Chapter XXIII: Part 23

_Agriculture._--Notwithstanding the great industrial progress made by
Austria during the last quarter of the 19th century, agriculture still
forms the most important source of revenue of its inhabitants. In 1900
over 50% of the total population of Austria derived their income from
agricultural pursuits. The soil is generally fertile, although there
is a great difference in the productivity of the various crown-lands
owing to their geographical situation. The productive land of Austria
covers 69,519,953 acres, or 93.8% of the total area, which is
74,102,001 acres; to this must be added 0.4 of lakes and fishponds,
making a total of 94.2% of productive area. The remainder is
unproductive, or used for other, not agricultural purposes. The area
of the productive land has been steadily increasing--it was estimated
to cover about 89% in 1875,--and great improvements in the
agricultural methods have also been introduced. Of the whole
productive area of Austria, 37.6% is laid out in arable land; 34.6% in
woods; 25.2% in pastures and meadows; 1.3% in gardens, 0.9% in
vineyards; and 0.4% in lakes, marshes and ponds. The provinces having
the largest proportion of arable land are Bohemia, Galicia, Moravia
and Lower Austria. The principal products are wheat, rye, barley,
oats, maize, potatoes, sugar beet, and cattle turnip. The produce of
the ploughed land does not, on the whole, suffice for the home
requirements. Large quantities in particular of wheat and maize are
imported from Hungary for home consumption. Only barley and oats are
usually reaped in quantity for export. The provinces which have the
lowest proportion of arable land are Tirol and Salzburg. Besides these
principal crops, other crops of considerable magnitude are: buckwheat
in Styria, Galicia, Carniola and Carinthia; rape and rape-seed in
Bohemia and Galicia, poppy in Moravia and Silesia; flax in Bohemia,
Moravia, Styria and Galicia; hemp in Galicia, chicory in Bohemia;
tobacco, which is a state monopoly, in Galicia, Bukovina, Dalmatia and
Tirol; fuller's thistle in Upper Austria and Styria; hops in Bohemia,
including the celebrated hops round Saaz, in Galicia and Moravia; rice
in the Kustenland; and cabbage in Bohemia, Galicia, Lower Austria and
Styria. The principal garden products are kitchen vegetables and
fruit, of which large quantities are exported. The best fruit
districts are in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper Austria and Styria. Certain
districts are distinguished for particular kinds of fruit, as Tirol
for apples, Bohemia for plums, Dalmatia for figs, pomegranates and
olives. The chestnut, olive and mulberry trees are common in the
south--chiefly in Dalmatia, the Kustenland and Tirol; while in the
south of Dalmatia the palm grows in the open air, but bears no fruit.

The vineyards of Austria covered in 1901 an area of 626,044 acres, the
provinces with the largest proportion of vineyards being Dalmatia, the
Kustenland, Lower Austria, Styria and Moravia. The wines of Dalmatia
are mostly sweet wines, and not suitable to be kept for long periods,
while those of the other provinces are not so sweet, but improve with
age.

_Forests._--The forests occupy just a little over one-third of the
whole productive area of Austria, and cover 24,157,709 acres. In the
forests tall timber predominates to the extent of 85%, and consists of
conifers much more than of green or leaved trees, in the proportion of
seventy against fifteen out of the 85% of the total forests laid out
in tall timber. Exceptions are the forest lands of the Karst region,
where medium-sized trees and underwood occupy 80%, and of Dalmatia,
where underwood occupies 92.6% of the whole forest land. The Alpine
region is well wooded, and amongst the other provinces Bukovina is the
most densely wooded, having 43.2% of its area under forests, while
Galicia with 25.9% is the most thinly-wooded crown-land of Austria.
The forests are chiefly composed of oak, pine, beech, ash, elm, and
the like, and constitute one of the great sources of wealth of the
country. Forestry is carried on in a thoroughly scientific manner.
Large works of afforestation have been undertaken in Carinthia,
Carniola and Tirol with a view of checking the periodical inundations,
while similar works have been successfully carried out in the Karst
region.

