Chapter I: Part 1

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol, [oo] for infinity, and [alpha],
[beta], etc. for greek letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT: "... in such a manner that a point
on the pendulum at a distance ..." ''pendulum'' amended from
''pedulum''.

ARTICLE GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT: "Interpreted geometrically on the
deformable hyperboloid, flattened in the plane of the focal ellipse
..." ''hyperboloid'' amended from ''hyperboloia''.

ARTICLE HAEMOSPORIDIA: "... this does not represent reserve
material, but is an excreted by-product derived from the
haemoglobin." ''by-product'' amended from ''bye-product''.

ARTICLE HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK: "About this time he sought to
become a secretary of state, but in vain, although he was allowed
to enter the cabinet in 1757." ''become'' amended from ''became''.

ARTICLE HALLEFLINTA: "Rocks very similar to the typical Swedish
halleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern Bohemia."
''similar'' amended from ''similiar?''.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XII, SLICE VII

Gyantse to Hallel

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

GYANTSE HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH
GYGES HAHN-HAHN, IDA
GYLIPPUS HAI
GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVARD, CHRISTINE HAIBAK
GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN HAIDA
GYMKHANA HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL
GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM HAIDUK
GYMNOSOPHISTS HAIFA
GYMNOSPERMS HAIK
GYMNOSTOMACEAE HAIL
GYMPIE HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE
GYNAECEUM HAILSHAM
GYNAECOLOGY HAINAN
GYONGYOSI, ISTVAN HAINAU
GYOR HAINAUT
GYP HAINBURG
GYPSUM HAINICHEN
GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT HAI-PHONG
GYTHIUM HAIR
GYULA-FEHERVAR HAIR-TAIL
H HAITI
HAAG, CARL HAJIPUR
HAAKON HAJJ
HAARLEM HAJJI KHALIFA
HAARLEM LAKE HAKE, EDWARD
HAASE, FRIEDRICH HAKE, THOMAS GORDON
HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB HAKE
HAAST, SIR JOHANN JULIUS VON HAKKAS
HABABS HAKLUYT, RICHARD
HABAKKUK HAKODATE
HABDALA HAL
HABEAS CORPUS HALA
HABERDASHER HALAESA
HABINGTON, WILLIAM HALAKHA
HABIT HALBERSTADT
HABITAT HALBERT
HABSBURG HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER
HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON
HACHETTE, JEANNE HALDANE, ROBERT
HACHETTE, LOUIS FRANCOIS HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN
HACHURE HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK
HACIENDA HALE, EDWARD EVERETT
HACKBERRY HALE, HORATIO
HACKENSACK HALE, JOHN PARKER
HACKET, JOHN HALE, SIR MATTHEW
HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH HALE, NATHAN
HACKETT, JAMES HENRY HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER
HACKLANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON HALEBID
HACKNEY (borough of London) HALES, JOHN (d. 1571)
HACKNEY (riding-horse) HALES, JOHN (1584-1656)
HADAD HALES, STEPHEN
HADDINGTON, EARL OF HALESOWEN
HADDINGTON HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL
HADDINGTONSHIRE HALEVY, JACQUES FRANCOIS ELIE
HADDOCK HALEVY, LUDOVIC
HADDON HALL HALFPENNY, WILLIAM
HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR HALF-TIMBER WORK
HADENDOA HALFWAY COVENANT
HADERSLEBEN HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY
HADING, JANE HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER
HADLEIGH HALIBUT
HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING HALICARNASSUS
HADLEY, JAMES HALICZ
HADLEY HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE
HADRAMUT HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK
HADRIA HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE
HADRIAN HALIFAX (Canada)
HADRIAN'S WALL HALIFAX (Yorkshire, England)
HADRUMETUM HALISAH
HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH HALKETT, HUGH
HAEMATITE HALL, BASIL
HAEMATOCELE HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN
HAEMOPHILIA HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS
HAEMORRHAGE HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN
HAEMORRHOIDS HALL, EDWARD
HAEMOSPORIDIA HALL, FITZEDWARD
HAETZER, LUDWIG HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER
HAFIZ HALL, SIR JAMES
HAG HALL, JAMES (American judge)
HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON HALL, JAMES (American geologist)
HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER HALL, JOSEPH
HAGEN HALL, MARSHALL
HAGENAU HALL, ROBERT
HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF HALL, SAMUEL CARTER
HAGENBECK, CARL HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD
HAGERSTOWN HALL (spa of Austria)
HAG-FISH HALL (town of Germany)
HAGGADA HALL (of a mansion)
HAGGAI HALLAM, HENRY
HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER HALLAM, ROBERT
HAGGIS HALLE, SIR CHARLES
HAGIOLOGY HALLE
HAGIOSCOPE HALLECK, FITZ-GREENE
HAGONOY HALLECK, HENRY WAGER
HAGUE, THE HALLEFLINTA
HAHN, AUGUST HALLEL

