 1905, gold to the value of L460,000,000 sterling has been obtained in Australia. Victoria, in a period of fifty-four years, contributed about L273,000,000 to this total, and is still a large producer, its annual yield being about 800,000 oz., 29,000 men being engaged in the search for the precious metal. Queensland's annual output is between 750,000 and 800,000 oz.; the number of men engaged in gold-mining is 10,000. In New South Wales the greatest production was in 1852, soon after the first discovery of the precious metal, when the output was valued at L2,660,946; the production in 1905 was about 270,000 oz., valued at L1,150,000. For many years Western Australia was considered to be destitute of mineral deposits of any value, but it is now known that a rich belt of mineral country extends from north to south. The first important discovery was made in 1882, when gold was found in the Kimberley district; but it was not until a few years later that this rich and extensive area was developed. In 1887 gold was found in Yilgarn, about 200 m. east of Perth. This was the first of the many rich discoveries in the same district which have made Western Australia the chief gold-producer of the Australian group. In 1907 there were eighteen goldfields in the state, and it was estimated that over 30,000 miners were actively engaged in the search for gold. In 1905 the production amounted to 1,983,000 oz., valued at L8,300,000. Tasmania is a gold producer to the extent of about 70,000 or 80,000 oz. a year, valued at L300,000; South Australia produces about 30,000 oz.

Gold is obtained chiefly from quartz reefs, but there are still some important alluvial deposits being worked. The greatest development of quartz reefing is found in Victoria, some of the mines being of great depth. There are eight mines in the Bendigo district over 3000 ft. deep, and fourteen over 2500 ft. deep. In the Victoria mine a depth of 3750 ft. has been reached, and in Lazarus mine 3424 ft. In the Ballarat district a depth of 2520 ft. has been reached in the South Star mine. In Queensland there is one mine 3156 ft. deep, and several others exceed 2000 ft. in depth. A considerable number of men are engaged in the various states on alluvial fields, in hydraulic sluicing, and dredging is now adopted for the winning of gold in river deposits. So far this form of winning is chiefly carried on in New South Wales, where there are about fifty gold-dredging plants in successful operation. Over 70,000 men are employed in the gold-mining industry, more than two-thirds of them being engaged in quartz mining.

Silver.

Silver has been discovered in all the states, either alone or in the
form of sulphides, antimonial and arsenical ores, chloride, bromide,
iodide and chloro-bromide of silver, and argentiferous lead ores, the
largest deposits of the metal being found in the last-mentioned form.
The leading silver mines are in New South Wales, the returns from the
other states being comparatively insignificant. The fields of New
South Wales have proved to be of immense value, the yield of silver
and lead during 1905 being L2,500,000, and the total output to the end
of the year named over L40,000,000. The Broken Hill field, which was
discovered in 1883, extends over 2500 sq. m. of country, and has
developed into one of the principal mining centres of the world. It is
situated beyond the river Darling, and close to the boundary between
New South Wales and South Australia. The lodes occur in Silurian
metamorphic micaceous schists, intruded by granite, porphyry and
diorite, and traversed by numerous quartz reefs, some of which are
gold-bearing. The Broken Hill lode is the largest yet discovered. It
varies in width from 10 ft. to 200 ft., and may be traced for several
miles. Although indications of silver abound in all the other states,
no fields of great importance have yet been discovered. Up to the end
of 1904 Australia had produced silver to the value of L45,000,000. At
Broken Hill mines about 11,000 miners are employed.

Copper.