_Landed Property._--Of the whole territory of the state, 74,102,001
acres, about 29%, is appropriated to large landed estates; 71% is
disposed of in medium and smaller properties. Large landed property is
most strongly represented in Bukovina, where it absorbs 46% of the
whole territory, and in Salzburg, Galicia, Silesia and Bohemia. To the
state belongs 4-1/2% of the total territory. The Church, the
communities, and the corporations are also in possession of large
areas of land; 4% (speaking roundly) of the territory of Austria is
held on the tenure of _fidei-commissum_. Of the entire property in
large landed estates, 59% is laid out in woods; of the property in
_fidei-commissum_, 66% is woodland; of the entire forest land, about
10% is the property of the state; 14.5% is communal property; and 3.8%
is the property of the Church. The whole of the territory in large
landed estates includes 52% of the entire forest land. The forest land
held under _fidei-commissum_ amounts to over 9% of the entire forest
land.

_Live Stock._--Although richly endowed by nature, Austria cannot be
said to be remarkable as a cattle-rearing country. Indeed, except in
certain districts of the Alpine region, where this branch of human
activity is carried on under excellent conditions, there is much room
for improvement. The amount of live stock is registered every ten
years along with the census of the population.

+-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | 1880. | 1890. | 1900. |
+-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Horses | 1,463,282 | 1,548,197 | 1,711,077 |
| Mules and asses | 49,618 | 57,952 | 66,638 |
| Cattle | 8,584,077 | 8,643,936 | 9,506,626 |
| Goats | 1,006,675 | 1,035,832 | 1,015,682 |
| Sheep | 3,841,340 | 3,186,787 | 2,621,026 |
| Pigs | 2,721,541 | 3,549,700 | 4,682,734 |
| Beehives | 926,312 | 920,640 | 996,139 |
+-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

Austria is distinguished for the number and superiority of its horses,
for the improvements of which numerous studs exist all over the
country. All kinds of horses are represented from the heaviest to the
lightest, from the largest to the smallest. The most beautiful horses
are found in Bukovina, the largest and strongest in Salzburg; those of
Styria, Carinthia, Northern Tirol and Upper Austria are also famous.
In Dalmatia, the Kustenland and Southern Tirol, horses are less
numerous, and mules and asses in a great measure take their place. The
finest cattle are to be found in the Alpine region; of the Austrian
provinces, Salzburg and Upper Austria contain the largest proportion
of cattle. The number of sheep has greatly diminished, but much has
been done in the way of improving the breeds, more particularly in
Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Upper and Lower Austria. The main object
has been the improvement of the wool, and with this object the merino
and other fine-woolled breeds have been introduced. Goats abound
mostly in Dalmatia, Bohemia and Tirol. The rearing of pigs is carried
on most largely in Styria, Bohemia, Galicia and Upper and Lower
Austria. Bees are extensively kept in Carinthia, Carniola, Lower
Austria and Galicia. The silk-worm is reared more particularly in
Southern Tirol and in the Kustenland, and the average annual yield is
5,000,000 lb. of cocoons. In the Alpine region dairy-farming has
attained a great degree of development, and large quantities of
butter and cheese are annually produced. Altogether, the rearing of
cattle, with all its actual shortcomings, constitutes a great source
of revenue, and yields a certain amount for export.

_Fisheries._--The fisheries of Austria are very extensive, and are
divided into river, lake and sea fisheries. The numerous rivers of
Austria swarm with a great variety of fishes. The lake fisheries are
mostly pursued in Bohemia, where pisciculture is an art of old
standing, and largely developed. The sea fisheries on the coast of
Dalmatia and of the Kustenland constitute an important source of
wealth to the inhabitants of these provinces. About 4000 vessels, with
a number of over 16,000 fishermen are employed, and the average annual
catch realizes L240,000.

In the mountainous regions of Austria game is plentiful, and
constitutes a large source of income.