GYANTSE, one of the large towns of Tibet. It lies S.E. of Shigatse, 130 m. from the Indian frontier and 145 m. from Lhasa. Its central position at the junction of the roads from India and Bhutan with those from Ladakh and Central Asia leading to Lhasa makes it a considerable distributing trade centre. Its market is the third largest in Tibet, coming after Lhasa and Shigatse, and is especially celebrated for its woollen cloth and carpet manufactures. Here caravans come from Ladakh, Nepal and upper Tibet, bringing gold, borax, salt, wool, musk and furs, to exchange for tea, tobacco, sugar, cotton goods, broadcloth and hardware. The town is compactly built of stone houses, with wooden balconies facing the main street, whence narrow lanes strike off into uninviting slums, and contains a fort and monastery. In the British expedition of 1904 Gyantse formed the first objective of the advance, and the force was besieged here in the mission post of Changlo for some time. The Tibetans made a night attack on the post, and were beaten off with some difficulty, but subsequently the British attacked and stormed the fort or jong. Under the treaty of 1904 a British trade agent is stationed at Gyantse.

GYGES, founder of the third or Mermnad dynasty of Lydian kings, he reigned 687-652 B.C. according to H. Geizer, 690-657 B.C. according to H. Winckler. The chronology of the Lydian kings given by Herodotus has been shown by the Assyrian inscriptions to be about twenty years in excess. Gyges was the son of Dascylus, who, when recalled from banishment in Cappadocia by the Lydian king Sadyattes--called Candaules "the Dog-strangler" (a title of the Lydian Hermes) by the Greeks--sent his son back to Lydia instead of himself. Gyges soon became a favourite of Sadyattes and was despatched by him to fetch Tudo, the daughter of Arnossus of Mysia, whom the Lydian king wished to make his queen. On the way Gyges fell in love with Tudo, who complained to Sadyattes of his conduct. Forewarned that the king intended to punish him with death, Gyges assassinated Sadyattes in the night and seized the throne with the help of Arselis of Mylasa, the captain of the Carian bodyguard, whom he had won over to his cause. Civil war ensued, which was finally ended by an appeal to the oracle of Delphi and the confirmation of the right of Gyges to the crown by the Delphian god. Further to secure his title he married Tudo. Many legends were told among the Greeks about his rise to power. That found in Herodotus, which may be traced to the poet Archilochus of Paros, described how "Candaules" insisted upon showing Gyges his wife when unrobed, which so enraged her that she gave Gyges the choice of murdering her husband and making himself king, or of being put to death himself. Plato made Gyges a shepherd, who discovered a magic ring by means of which he murdered his master and won the affection of his wife (Hdt. i. 8-14; Plato, _Rep._ 359; Justin i. 7; Cicero, _De off._ iii. 9). Once established on the throne Gyges devoted himself to consolidating his kingdom and making it a military power. The Troad was conquered, Colophon captured from the Greeks, Smyrna besieged and alliances entered into with Ephesus and Miletus. The Cimmerii, who had ravaged Asia Minor, were beaten back, and an embassy was sent to Assur-bani-pal at Nineveh (about 650 B.C.) in the hope of obtaining his help against the barbarians. The Assyrians, however, were otherwise engaged, and Gyges turned to Egypt, sending his faithful Carian troops along with Ionian mercenaries to assist Psammetichus in shaking off the Assyrian yoke (660 B.C.). A few years later he fell in battle against the Cimmerii under Dugdamme (called Lygdamis by Strabo i. 3. 21), who took the lower town of Sardis. Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys.