Copper is known to exist in all the states, and has been mined
extensively in South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and
Tasmania. The low quotations which ruled for a number of years had a
depressing effect upon the industry, and many mines once profitably
worked were temporarily closed, but in 1906 there was a general
revival. The discovery of copper had a marked effect on the fortunes
of South Australia at a time when the young colony was surrounded by
difficulties. The first important mine, the Kapunda, was opened up in
1842. It is estimated that at one time 2000 tons were produced
annually, but the mine was closed in 1879. In 1845 the celebrated
Burra Burra mine was discovered. This mine proved to be very rich, and
paid L800,000 in dividends to the original owners. For a number of
years, however, the mine has been suffered to remain untouched, as the
deposits originally worked were found to be depicted. For many years
the average output was from 10,000 to 13,000 tons of ore, yielding
from 22 to 23% of copper. For the period of thirty years during which
the mine was worked the production of ore amounted to 234,648 tons,
equal to 51,622 tons of copper, valued at L4,749,924. The Wallaroo and
Moonta mines, discovered in 1860 and 1861, proved to be even more
valuable than the Burra Burra, the Moonta mines employing at one time
upwards of 1600 hands. The dividends paid by these mines amounted to
about L1,750,000 sterling. The satisfactory price obtained during
recent years has enabled renewed attention to be paid to copper mining
in South Australia, and the production of the metal in 1905 was valued
at L470,324. The principal deposits of copper in New South Wales are
found in the central part of the state between the Macquarie, Darling
and Bogan rivers. Deposits have also been found in the New England and
southern districts, as well as at Broken Hill, showing that the
mineral is widely distributed throughout the state. The more important
mines are those of Cobar, where the Great Cobar mine produces annually
nearly 4000 tons of refined copper. In northern Queensland copper is
found throughout the Cloncurry district, in the upper basin of the
Star river, and the Herberton district. The returns from the copper
fields in the state are at present a little over half a million
sterling per annum, and would be still greater if it were not for the
lack of suitable fuel for smelting purposes, which renders the
economical treatment of the ore difficult; the development of the
mines is also retarded by the want of easy and cheaper communication
with the coast. In Western Australia copper deposits have been worked
for some years. Very rich lodes of the metal have been found in the
Northampton, Murchison and Champion Bay districts, and also in the
country to the south of these districts on the Irwin river. Tasmania
is now the largest copper-producing state of the Commonwealth; in 1905
the output was over L672,010 and in earlier years even larger. The
chief mines belong to the Mount Lyell Mining & Railway Co., and are
situated on the west side of the island with an outlet by rail to
Strahan on the west coast. The total value of copper produced in
Australia up to the end of 1905 was L42,500,000 sterling, L24,500,000
having been obtained in South Australia, L7,500,000 in New South
Wales, L6,400,000 in Tasmania and over L3,500,000 in Queensland.

Tin.

Tin was known to exist in Australia from the first years of
colonization. The wealth of Queensland and the Northern Territory in
this mineral, according to the reports of Dr Jack, late Government
geologist of the former state, and the late Rev. J.E. Tenison-Woods,
appears to be very great. The most important tin-mines in Queensland
are in the Herberton district, south-west of Cairns; at Cooktown, on
the Annan and Bloomfield rivers; and at Stanthorpe, on the border of
New South Wales. Herberton and Stanthorpe have produced more than
three-fourths of the total production of the state. Towards the close
of the 19th century the production greatly decreased in consequence of
the low price of the metal, but in 1899 a stimulus was given to the
industry, and since then the production has increased very
considerably, the output for 1905 being valued at L989,627. In New
South Wales lode tin occurs principally in the granite and stream tin
under the basaltic country in the extreme north of the state, at
Tenterfield, Emmaville, Tingha, and in other districts of New England.
The metal has also been discovered in the Barrier ranges, and many
other places. The value of the output in 1905 was L226,110. The yield
of tin in Victoria is very small, and until lately no fields of
importance have been discovered; but towards the latter end of 1899
extensive deposits were reported to exist in the Gippsland
district--at Omeo and Tarwin. In South Australia tin-mining is
unimportant. In Western Australia the production from the tin-fields
at Greenbushes and elsewhere was valued at L87,000. Tasmania during
the last few years has attained the foremost position in the
production of tin, the annual output now being about L363,000. The
total value of tin produced in Australia is nearly a million sterling
per annum, and the total production to the end of 1905 was
L22,500,000, of which Tasmania produced about 40%, New South Wales
one-third, Queensland a little more than a fourth.

Iron.