_Minerals._--In the extent and variety of its mineral resources
Austria ranks among the first countries of Europe. With the exception
of platinum, it possesses every useful metal; thus, besides the noble
metals, gold and silver, it abounds in ores of more or less richness
in iron, copper, lead and tin. Rich deposits of coal, both pit coal
and brown coal are to be found, as well as extensive basins of
petroleum, and large deposits of salt. In smaller quantities are found
zinc, antimony, arsenic, cobalt, nickel, manganese, bismuth, chromium,
uranium, tellurium, sulphur, graphite and asphalt. There are also
marble, roofing-slate, gypsum, porcelain-earth, potter's clay, and
precious stones. It is therefore natural that mining operations should
have been carried out in Austria from the earliest times, as, for
instance, the salt mines of Hallstatt in Upper Austria, which had
already been worked during the Celtic and Romanic period. Famous
through the middle ages were also the works, especially for the
extraction of gold and silver, carried out in Bohemia and Moravia,
whose early mining regulations, for instance those of Iglau, were
adopted in other countries. But the great industrial development of
the 19th century, with its growing necessity for fuel, has brought
about the exploitation of the rich coal-fields of the country, and
to-day the coal mines yield the heaviest output of any mineral
products. To instance the rapid growth in the extraction of coal, it
is worth mentioning that in 1825 its output was about 150,000 tons; in
1875, or only after half a century, the output has become 100 times
greater, namely, over 15,000,000 tons; while in 1900 it was 32,500,000
tons. Coal is found in nearly every province of Austria, with the
exception of Salzburg and Bukovina, but the richest coal-fields are in
Bohemia, Silesia, Styria, Moravia and Carniola in the order named.
Iron ores are found more or less in all the crown-lands except Upper
Austria, the Kustenland and Dalmatia, but it is most plentiful in
Styria, Carinthia, Bohemia and Moravia. Gold and silver ores are found
in Bohemia, Salzburg and Tirol. Quicksilver is found at Idria in
Carniola, which after Almaden in Spain is the richest mine in Europe.
Lead is extracted in Carinthia and Bohemia, while the only mines for
tin in the whole of Austria are in Bohemia. Zinc is mostly found in
Galicia, Tirol and Bohemia, and copper is extracted in Tirol, Moravia
and Salzburg. Petroleum is found in Galicia, where ozocerite is also
raised. Rock-salt is extracted in Galicia, while brine-salt is
produced in Salzburg, Salzkammergut and Tirol. Graphite is extracted
in Bohemia, Moravia, Styria and Lower Austria. Uranium, bismuth and
antimony are dug out in Bohemia, while procelain earth is found in
Bohemia and Moravia. White, red, black and variously-coloured marbles
exist in the Alps, particularly in Tirol and Salzburg; quartz,
felspar, heavy spar, rock-crystal, and asbestos are found in various
parts; and among precious stones may be specially mentioned the
Bohemian garnets. The total value of the mines and foundry products
throughout Austria in 1875 was L5,000,000. The number of persons
employed in the mines and in the smelting and casting works in the
same year was 94,019. The total value of the mining products
throughout Austria in 1902 was L10,500,000, and the value of the
product of the foundries was L3,795,000. Of this amount L3,150,000
represents the value of the iron: raw steel and pig iron. The increase
in the value of the mining products during the period 1892-1902 was
40%; and the increase in the product of the furnaces in the same
period was 35%. The number of persons employed in 1902 in mining was
140,890; in smelting works 7148; and in the extraction of salt, 7963.
The value of the chief mining products of Austria in 1903 was: Brown
coal (21,808,583 tons), L4,182,516; coal (12,145,000 tons),
L4,059,807; iron ores (1,688,960 tons), L615,273; lead ores, L135,965;
silver ores, L119,637; quicksilver ores, L92,049; graphite, L78,437;
tin ores, L78,275; copper ores, L22,119; manganese ores, L5368; gold
ores, L4407; asphalt, L2250; alum and vitriol slate, L992. The
production of petroleum was 660,000 tons, and of salt 340,000 tons.
The value of the principal products of the smelting furnaces in 1903
was: Iron (955,543 tons), L2,970,866; coke, L862,137; zinc (metallic),
L174,344; silver, L141,594; copper, L57,542; sulphuric acid, L8488;
copper vitriol, L5710; mineral colours, L5565; lead, L5067; tin,
L4566; gold, L878; iron vitriol, L603; litharge, L384; quicksilver,
L218; coal briquettes, L92,000.

_Industry._--The manufactures of Austria were much developed during
the last quarter of the 19th century, although Austria as a whole
cannot be said to be an industrial country. Austria possesses many
favourable conditions for a great industrial activity. It possesses an
abundance of raw materials, of fuel--both mineral and wood,--of metals
and minerals, in fact all the necessaries for a great and nourishing
industry; and the rivers can easily be utilized as producers of motive
power. It is besides densely populated, and has an adequate supply of
cheap labour, while the undeveloped industries of the Balkan states
also offer a ready market for its products. The glass manufacture in
Bohemia is very old, and has kept up its leading position in the
markets of the world up to the present day. Industrial activity is
greatly developed in Bohemia, Lower Austria, Silesia, Moravia and
Vorarlberg, while in Dalmatia and Bukovina it is almost non-existent.
The principal branches of manufactures are, the textile industry, the
metallurgic industries; brewing and distilling; leather, paper and
sugar; glass, porcelain and earthenware; chemicals; and scientific and
musical instruments.