See Nicolaus Damascenus, quoting from the Lydian historian Xanthus, in
C. Muller, _Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum_, iii.; R. Schubert,
_Geschichte der Konige von Lydien_ (1884); M. G. Radet, _La Lydie et
le monde grec au temps de Mermnades_ (1892-1893): H. Gelzer, "Das
Zeitalter des Gyges" (_Rhein. Mus._, 1875); H. Winckler,
_Altorientalische Forschungen_, i. (1893); Macan's edition of
Herodotus. (A. H. S.)

GYLIPPUS, a Spartan general of the 5th century B.C.; he was the son of Cleandridas, who had been expelled from Sparta for accepting Athenian bribes (446 B.C.) and had settled at Thurii. His mother was probably a helot, for Gylippus is said to have been, like Lysander and Callicratidas, a _mothax_ (see HELOT). When Alcibiades urged the Spartans to send a general to lead the Syracusan resistance against the Athenian expedition, Gylippus was appointed, and his arrival was undoubtedly the turning point of the struggle (414-413). Though at first his long hair, his threadbare cloak and his staff furnished the subject of many a jest, and his harsh and overbearing manner caused grave discontent, yet the rapidity and decisiveness of his movements, won the sympathy and respect of the Syracusans. Diodorus (xiii. 28-32), probably following Timaeus, represents him as inducing the Syracusans to pass sentence of death on the captive Athenian generals, but we need have no hesitation in accepting the statement of Philistus (Plutarch, _Nicias_, 28), a Syracusan who himself took part in the defence, and Thucydides (vii. 86), that he tried, though without success, to save their lives, wishing to take them to Sparta as a signal proof of his success. Gylippus fell, as his father had done, through avarice; entrusted by Lysander with an immense sum which he was to deliver to the ephors at Sparta, he could not resist the temptation to enrich himself and, on the discovery of his guilt, went into exile.

Thucydides vi. 93. 104, vii.; Plutarch, _Nicias_, 19, 21, 27, 28,
_Lysander_, 16, 17; Diodorus xiii. 7, 8, 28-32; Polyaenus i. 39. 42.
See SYRACUSE (for the siege operations), commentaries on Thucydides
and the Greek histories.

GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVARD, THOMASINE CHRISTINE, Baroness (1773-1856), Danish author, was born on the 9th of November 1773, at Copenhagen. Her maiden name was Buntzen. Her great beauty early attracted notice, and before she was seventeen she married the famous writer Peter Andreas Heiberg. To him she bore in the following year a son, afterwards illustrious as the poet and critic Johan Ludvig Heiberg. In 1800 her husband was exiled, and she obtained a divorce, marrying in December 1801 the Swedish Baron K. F. Ehrensvard, himself a political fugitive. Her second husband, who presently adopted the name of Gyllembourg, died in 1815. In 1822 she followed her son to Kiel, where he was appointed professor, and in 1825 she returned with him to Copenhagen. In 1827 she first appeared as an author by publishing her romance of _The Polonius Family_ in her son's newspaper _Flyvende Post_. In 1828 the same journal contained _The Magic Ring_, which was immediately followed by _En Hverdags historie (An Everyday Story)_. The success of this anonymous work was so great that the author adopted until the end of her career the name of "The Author of _An Everyday Story_." In 1833-1834 she published three volumes of _Old and New Novels_. _New Stories_ followed in 1835 and 1836. In 1839 appeared two novels, _Montanus the Younger_ and _Ricida_; in 1840, _One in All_; in 1841, _Near and Far_; in 1843, _A Correspondence_; in 1844, _The Cross Ways_; in 1845, _Two Generations_. From 1849 to 1851 the Baroness Ehrensvard-Gyllembourg was engaged in bringing out a library edition of her collected works in twelve volumes. On the 2nd of July 1856 she died in her son's house at Copenhagen. Not until then did the secret of her authorship transpire; for throughout her life she had preserved the closest reticence on the subject even with her nearest friends. The style of Madame Ehrensvard-Gyllembourg is clear and sparkling; for English readers no closer analogy can be found than between her and Mrs Gaskell, and _Cranford_ might well have been written by the witty Danish authoress.