Iron is distributed throughput Australia, but for want of capital for
developing the fields this industry has not progressed. In New South
Wales there are, together with coal and limestone in unlimited supply,
important deposits of rich iron ores suitable for smelting purposes;
and for the manufacture of steel of certain descriptions abundance of
manganese, chrome and tungsten ores are available. The most extensive
fields are in the Mittagong, Wallerawang and Rylstone districts, which
are roughly estimated to contain in the aggregate 12,944,000 tons of
ore, containing 5,853,000 tons of metallic iron. Extensive deposits,
which are being developed successfully, occur in Tasmania, it being
estimated that there are, within easy shipping facilities, 17,000,000
tons of ore. Magnetite, or magnetic iron, the richest of all iron
ores, is found in abundance near Wallerawang in New South Wales. The
proximity of coal-beds now being worked should accelerate the
development of the iron deposits, which, on an average, contain 41% of
metal. Magnetite occurs in great abundance in Western Australia,
together with haematite, which would be of enormous value if cheap
labour were available. Goethite, limonite and haematite are found in
New South Wales, at the junction of the Hawkesbury sandstone formation
and the Wianamatta shale, near Nattai, and are enhanced in their value
by their proximity to coal-beds. Near Lithgow extensive deposits of
limonite, or clay-band ore, are interbedded with coal. Some samples of
ore, coal and limestone, obtained in the Mittagong district, with
pig-iron and castings manufactured therefrom, were exhibited at the
Mining Exhibition in London and obtained a first award.

Other Minerals.

Antimony is widely diffused throughout Australia, and is sometimes
found associated with gold. In New South Wales the principal centre of
this industry is Hillgrove, near Armidale, where the Eleanora Mine,
one of the richest in the state, is situated. The ore is also worked
for gold. In Victoria the production of antimony gave employment in
1890 to 238 miners, but owing to the low price of the metal,
production has almost ceased. In Queensland the fields were all
showing development in 1891, when the output exhibited a very large
increase compared with that of former years; but, as in the case of
Victoria, the production of the metal seems to have ceased. Good lodes
of stibnite (sulphide of antimony) have been found near Roebourne in
Western Australia, but no attempt has yet been made to work them.

Bismuth is known to exist in all the Australian states, but up to the
present time it has been mined for only in three states, viz. New
South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Tasmania. It is usually
found in association with tin and other minerals. The principal mine
in New South Wales is situated at Kingsgate, in the New England
district, where the mineral is generally associated with molybdenum
and gold.

Manganese probably exists in all the states, deposits having been
found in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western Australia,
the richest specimens being found in New South Wales. Little, however,
has been done to utilize the deposits, the demands of the colonial
markets being extremely limited. The ore generally occurs in the form
of oxides, manganite and pyrolusite, and contains a high percentage of
sesquioxide of manganese.

Platinum and the allied compound metal iridosmine have been found in
New South Wales, but so far in inconsiderable quantities. Iridosmine
occurs commonly with gold or tin in alluvial drifts.

The rare element tellurium has been discovered in New South Wales at
Bingara and other parts of the northern districts, as well as at
Tarana, on the western line, though at present in such minute
quantities as would not repay the cost of working. At many of the
mines at Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, large quantities of ores of
telluride of gold have been found in the lode formations.

Lead is found in all the Australian states, but is worked only when
associated with silver. In Western Australia the lead occurs in the
form of sulphides and carbonates of great richness, but the quantity
of silver mixed with it is very small. The lodes are most frequently
of great size, containing huge masses of galena, and so little gangue
that the ore can very easily be dressed to 83 or 84%. The association
of this metal with silver in the Broken Hill mines of New South Wales
adds very greatly to the value of the product.

Mercury is found in New South Wales and Queensland. In New South
Wales, in the form of cinnabar, it has been discovered on the
Cudgegong river, near Rylstone, and it also occurs at Bingara,
Solferino, Yulgilbar and Cooma. In the last-named place the assays of
ore yielded 22% of mercury.

Titanium, in the minerals known as octahedrite and brookite, is found
in alluvial deposits in New South Wales, in conjunction with diamonds.

Wolfram (tungstate of iron and manganese) occurs in some of the
states, notably in New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland.
Scheelite, another mineral of tungsten, is also found in Queensland.
Molybdenum, in the form of molybdenite (sulphide of molybdenum), is
found in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, associated in the
parent state with tin and bismuth in quartz reefs.

Zinc ores, in the several varieties of carbonates, silicates, oxide,
sulphide and sulphate of zinc, have been found in several of the
Australian states but have attracted little attention except in New
South Wales, where special efforts are being made successfully to
produce a high-grade zinc concentrate from the sulphide ores. Several
companies are devoting all their energies to zinc extraction, and the
output is now equal to about 5% of the world's production.

Nickel, so abundant in the island of New Caledonia, has up to the
present been found in none of the Australian states except Queensland
and Tasmania. Few attempts, however, have been made to prospect
systematically for this valuable mineral.