The textile industry in all its branches--cotton, woollen, linen,
silk, flax and hemp--is mostly concentrated in Bohemia, Moravia,
Silesia and Lower Austria. It is an old industry, and one which has
made great progress since 1875. Thus the number of mechanical looms
increased more than threefold during this period, and numbered in 1902
about 120,000. In the same year the number of spindles at work was
about 3,100,000. Austria had in 1902, 21,837 textile factories with
337,514 workmen. The principal seat of the manufacture of cotton goods
is in northern Bohemia, from the Eger to Reichenberg, which can be
considered as the Lancashire of Austria, Lower Austria between the
Wiener Wald and the Leitha, and in Vorarlberg. Woollen goods are
manufactured in the above places, and besides in Moravia, at Brunn and
at Iglau; in Silesia; and at Biala in Galicia. Vienna is also
distinguished for its manufacture of shawls. The coarser kind of
woollen goods are manufactured all over the country, principally in
the people's houses as a home industry. The most important places for
the linen industry are in Bohemia at Trautenau; in Moravia and
Silesia, while the commoner kinds of linen are mostly produced as a
home industry by the peasants in the above-mentioned crown-lands. The
manufacture of ribbons, embroidery and lace, the two latter being
carried on principally as a house industry in Vorarlberg and in the
Bohemian Erzgebirge, also thrives. The industry in stitched stuffs is
especially developed in northern Bohemia. Ready-made men's clothes and
oriental caps (fezes) are produced on a large scale in Bohemia and
Moravia. The manufacture of silk goods is mainly carried on in Vienna,
while the spinning of silk has its principal seat in southern Tirol,
and to a smaller extent in the Kustenland.

The metallurgic industry forms one of the most important branches of
industry, because iron ore of excellent quality is extracted annually
in great quantities. The principal seats of the iron and steel
manufactures are in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper and Lower
Austria, Styria and Carinthia, which contain extensive iron-works. The
most important manufactured products are cutlery, firearms, files,
wire, nails, tin-plates, scythes, sickles, steel pens, needles, rails,
iron furniture, drains, and kitchen utensils. A famous place for its
iron manufacture is Steyr in Upper Austria. The manufacture of
machinery, for industrial and agricultural purposes, and of railway
engines is mainly concentrated in Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, Prague,
Brunn and Trieste; while the production of rolling stock for railways
is carried on in Vienna, Prague and Graz. Ship-building yards for
sea-vessels are at Trieste and Pola; while for river-vessels the
largest yards are at Linz. Among other metal manufactures, the
principal are copper works at Brixlegg and other places in Tirol, and
in Galicia, tin and lead in Bohemia, and metallic alloys, especially
_Packfong_ or German silver, an alloy of nickel and copper, at
Berndorf in Lower Austria. The precious metals, gold and silver, are
principally worked in the larger towns, particularly at Vienna and
Prague. Vienna is also the principal seat for scientific and surgical
instruments. In the manufacture of musical instruments Austria takes a
leading part amongst European states, the principal places of
production being Vienna, Prague, Koniggratz, Graslitz and Schonbach.