See J. L. Heiberg, _Peter Andreas Heiberg og Thomasine Gyllembourg_
(Copenhagen, 1882), and L. Kornelius-Hybel, _Nogle Bemaerkninger om P.
A. Heiberg og Fru Gyllembourg_ (Copenhagen, 1883).

GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN, COUNT (1635-1680), Swedish statesman, completed his studies at Upsala and then visited most of the European states and laid the foundations of that deep insight into international politics which afterwards distinguished him. On his return home he met King Charles X. in the Danish islands and was in close attendance upon him till the monarch's death in 1660. He began his political career at the diet which assembled in the autumn of the same year. An aristocrat by birth and inclination, he was nevertheless a true patriot and demanded the greatest sacrifices from his own order in the national interests. He was therefore one of those who laboured most zealously for the recovery of the crown lands. In the Upper House he was the spokesman of the gentry against the magnates, whose inordinate privileges he would have curtailed or abolished. His adversaries vainly endeavoured to gain him by favour, for as court-marshal and senator he was still more hostile to the dominant patricians who followed the adventurous policy of Magnus de la Gardie. Thus he opposed the French alliance which de la Gardie carried through in 1672, and consistently advocated economy in domestic and neutrality in foreign affairs. On the outbreak of the war in 1675 he was the most loyal and energetic supporter of the young Charles XI., and finally his indispensable counsellor. Indeed, it may be said, that the political principles which he instilled into the youthful monarch were faithfully followed by Charles during the whole of his reign. In 1679 Gyllenstjerna was appointed the Swedish plenipotentiary at the peace congress of Lund. The alliance which he then concluded with Denmark bound the two northern realms together in a common foreign policy, and he sought besides to facilitate their harmonious co-operation by every means in his power. In 1680, after bringing home Charles XI.'s Danish bride from Copenhagen, he was appointed governor-general of Scania (Skane), but expired a few weeks later.

See M. Hojer, _Ofversigt af Sveriges yttre politik under aren
1676-1680_ (Upsala, 1875). (R. N. B.)

GYMKHANA, a display of miscellaneous sports, originally at the military stations of India. The word would seem to be a colloquial remodelling of the Hindustani _gend-khana_, ball-house or racquet-court, by substituting for _gend_ the first syllable of the English word "gymnastics." The definition given in Yule's _Glossary_ is as follows: "A place of public resort at a station, where the needful facilities for athletics and games ... are provided." The name of the place was afterwards applied to the games themselves, and the word is now used almost exclusively in this sense. According to Yule the first use of it that can be traced was, on the authority of Major John Trotter, at Rurki in the year 1861, when a gymkhana was instituted there. Gymkhana sports were invented to relieve the monotony of Indian station life, and both officers and men from the ranks took part in them. The first meetings consisted of promiscuous horse and pony races at catch weights. To these were soon added a second variety, originally called the _pagol_ (funny races), the one generally known outside India, which consisted of miscellaneous races and competitions of all kinds, some serious and some amusing, on horseback, on foot and on bicycles. Among these may be mentioned the usual military sports; such as tent-pegging, lemon-cutting and obstacle racing; rickshaw racing; tilting at the ring sack, pillion, hurdle, egg-and-spoon, blindfold, threading-the-needle and many other kinds of races depending upon the inventive powers of the committees in charge.

GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM, terms signifying respectively a system of physical exercises practised either for recreation or for the purpose of promoting the health and development of the body, and the building where such exercises are carried on. The gymnasium of the Greeks was originally the school where competitors in the public games received their training, and was so named from the circumstance that these competitors exercised naked ([Greek: gymnos]). The gymnasium was a public institution as distinguished from the palaestra, which was a private school where boys were trained in physical exercises, though the term palaestra is also often used for the part of a gymnasium specially devoted to wrestling and boxing. The athletic contests for which the gymnasium supplied the means of training and practice formed part of the social life of the Greeks from the earliest times. They were held in honour of heroes and gods; sometimes forming part of a periodic festival, sometimes of the funeral rites of a deceased chief. In course of time the Greeks grew more attached to such sports; their free active life, spent to a great extent in the open air, fostered the liking almost into a passion. The victor in any athletic contest, though he gained no money prize, was rewarded with the honour and respect of his fellow citizens; and a victory in the great religious festivals was counted an honour for the whole state. In these circumstances the training of competitors for the greater contests became a matter of public concern; and accordingly special buildings were provided by the state, and their management entrusted to public officials. The regulation of the gymnasium at Athens is attributed by Pausanias (i. 39. 3) to Theseus. Solon made several laws on the subject; but according to Galen it was reduced to a system in the time of Cleisthenes. Ten _gymnasiarchs_, one from each tribe, were appointed annually. These performed in rotation the duties of their office, which were to maintain and pay the persons who were training for public contests, to conduct the games at the great Athenian festivals, to exercise general supervision over the morals of the youths, and to adorn and keep up the gymnasium. This office was one of the ordinary [Greek: leitourgiai] (public services), and great expense was entailed on the holders. Under them were ten _sophronistae_, whose duty was to watch the conduct of the youths at all times, and especially to be present at all their games. The practical teaching and selecting of the suitable exercises for each youth were in the hands of the _paedotribae_ and _gymnastae_, the latter of whom also superintended the effect on the constitution of the pupils, and prescribed for them when they were unwell. The _aleiptae_ oiled and rubbed dust on the bodies of the youths, acted as surgeons, and administered the drugs prescribed. According to Galen there was also a teacher of the various games of ball. The gymnasia built to suit these various purposes were large buildings, which contained not merely places for each kind of exercise, but also a stadium, baths, covered porticos for practice in bad weather, and outer porticos where the philosophers and men of letters read public lectures and held disputations.

The gymnasium of the Greeks did not long remain an institution exclusively devoted to athletic exercises. It soon began to be applied to other uses even more important. The development arose naturally through the recognition by the Greeks of the important place in education occupied by physical culture, and of the relation between exercise and health. The gymnasium accordingly became connected with education on the one hand and with medicine on the other. Due training of the body and maintenance of the health and strength of children were the chief part of earlier Greek education. Except the time devoted to letters and music, the education of boys was conducted in the gymnasia, where provision was made, as already mentioned, for their moral as well as their physical training. As they grew older, conversation and social intercourse took the place of the more systematic discipline. Philosophers and sophists assembled to talk and to lecture in the gymnasia, which thus became places of general resort for the purpose of all less systematic intellectual pursuits, as well as for physical exercises. In Athens there were three great public gymnasia--Academy, Lyceum and Cynosarges--each of which was consecrated to a special deity with whose statue it was adorned; and each was rendered famous by association with a celebrated school of philosophy. Plato's teaching in the Academy has given immortality to that gymnasium; Aristotle conferred lustre on the Lyceum; and the Cynosarges was the resort of the Cynics. Plato when treating of education devotes much consideration to gymnastics (see especially _Rep._ iii. and various parts of _Laws_); and according to Plato it was the sophist Prodicus who first pointed out the connexion between gymnastics and health. Having found such exercises beneficial to his own weak health, he formulated a method which was adopted generally, and which was improved by Hippocrates. Galen lays the greatest stress on the proper use of gymnastics, and throughout ancient medical writers we find that special exercises are prescribed as the cure for special diseases.