Cobalt occurs in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, and
efforts have been made in the former state to treat the ore, the metal
having a high commercial value; but the market is small, and no
attempt has been made up to 1907 to produce it on any large scale. The
manganese ores of the Bathurst district of New South Wales often
contain a small percentage of cobalt--sufficient, indeed, to warrant
further attempts to work them. In New South Wales chromium is found in
the northern portion of the state, in the Clarence and Tamworth
districts and also near Gundagai. It is usually associated with
serpentine. In the Gundagai district the industry was rapidly becoming
a valuable one, but the low price of chrome has greatly restricted the
output. Chromium has been discovered in Tasmania also.

Arsenic, in its well-known and beautiful forms, orpiment and realgar,
is found in New South Wales and Victoria. It usually occurs in
association with other minerals in veins.

Fuel.

The Australian states have been bountifully supplied with mineral
fuel. Five distinct varieties of black coal, of well-characterized
types, may be distinguished, and these, with the two extremes of brown
coal or lignite and anthracite, form a perfectly continuous series.
Brown coal, or lignite, occurs principally in Victoria. Attempts have
frequently been made to use the mineral for ordinary fuel purposes,
but its inferior quality has prevented its general use. Black coal
forms one of the principal resources of New South Wales; and in the
other states the deposits of this valuable mineral are being rapidly
developed. Coal of a very fair description was discovered in the basin
of the Irwin river, in Western Australia, as far back as the year
1846. It has been ascertained from recent explorations that the area
of carboniferous formation in that state extends from the Irwin
northwards to the Gascoyne river, about 300 m., and probably all the
way to the Kimberley district. The most important discovery of coal in
the state, so far, is that made in the bed of the Collie river, near
Bunbury, to the south of Perth. The coal has been treated and found to
be of good quality, and there are grounds for supposing that there are
250,000,000 tons in the field. Dr Jack, late government geologist of
Queensland, considers the extent of the coal-fields of that state to
be practically unlimited, and is of opinion that the carboniferous
formations extend to a considerable distance under the Great Western
Plains. It is roughly estimated that the Coal Measures at present
practically explored extend over an area of about 24,000 sq. m.
Coal-mining is an established industry in Queensland, and is
progressing satisfactorily. The mines, however, are situated too far
from the coast to permit of serious competition with Newcastle in an
export trade, and the output is practically restricted to supplying
local requirements. The coal-fields of New South Wales are situated in
three distinct regions--the northern, southern and western districts.
The first of these comprises chiefly the mines of the Hunter river
districts; the second includes the Illawarra district, and, generally,
the coastal regions to the south of Sydney, together with Berrima, on
the tableland; and the third consists of the mountainous regions on
the Great Western railway and extends as far as Dubbo. The total area
of the Carboniferous strata of New South Wales is estimated at 23,950
sq. m. The seams vary in thickness. One of the richest has been found
at Greta in the Hunter river district; it contains an average
thickness of 41 ft. of clean coal, and the quantity underlying each
acre of ground has been computed to be 63,700 tons. The coal mines of
New South Wales give employment to 14,000 persons, and the annual
production is over 6,600,000 tons. Black coal has been discovered in
Victoria, and about 250,000 tons are now being raised. The principal
collieries in the state are the Outtrim Howitt, the Coal Creek
Proprietary and the Jumbunna. In South Australia, at Leigh's Creek,
north of Port Augusta, coal-beds have been discovered. The quantity of
coal extracted annually in Australia had in 1906 reached 7,497,000
tons.

Kerosene shale (torbanite) is found in several parts of New South
Wales. It is a species of cannel coal, somewhat similar to the Boghead
mineral of Scotland, but yielding a much larger percentage of volatile
hydro-carbon than the Scottish mineral. The richest quality yields
about 100 to 130 gallons of crude oil per ton, or 17,000 to 18,000
cub. ft. of gas, with an illuminating power of 35 to 40 sperm candles,
when gas only is extracted from the shale.

Large deposits of alum occur close to the village of Bulladelah, 30 m.
from Port Stephens, New South Wales. It is said to yield well, and a
quantity of the manufactured alum is sent to Sydney for local
consumption. Marble is found in many parts of New South Wales and
South Australia. Kaolin, fire-clays and brick-clays are common to all
the states. Except in the vicinity of cities and townships, however,
little use has been made of the abundant deposits of clay. Kaolin, or
porcelain clay, although capable of application to commercial
purposes, has not as yet been utilized to any extent, although found
in several places in New South Wales and in Western Australia.