The glass manufacture is one of the oldest industries in Austria, and
is mainly concentrated in Bohemia. Its products are of the best
quality, and rule the markets of the world. In the manufacture of
earthenwares Austria plays also a leading part, and the porcelain
industry round Carlsbad and in the Eger district in Bohemia has a
world-wide reputation. The leather industry is widely extended, and is
principally carried on in Lower Austria, Bohemia and Moravia. Vienna
and Prague are great centres for the boot and shoe trade, and the
gloves manufactured in these towns enjoy a great reputation. The
manufacture of wooden articles is widespread over the country, and is
very varied. In Vienna and other large towns the production of
ornamental furniture has attained a great development. The industry in
paper has also assumed great proportions, its principal seats being in
Bohemia, Moravia, Upper and Lower Austria. Of food-stuffs, besides
milling, and other flour products, the principal industry is the
manufacture of sugar from beet-root. The sugar industry is almost
exclusively carried on in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and Galicia. It
has attained such large proportions that large districts in those
provinces have been converted from wheat-growing districts into fields
for the cultivation of beet-root. Brewing is extensively carried on,
and the beer produced is of a good quality. The largest brewing
establishment is at Schwechat near Vienna, and large breweries are
also found at Pilsen and Budweiss in Bohemia, whose products enjoy a
great reputation abroad. There were in Austria 1341 breweries, which
produced 422,993,120 gallons of beer. in 1902-1903. Distilling is
carried on on a large scale in Galicia, Bukovina, Bohemia, Moravia and
Lower Austria; the number of distilleries being 1257, which produced
30,435,812 gallons of spirit. Rosoglio, maraschino, and other liqueurs
are made in Dalmatia and Moravia. The manufacture as well as the
growth of tobacco is a government monopoly, which has 30 tobacco
factories with over 40,000 work-people, the largest establishment
being at Hainburg in Lower Austria. Other important branches of
industry are the manufacture of chemicals, in Vienna and in Bohemia;
petroleum refineries in Galicia, and the extraction of various
petroleum products; the manufacture of buttons; printing,
lithographing, engraving, and map-making, especially in Vienna, &c.

In 1900 the various manufacturing industries employed in Austria
3,138,800 persons, of whom 2,264,871 were workmen and 103,854 were
labourers. Including families and domestic servants, a little over
7,000,000 were dependent on industry for their livelihood.

_Commerce._--Austria forms together with Hungary one customs and
commercial territory, and the statistics for the foreign trade are
given under AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Owing to its situation, the bulk of the
Austrian trade is carried on the railways and on the inland navigable
rivers. Only a small portion is sea-borne trade, while the commercial
interchange between the provinces lying on the Adriatic coast is very
small.

_Commercial Navy._--The commercial sea navy of Austria, excluding
small coasting vessels and fishing-boats, consisted in 1900 of 154
vessels, with a tonnage of 198,322 tons, of which 123 vessels with a
tonnage of 183,949 were steamers. The greatest navigation company is
the Austrian Lloyd in Trieste, which in 1900 employed 70 steamers of
165,430 tons. During 1900 the total tonnage of vessels engaged in the
foreign trade, which entered all the Austrian ports, was 1,448,764
tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 888,707 under foreign flags;
the total tonnage of vessels cleared during the same period was
1,503,532 tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 866,591 under
foreign flags.

_Government._--Austria is a parliamentary or constitutional (limited) monarchy, its monarch bearing the title of emperor. The succession to the throne is hereditary, in the order of primogeniture, in the male line of the house of Habsburg-Lothringen; and failing this, in the female line. The monarch must be a member of the Roman Catholic Church. The emperor of Austria is also king of Hungary, but except for having the same monarch and a few common affairs (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY), the two states are quite independent of one another. The emperor has the supreme command over the armed forces of the country, has the right to confer degrees of nobility, and has the prerogatives of pardon for criminals. He is the head of the executive power, and shares the legislative power with the Reichsrat; and justice is administered in his name. The constitution of Austria is based upon the following statutes:--(1) the Pragmatic Sanction of the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the 19th of April 1713, which regulated the succession to the throne; (2) the Pragmatic Patent of the emperor Francis II. of the 1st of August 1804, by which he took the title of Emperor of Austria; (3) the Diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 20th of October 1860, by which the constitutional form of government was introduced; (4) the Diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the 26th of February 1861, by which the provincial diets were created; (5) the six fundamental laws of the 21st of December 1867, which contain the exposition and guarantee of the civil and political rights of the citizen, the organization of justice, the organization and method of election for the Reichsrat, &c.

The executive power is vested in the council of ministers, at whose head is the minister-president. There are eight ministries, namely, the ministry of the interior, of national defence, of worship and instruction, of finance, of commerce, of agriculture, of justice, and of railways. There are, further, two ministries, without portfolio, for Galicia and Bohemia. The civil administration in the different provinces is carried out by governors or stadtholders (_Statthalter_), to whom are subordinate the heads of the 347 districts in which Austria was divided in 1900, and of the 33 towns with special statute, i.e. of the towns which have also the management of the civil administration. Local self-government of the provinces, districts and communities is also granted, and is exercised by various elective bodies. Thus, the autonomous provincial administration is discharged by the provincial committees elected by the local diets; and the affairs of the communities are discharged by an elected communal council.