The Greek institution of the gymnasium never became popular with the Romans, who regarded the training of boys in gymnastics with contempt as conducive to idleness and immorality, and of little use from a military point of view; though at Sparta gymnastic training had been chiefly valued as encouraging warlike tastes and promoting the bodily strength needed for the use of weapons and the endurance of hardship. Among the Romans of the republic, the games in the Campus Martius, the duties of camp life, and the enforced marches and other hardships of actual warfare, served to take the place of the gymnastic exercises required by the Greeks. The first public gymnasium at Rome was built by Nero and another by Commodus. In the middle ages, though jousts and feats of horsemanship and field sports of various kinds were popular, the more systematic training of the body which the Greeks had associated with the gymnasium fell into neglect; while the therapeutic value of special exercises as understood by Hippocrates and Galen appears to have been lost sight of. Rousseau, in his _Emile_, was the first in modern times to call attention to the injurious consequences of such indifference, and he insisted on the importance of physical culture as an essential part of education. It was probably due in some measure to his influence that F. L. Jahn and his followers in Germany, encouraged by the Prussian minister Stein, established the _Turnplatze_, or gymnastic schools, which played an important part during the War of Liberation, and in the political agitations which followed the establishment of the German confederation by the Congress of Vienna. The educational reformers Pestalozzi and Froebel emphasized the need for systematic physical training in any complete scheme of education.

The later development of the classical gymnasium (when it had become the school of Intellectual culture rather than of exclusively physical exercise), and not the original idea, has been perpetuated in the modern use of the word in Germany, where the name "gymnasium" is given to the highest grade of secondary school, and the association of the word with athleticism has been entirely abandoned. On the other hand, in England, France and elsewhere in Europe, as well as in America, the history of the word has been precisely the reverse; the connexion of the gymnasium with philosophy and mental culture has been dropped, and it indicates a building exclusively intended for the practice of physical exercises. But whereas the Greeks received training in the gymnasium for contests which are now designated as _athletic sports_ (q.v.), gymnastics in the modern sense is a term restricted to such exercises as are usually practised indoors, with or without the aid of mechanical appliances, as distinguished from sports or games practised in the open air.

It was not until near the end of the 19th century that gymnastics were recognized in England as anything more than a recreation; their value as a specifically therapeutic agent, or as an article in the curriculum of elementary schools, was not realized. More recently, however, educationists have urged with increasing insistence the need for systematic physical training, and their views received greater attention when evidence of deterioration in the physique of the people began to accumulate. During the first decade of the 20th century more than one commission reported to parliament in England in favour of more systematic and general physical training being encouraged or even made compulsory by public authority. Voluntary associations were formed for encouraging such training and providing facilities for it. Gymnastics had already for several years been an essential part of the training of army recruits with exceedingly beneficial results, and gymnasia had been established at Aldershot and other military centres. Physical exercises, although not compulsory, obtained a permanent place in the code for elementary schools in Great Britain; and much care has been taken to provide a syllabus of exercises adapted for the improvement of the physique of the children. These exercises are partly gymnastic and partly of the nature of drill; they do not in most cases require the use of appliances, and are on that account known as "free movements," which numbers of children go through together, accompanied whenever possible by music. On the other hand at the larger public schools and universities there are elaborate gymnasia equipped with a great variety of apparatus, the skilful use of which demands assiduous practice; and this is encouraged by annual contests between teams of gymnasts representing rival institutions.