Asbestos has been found in New South Wales in the Gundagai Bathurst
and Broken Hill districts--in the last-mentioned district in
considerable quantities. Several specimens of very fair quality have
also been met with in Western Australia.

Gems.

Many descriptions of gems and gem stones have been discovered in
various parts of the Australian states, but systematic search has been
made principally for the diamond and the noble opal. Diamonds are
found in all the states; but only in New South Wales have any attempts
been made to work the diamond drifts. The best of the New South Wales
diamonds are harder and much whiter than the South African diamonds,
and are classified as on a par with the best Brazilian gems, but no
large specimens have yet been found. The finest opal known is obtained
in the Upper Cretaceous formation at White Cliffs, near Wilcannia, New
South Wales, and at these mines about 700 men find constant
employment. Other precious stones, including the sapphire, emerald,
oriental emerald, ruby, opal, amethyst, garnet, chrysolite, topaz,
cairngorm, onyx, zircon, &c., have been found in the gold and tin
bearing drifts and river gravels in numerous localities throughout the
states. The sapphire is found in all the states, principally in the
neighbourhood of Beechworth, Victoria. The oriental topaz has been
found in New South Wales. Oriental amethysts also have been found in
that state, and the ruby has been found in Queensland, as well as in
New South Wales. Turquoises have been found near Wangaratta, in
Victoria, and mining operations are being carried on in that state.
Chrysoberyls have been found in New South Wales; spinel rubies in New
South Wales and Victoria; and white topaz in all the states.
Chalcedony, carnelian, onyx and cat's eyes are found in New South
Wales; and it is probable that they are also to be met with in the
other states, particularly in Queensland. Zircon, tourmaline, garnet
and other precious stones of little commercial value are found
throughout Australia.

_Commerce._--The number of vessels engaged in the over-sea trade of Australia in 1905 was 2112, viz. 1050 steamers, with a tonnage of 2,629,000, and 1062 sailers, tonnage 1,090,000; the total of both classes was 3,719,000 tons. The nationality of the tonnage was, British 2,771,000, including Australian 288,000, and foreign 948,000. The destination of the shipping was, to British ports 2,360,000 tons, and to foreign ports 1,350,000 tons. The value of the external trade was L95,188,000, viz. L38,347,000 imports, and L56,841,000 exports. The imports represent L9:11:6 per inhabitant and the exports L14:4:2, with a total trade of L23:15:8. The import trade is divided between the United Kingdom and possessions and foreign countries as follows:--United Kingdom L23,074,000, British possessions L5,384,000, and foreign states L9,889,000, while the destination of the exports is, United Kingdom L26,703,000, British possessions L12,519,000, and foreign countries L17,619,000. The United Kingdom in 1905 sent 60% of the imports taken by Australia, compared with 26% from foreign countries, and 14% from British possessions; of Australian imports the United Kingdom takes 47%, foreign countries 31% and British possessions 22%. In normal years (that is to say, when there is no large movement of capital) the exports of Australia exceed the imports by some L15,300,000. This sum represents the interest payable on government loans placed outside Australia, mainly in England, and the income from British and other capital invested in the country; the former may be estimated at L7,300,000 and the latter L8,000,000 per annum. The principal items of export are wool, skins, tallow, frozen mutton, chilled beef, preserved meats, butter and other articles of pastoral produce, timber, wheat, flour and fruits, gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and other metals. In 1905 the value of the wool export regained the L20,000,000 level, and with the rapid recovery of the numerical strength of the flocks, great improvements in the quality and weight of fleeces, this item is likely to show permanent advancement. The exports of breadstuffs--chiefly to the United Kingdom--exceed six millions per annum, butter two and a half millions, and minerals of all kinds, except gold, six millions. Gold is exported in large quantities from Australia. The total gold production of the country is from L14,500,000 to L16,000,000, and as not more than three-quarters of a million are required to strengthen existing local stocks, the balance is usually available for export, and the average export of the precious metal during the ten years, 1896-1905, was L12,500,000 per annum. The chief articles of import are apparel and textiles, machinery and hardware, stimulants, narcotics, explosives, bags and sacks, books and paper, oils and tea.