The legislative power for all the kingdoms and lands which constitute Austria is vested in the Reichsrat. It consists of two Houses: an Upper House (the _Herrenhaus_), and a Lower House (the _Abgeordnetenhaus_). The Upper House is composed of (1) princes of the imperial house, who are of age (14 in 1907); (2) of the members of the large landed nobility, to which the emperor had conferred this right, and which is hereditary in their family (78 in 1907); (3) of 9 archbishops and 8 prince-bishops; and (4) of life members nominated by the emperor for distinguished services (170 in 1907). The Lower House has undergone considerable changes since its creation in 1861, by the various modifications of the electoral laws passed in 1867, 1873, 1892, 1896 and 1907. The general spirit of those modifications was to broaden the electoral basis, and to extend the franchise to a larger number of citizens. The law of the 26th of January 1907 granted universal franchise to Austrian male citizens over twenty-four years of age, who have resided for a year in the place of election. The Lower House consists of 516 members, elected for a period of six years. The members receive payment for their services, as well as an indemnity for travelling expenses. A bill to become law must pass through both Houses, and must receive the sanction of the emperor. The emperor is bound to summon the Reichsrat annually.

According to the imperial Diploma of the 26th February 1861, local diets have been created for the legislation of matters of local interest. These provincial parliaments are 17 in number, and their membership varies from 22 members, which compose the diet of Gorz and Gradisca to the 242 members which constitute that of Bohemia. They assemble annually and are composed of members elected for a period of six years, and of members _ex-officio_, namely, the archbishops and bishops of the respective provinces, and the rector of the local university.

_Religion._--Religious toleration was secured throughout the Habsburg
dominions by the patent of the 13th of October 1781, but Protestants
were not given full civil rights until the issue of the
_Protestantenpatent_ of the 8th of April 1861, after the promulgation
of the imperial constitution of the 26th of February. The principle
underlying this and all subsequent acts is the guarantee to all
religious bodies _recognized by law_ of freedom of worship, the
management of their own affairs, and the undisturbed possession and
disposal of their property. Though all the churches are, in a sense,
"established," the Roman Catholic Church, to which the sovereign must
belong, is the state religion. The reigning house, however, though
strongly attached to the Roman faith, has always resisted the extreme
claims of the papacy, an attitude which in Joseph II.'s time resulted,
under the influence of Febronianism (q.v.), in what was practically
a national schism. Thus the emperor retains the right to tax church
property, to nominate bishops, and to prohibit the circulation of
papal bulls without his permission. By the concordat of August 18,
1855, this traditional attitude was to some extent reversed; but this
agreement soon became a dead letter and was formally denounced by the
Austrian government after the promulgation of the dogma of papal
infallibility.

Of the population of Austria in 1900, 23,796,814 (91%) were Roman
Catholics, including 3,134,439 uniate Greeks and 2096 uniate
Armenians. There were 12,937 Old Catholics, in scattered communities,
606,764 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church, mainly in Bukovina and
Dalmatia, and 698 Armenians, also mainly in Bukovina. The Protestants,
who in the 16th century comprised 90% of the population, are now only
1.9%. In 1900, 365,505 of them were returned as belonging to the
Augsburg Confession (Lutheran), 128,557 to the Helvetic (Reformed).
Other Christian Confessions in Austria are Herrnhuters (Moravian
Brethren) in Bohemia, Mennonites in Galicia, Lippovanians (akin to the
Russian Skoptsi) in Bukovina, and Anglicans. The Jews compose 4.7% of
the population, and are strongest in Galicia, Lower Austria, Bohemia,
Moravia and Bukovina. The Roman Catholic Church is divided into eight
provinces, seven of the Latin rite--Vienna, Prague, Lemberg, Salzburg,
Olmutz, Gorz and Zara--with 23 bishoprics, and one of the Greek rite
(Lemberg), with two bishoprics. The Armenian bishopric of Lemberg and
the Austrian part of the archdiocese of Breslau are under the
immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See. The Greek Orthodox Church has
one archbishopric (at Czernowitz) and two bishoprics. There are 559
communities of the Jewish religion (253 in Galicia, and 255 in
Bohemia). In 1900 there were, belonging to the Roman Catholic Church,
541 monasteries with 7775 monks, and 877 convents with 19,194 nuns;
while the Greek Orthodox Church had 14 monasteries with 85 members.
The Evangelical Church, according to the constitution granted by
imperial decree on the 9th of April 1861 (modified by those of January
6, 1866 and December 9, 1891) is organized on a territorial basis,
being administered by 10 superintendents, who are, in their turn,
subject to the Supreme Church Council (_K.K. Oberkirchenrat_) at
Vienna, the emperor as sovereign being technically head of the Church.
The small Anglican community at Trieste is under the jurisdiction of
the Evangelical superintendent of Vienna.

_Education._--The system of elementary schools dates from the time of
Maria Theresa; the present organization was introduced by the
education law of May 14, 1869 (amended in 1883). By this law the
control of the schools, hitherto in the hands of the Church, was
assumed by the state, every local community being bound to erect and
maintain public elementary schools. These are divided into
_Volksschulen_ (national or primary schools) and _Burgerschulen_
(higher elementary schools). Attendance is obligatory on all from the
age of six to fourteen (in some provinces six to twelve). Religious
instruction is given by the parish priest, but in large schools a
special grant is made or a teacher _ad hoc_ appointed in the higher
classes (law of June 17, 1888). Private schools are also allowed
which, if fulfilling the legal requirements, may be accorded the
validity of public primary schools. The language of instruction is
that of the nationality prevalent in the district. In about 40% of the
schools the instruction is given in German; in 26% in Czech; in 28% in
other Slavonic languages, and in the remainder in Italian, Rumanian or
Magyar. In 1903 there were in Austria 20,268 elementary schools with
78,025 teachers, frequented by 3,618,837 pupils, which compares
favourably with the figures of the year 1875, when there were 14,257
elementary schools with 27,677 teachers, frequented by 2,050,808
pupils. About 88% of the children who are of school age actually
attend school, but in some provinces like Upper Austria and Salzburg
nearly the full 100 attend, while in the eastern parts of the monarchy
the percentage is much lower. In 1900 62% of the total population of
Austria could read and write, and 2.9% could only read. In the number
of illiterates are included children under seven years of age. For the
training of teachers of elementary schools there were in 1900 54
institutions for masters and 38 for mistresses. In these training
colleges, as also in the secondary or "middle" schools
(_Mittelschulen_), religious instruction is also in the hands of the
Roman Catholic Church; but, by the law of June 20, 1870, the state
must provide for such teaching in the event of the Protestant pupils
numbering 20 or upwards (the school authorities usually refuse to take
more than 19 Protestants in consequence).

Besides the elementary schools three other groups of educational
establishments exist in Austria: "middle" schools (_Mittelschulen_);
"high" schools (_Hochschulen_); professional and technical schools
(_Fachlehranstalten_ and _Gewerbeschulen_). The "middle" schools
include the classical schools (_Gymnasien_), "modern" schools with
some Latin teaching (_Realgymnasien_), and modern schools simply
(Realschulen)--In 1903 there were 202 _Gymnasien_, 19 _Realgymnasien_
and 117 _Realschulen_, with 7121 teachers and 111,012 scholars. The
"high" schools include the universities and the technical high schools
(_Technische Hochschulen_). Of state universities there are
eight:--Vienna, Gratz, Innsbruck, Prague (German), and Czernowitz, in
which German is the language of instruction; Prague (Bohemian) with
Czech; and Cracow and Lemberg with Polish as the language of
instruction. Each university has four faculties--theology, law and
political science, medicine, and philosophy. In Czernowitz, however,
the faculty of medicine is wanting. Since 1905 an Italian faculty of
law has been added to the university of Innsbruck. The theological
faculties are all Roman Catholic, except Czernowitz, where the
theological faculty is Orthodox Eastern. All the universities are
maintained by the state. The number of professors and lecturers was
about 1596 in 1903; while the number of students was 17,498.

_Justice._--The judicial authorities in Austria are:--(1) the county
courts, 963 in number; (2) the provincial and district courts, 74 in
number, to which are attached the jury courts,--both these courts are
courts of first instance; (3) the higher provincial courts, 9 in
number, namely, at Vienna, Graz, Trieste, Innsbruck, Zara, Prague,
Brunn Cracow and Lemberg; these are the cours of appeal from the lower
courts, and have the supervision of the criminal courts in their
jurisdiction; (4) the supreme court of justice and court of cassation
in Vienna. The judicial organization is independent of the executive
power. There are also special courts for commercial, industrial,
shipping, military and other matters. There is also the court of the
Empire at Vienna, which has the power to decide in case of conflict
between different authorities.