Lines of steamers connect Australia with London and other British ports, with Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Japan, China, India, San Francisco, Vancouver, New York and Montevideo, several important lines being subsidized by the countries to which they belong, notably Germany, France and Japan.

_Railways._--Almost the whole of the railway lines in Australia are the property of the state governments, and have been constructed and equipped wholly by borrowed capital. There were on the 30th of June 1905, 15,000 m. open for traffic, upon which nearly L135,000,000 had been expended.

The railways are of different gauges, the standard narrow gauge of 4
ft. 8-1/2 in. prevailing only in New South Wales; in Victoria the
gauge is 5 ft. 3 in., in South Australia 5 ft. 3 in. and 3 ft. 6 in.,
and in the other states 3 ft. 6 in. Taking the year 1905, the gross
earnings amounted to L11,892,262; the working expenses, exclusive of
interest, L7,443,546; and the net earnings L4,448,716; the latter
figure represents 3.31% upon the capital expended upon construction
and equipment; in the subsequent year still better results were
obtained. In several of the states, New South Wales and South
Australia proper, the railways yield more than the interest paid by
the government on the money borrowed for their construction. The
earnings per train-mile vary greatly; but for all the lines the
average is 7s. 1d., and the working expenses about 4s. 5d., making the
net earnings 2s. 8d. per train-mile. The ratio of receipts from
coaching traffic to total receipts is about 41%, which is somewhat
less than in the United Kingdom; but the proportion varies greatly
amongst the states themselves, the more densely populated states
approaching most nearly to the British standard. The tonnage of goods
carried amounts to about 16,000,000 tons, or 4 tons per inhabitant,
which must be considered fairly large, especially as no great
proportion of the tonnage consists of minerals on which there is
usually a low freightage. Excluding coal lines and other lines not
open to general traffic, the length of railways in private hands is
only 382 m. or about 2-1/2% of the total mileage open. Of this length,
277 m. are in Western Australia. The divergence of policy of that
state from that pursued by the other states was caused by the
inability of the government to construct lines, when the extension of
the railway system was urgently needed in the interests of settlement.
Private enterprise was, therefore, encouraged by liberal grants of
land to undertake the work of construction; but the changed conditions
of the state have now altered the state policy, and the government
have already acquired one of the two trunk lines constructed by
private enterprise, and it is not likely that any further concessions
in regard to railway construction will be granted to private persons.

_Posts and Telegraphs._--The postal and telegraphic facilities offered
by the various states are very considerable. There are some 6686
post-offices throughout the Commonwealth, or about one office to every
600 persons. The letters carried amount to about 80 per head, the
newspapers to 32 per head and the packets to 15 per head. The length
of telegraph lines in use is 46,300 m., and the length of wire nearly
three times that distance. In 1905 there were about 11,000,000
telegraphic messages sent, which gives an average of 2.7 messages per
inhabitant. The postal services and the telegraphs are administered by
the federal government.

_Banking._--Depositors in savings banks represent about twenty-nine in
every hundred persons, and in 1906 the sum deposited amounted to
L37,205,000 in the names of 1,152,000 persons. In ordinary banks the
deposits amounted to L106,625,000, so that the total deposits stood at
L143,830,000, equivalent to the very large sum of L34, 18s. per
inhabitant. The coin and bullion held by the banks varies between 20
and 24 millions sterling and the note circulation is almost stationary
at about 3-1/4 millions.

_Public Finance._--Australian public finance requires to be treated
under the separate headings of Commonwealth and states finance. Under
the Constitution Act the Commonwealth is given the control of the
postal and telegraph departments, public defence and several other
services, as well as the power of levying customs and excise duties;
its powers of taxation are unrestricted, but so far no taxes have been
imposed other than those just mentioned. The Commonwealth is empowered
to retain one-fourth of the net revenue from customs and excise, the
balance must be handed back to the states. This arrangement was to
last until 1910. Including the total receipts derived from the
customs, the Commonwealth revenue, during the year 1906, was made up
as follows:--

Customs and excise L8,999,485
Posts, telegraphs, &c. 2,824,182
Other revenue 55,676
-----------
L11,879,343

The return made to the states was L7,385,731, so that the actual
revenue disposed of by the Commonwealth was less by that amount, or
L4,493,612. The expenditure was distributed as follows:--

Customs collection L261,864
Posts, telegraphs, &c. 2,774,804
Defence 949,286
Other expenditure 508,887
---------
Total L4,494,841

The states have the same powers of taxation as the Commonwealth except
in regard to customs and excise, over which the Commonwealth has
exclusive power, but the states are the owners of the crown lands, and
the revenues derived from this source form an important part of their
income. The states have a total revenue, from sources apart from the
Commonwealth, of L23,820,439, and if to this be added the return of
customs duties made by the federal government, the total revenue is
L31,206,170. Although the financial operations of the Commonwealth and
the states are quite distinct, a statement of the total revenue of the
Australian Commonwealth and states is not without interest as showing
the weight of taxation and the different sources from which revenue is
obtained. For 1906 the respective revenues were:--

Commonwealth L11,879,343
States 23,820,439
-----------
L35,699,782
===========
Direct taxation L3,200,000
Indirect taxation; customs and excise 8,999,485
Land revenue 3,500,000
Post-office and telegraphs 2,824,182
Railways, &c. 13,650,000
Other service 3,526,115

The revenue from direct taxation is equal to 15s. 10d. per inhabitant,
from indirect taxation L2:4:6, and the total revenue from all sources
L35,699,782, equal to L8:16:2 per inhabitant. The federal government
has no public debt, but each of the six states has contracted debts
which aggregate L237,000,000, equal to about L58, 8s. per inhabitant.
The bulk of this indebtedness has been contracted for the purpose of
constructing railways, tramways, water-supplies, and other
revenue-producing works and services, and it is estimated that only 8%
of the total indebtedness can be set down for unproductive services.

Information regarding Australian state finance will be found under the
heading of each state. (T. A. C.)

ABORIGINES

The origin of the natives of Australia presents a difficult problem. The chief difficulty in deciding their ethnical relations is their remarkable physical difference from the neighbouring peoples. And if one turns from physical criteria to their manners and customs it is only to find fresh evidence of their isolation. While their neighbours, the Malays, Papuans and Polynesians, all cultivate the soil, and build substantial huts and houses, the Australian natives do neither. Pottery, common to Malays and Papuans, the bows and arrows of the latter, and the elaborate canoes of all three races, are unknown to the Australians. They then must be considered as representing an extremely primitive type of mankind, and it is necessary to look far afield for their prehistoric home.

Origin.

Wherever they came from, there is abundant evidence that their first occupation of the Australian continent must have been at a time so remote as to permit of no traditions. No record, no folk tales, as in the case of the Maoris of New Zealand, of their migration, are preserved by the Australians. True, there are legends and tales of tribal migrations and early tribal history, but nothing, as A.W. Howitt points out, which can be twisted into referring even indirectly to their first arrival. It is almost incredible there should be none, if the date of their arrival is to be reckoned as only dating back some centuries. Again, while they differ physically from neighbouring races, while there is practically nothing in common between them and the Malays, the Polynesians, or the Papuan Melanesians, they agree in type so closely among themselves that they must be regarded as forming one race. Yet it is noteworthy that the languages of their several tribes are different. The occurrence of a large number of common roots proves them to be derived from one source, but the great variety of dialects--sometimes unintelligible between tribes separated by only a few miles--cannot be explained except by supposing a vast period to have elapsed since their first settlement. There is evidence in the languages, too, which supports the physical separation from their New Zealand neighbours and, therefore, from the Polynesian family of races. The numerals in use were limited. In some tribes there were only three in use, in most four. For the number "five" a word meaning "many" was employed. This linguistic poverty proves that the Australian tongue has no affinity to the Polynesian group of languages, where denary enumeration prevails: the nearest Polynesians, the Maoris, counting in thousands. Further evidence of the antiquity of Australian man is to be found in the strict observance of tribal boundaries, which would seem to show that the tribes must have been settled a long time in one place.