_Finance._--The growth of the Austrian budget, is shown by the
following figures:--

+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| | 1885 | 1895 | 1900 | 1905 |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
| Expenditure | L44,121,600 | L55,396,916 | L66,003,494 | L74,013,000 |
| Revenue | L43,714,666 | L57,446,091 | L66,020,475 | L74,079,000 |
+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+

The chief sources of revenue are direct taxes, indirect taxes, customs
duties, post and telegraph and post-office savings banks receipts,
railway receipts, and profits or royalties on forests, domains and
mining. The direct taxes are divided into two groups, real and
personal; the former include the land tax and house-rent tax, and the
latter the personal income tax, tax on salaries, tax on commercial and
industrial establishments, tax on all business with properly audited
accounts (like the limited liability companies), and tax on
investments. The principal indirect taxes are the tobacco monopoly,
stamps and fees, excise duties on sugar, alcohol and beer, the salt
monopoly, excise duty on mineral oil, and excise duty on meat and
cattle for slaughtering.

The national debt of Austria is divided into two groups, a general
national debt, incurred jointly by the two halves of the
Austro-Hungarian monarchy for common affairs, and is therefore jointly
borne by both parts, and a separate debt owed only by Austria alone.
The following table shows the growth of the Austrian debt in millions
sterling:--

+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| 1885 | 1890 | 1895 | 1900 | 1905 |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+
| 45. | 88.23 | 119.60 | 140.68 | 167.91 |
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

At the close of 1903 the debt of Austria was L156,724,000, an increase
since 1900 of L16,044,000. This large increase is due to the great
expenditure on public works, as railways, navigable canals, harbour
works, &c., started by the Austrian government since 1900.

_Railways._--As regards internal communications, Austria is provided
with an extensive network of railways, the industrial provinces being
specially favoured. This has been accomplished in spite of the
engineering difficulties owing to the mountainous nature of the
country and of the great financial expenses resulting therefrom. The
construction of the Semmering railway, opened in 1854, for instance,
was the first mountain railway built in the European continent, and
marked an epoch in railway engineering. The first railway laid down in
Austria was in 1824 between Budweis and Kerschbaum, over a distance of
40 m., and was at first used for horse tramway. The first steam
railway was opened in 1837 over a distance of about 10 m. between
Floridsdorf (near Vienna) and Wagram. From the first, the policy of
the Austrian government was to construct and to work the railways
itself; and in granting concessions to private companies it stipulated
among its conditions the reversionary right of the state, whereby the
line becomes the property of the state without compensation after the
lapse of the period of concession. With various modifications,
according to its financial means, it vigorously pursued its policy, by
both building railways itself, and encouraging private companies to
build. In 1905 the total length of railways in Austria was 13,590 m.,
of which 5017 m. belonged to and were worked by the state, and 3359 m.
belonged to private companies, but were worked by the state.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--F. Umlauft, _Die Lander Osterreich-Ungarns in Wort und
Bild_ (15 vols., Vienna, 1881-1889), _Die osterreichisch-ungarische
Monarchic_ (3rd ed., Vienna, 1896), _Die osterreichische Monarchic in
Wort und Bild_ (24 vols., Vienna, 1888-1902), and _Die Volker
Osterreich-Ungarns_ (12 vols., Teschen, 1881-1885); A. Supan,
"Osterreich-Ungarn" (Vienna, 1889, in Kirchhoff's _Landerkunde von
Europa_, vol. ii.); Auerbach, _Les Races et les nationalities en
Autriche-Hongrie_ (Paris, 1897); Mayerhofer, _Osterreich-ungarisches
Ortslexikon_ (Vienna, 1896). For geology see C. Diener, &c., _Ban und
Bild Osterreichs_ (Vienna and Leipzig, 1903); F. von Hauer, _Die
Geologie_ (Vienna). The official statistical publications of the
central statistical department, of the ministry of agriculture, and of
the ministry of commerce, appearing annually. (O. Br.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The census returns of 1857, and of 1869, which were the first
systematic censuses taken, gave the population of Austria as
18,224,500 and 20,394,980 respectively. It must be noticed that
between these two dates Austria lost its Lombardo-Venetian
territories, with a population of about 5,000,000 inhabitants.

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