A further difficulty is created by a consideration of the Tasmanian people, extinct since 1876. For the Tasmanians in many ways closely approximated to the Papuan type. They had coarse, short, woolly hair and Papuan features. They clearly had no racial affinities with the Australians. They did not possess the boomerang or woomerah, and they had no boats. When they were discovered, a mere raft of reeds in which they could scarcely venture a mile from shore was their only means of navigation. Yet while the Tasmanians are so distinctly separated in physique and customs from the Australians, the fauna and flora of Tasmania and Australia prove that at one time the two formed one continent, and it would take an enormous time for the formation of Bass Strait. How did the Tasmanians with their Papuan affinities get so far south on a continent inhabited by a race so differing from Papuans? Did they get to Tasmania before or after its separation from the main continent? If before, why were they only found in the south? It would have been reasonable to expect to find them sporadically all over Australia. If after, how did they get there at all? For it is impossible to accept the theory of one writer that they sailed or rowed round the continent--a journey requiring enormous maritime skill, which, according to the theory, they must have promptly lost.

Four points are clear: (1) the Australians represent a distinct race; (2) they have no kinsfolk among the neighbouring races; (3) they have occupied the continent for a very long period; (4) it would seem that the Tasmanians must represent a still earlier occupation of Australia, perhaps before the Bass Strait existed.

Several theories have been propounded by ethnologists. An attempt has been made to show that the Australians have close affinities with the African negro peoples, and certain resemblances in language and in customs have been relied on. Sorcery, the scars raised on the body, the knocking out of teeth, circumcision and rules as to marriage have been quoted; but many such customs are found among savage peoples far distant from each other and entirely unrelated. The alleged language similarities have broken down on close examination. A.R. Wallace is of the opinion that the Australians "are really of Caucasian type and are more nearly allied to ourselves than to the civilized Japanese or the brave and intelligent Zulus." He finds near kinsmen for them in the Ainus of Japan, the Khmers and Chams of Cambodia and among some of the Micronesian islanders who, in spite of much crossing, still exhibit marked Caucasic types. He regards the Australians as representing the lowest and most primitive examples of this primitive Caucasic type, and he urges that they must have arrived in Australia at a time when their ancestors had no pottery, knew no agriculture, domesticated no animals, had no houses and used no bows and arrows. This theory has been supported by the investigations of Dr Klaatsch, of the university of Heidelberg, who would, however, date Australian ancestry still farther back, for his studies on the spot have convinced him that the Australians are "a generalized, not a specialized, type of humanity--that is to say, they are a very primitive people, with more of the common undeveloped characteristics of man, and less of the qualities of the specialized races of civilization." Dr Klaatsch's view is that they are survivals of a primitive race which inhabited a vast Antarctic continent of which South America, South Africa and Australia once formed a part, as evidenced by the identity of many species of birds and fish. He urges that the similarities of some of the primitive races of India and Africa to the aborigines of Australia are indications that they were peopled from one common stock. This theory, plausible and attractive as it is, and fitting in, as it does, with the acknowledged primitive character of the Australian blackfellow, overlooks, nevertheless, the Tasmanian difficulty. Why should a Papuan type be found in what was certainly once a portion of the Australian continent? The theory which meets this difficulty is that which has in its favour the greatest weight of evidence, viz. that the continent was first inhabited by a Papuan type of man who made his way thither from Flores and Timor, New Guinea and the Coral Sea. That in days so remote as to be undateable, a Dravidian people driven from their primitive home in the hills of the Indian Deccan made their way south via Ceylon (where they may to-day be regarded as represented by the Veddahs) and eventually sailed and drifted in their bark boats to the western and north-western shores of Australia. It is difficult to believe that they at first arrived in such numbers as at once to overwhelm the Papuan population. There were probably several migrations. What seems certain, if this theory is adopted, is that they did at last accumulate to an extent which permitted of their mastering the former occupiers of the soil, who were probably in very scattered and defenceless communities.

In the slow process of time they drove them into the most southerly corner of Australia, just as the Saxons drove the Celts into Cornwall and the Welsh hills. Even if this Dravidian invasion is put subsequent to the Bass Strait forming, even if one allows the probability of much crossing between the two races at first, in time the hostilities would be renewed. With their earliest settlements on the north-north-west coasts, the Dravidians would probably tend to spread out north, north-east and east, and a southerly line of retreat would be the most natural one for the Papuans.[3] When at last they were driven to the Strait they would drift over on rafts or in clumsy shallops; being thereafter left in peace to concentrate their race, then possibly only in an approximately pure state, in the island to which the Dravidians would not take the trouble to follow them, and where they would have centuries in which once more to fix their racial type and emphasize over again those differences, perhaps temporarily marred by crossing, which were found to exist on the arrival of the Whites.