Gymnastic apparatus.

The appliances vary to some extent in different gymnasia, some of the more complicated requiring a greater amount of space and involving a larger cost than is often practicable. But where these considerations are negligible, substantial uniformity is to be found in the equipment of gymnasia not designed for specifically medical purposes. The simplest, and in many respects the most generally useful, of all gymnastic apparatus is the dumb-bell. It was in use in England as early as the time of Elizabeth, and it has the advantage that it admits of being exactly proportioned to the individual strength of each learner, and can be adjusted in weight as his strength increases. The exercises that may be performed with the dumb-bell, combined with a few simple drill-like movements, give employment to all parts of the body and to both sides equally. Dumb-bell exercises, therefore, when arranged judiciously and with knowledge, are admirably suited for developing the physique, and are extensively employed in schools both for boys and girls. The bar-bell is merely a two-handed dumb-bell, and its use is similar in principle. The Indian club is also in use in most gymnasia; but the risk of overstraining the body by its unskilful handling makes it less generally popular than the dumb-bell. All these appliances may be, and often are, used either in ordinary schoolrooms or elsewhere outside the gymnasium. The usual fixed sorts of apparatus, the presence of which (or of some of them) in a building may be said to constitute it a gymnasium, are the following: a leaping-rope; a leaping-pole; a vaulting-horse; a horizontal bar, so mounted between two upright posts that its height from the ground may be adjusted as desired; parallel bars, used for exercises to develop the muscles of the trunk and arms; the trapeze consisting of a horizontal bar suspended by ropes at a height of 4 to 5 ft. from the ground; the bridge ladder; the plank; the inclined plane; the mast; swinging rings; the prepared wall; the horizontal beam.

Before the end of the 19th century the therapeutic value of gymnastics was fully realized by the medical profession; and a number of medical or surgical gymnasia came into existence, provided with specially devised apparatus for the treatment of different physical defects or weaknesses. The exercises practised in them are arranged upon scientific principles based on anatomical and physiological knowledge; and these principles have spread thence to influence largely the practice of gymnastics in schools and in the army. A French medical writer enumerates seven distinct groups of maladies, each including a number of different complaints, for which gymnastic exercises are a recognized form of treatment; and there are many malformations of the human body, formerly believed to be incurable, which are capable of being greatly remedied if not entirely corrected by regular gymnastic exercises practised under medical direction.

The value of gymnastics both for curing defects, and still more for promoting health and the development of normal physique, is recognized even more clearly on the continent of Europe than in Great Britain. In Germany the government not only controls the practice of gymnastics but makes it compulsory for every child and adult to undergo a prescribed amount of such physical training. In France also, physical training by gymnastics is under state control; in Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, Italy, Russia, systems more or less distinct enjoy a wide popularity; and in Finland gymnastics are practised on lines that exhibit national peculiarities. The Finns introduce an exceptional degree of variety into their exercises as well as into the appliances devised to assist them; women are scarcely less expert than men in the performance of them; and the enthusiasm with which the system is supported produces the most beneficial results in the physique of the people. International gymnastic contests have become a feature of the revived Olympic Games (see ATHLETIC SPORTS), and in those held at Athens in 1906 a team of Danish ladies took part in the competition and proved by their skilful performance that gymnastics may be practised with as much success by women as by men.

The chief work on the ancient gymnastics is Krause, _Gymnastik und
Agonistik der Hellenen_ (1841); of more recent works mention may be
made of Jager, _Gymnastik der Hellenen_ (1881); L. Grasberger,
_Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum_ (1881); J. P.
Mahaffy, _Old Greek Education_ (1883); A. S. Wilkins, _National
Education in Greece_ (1873); E. Paz, _Histoire de la gymnastique_
(1886); Wickenhagen, _Antike und moderne Gymnastik_ (1891);
Becker-Goll, _Charicles_ ii.; Brugsma, _Gymnasiorum apud Graecos
descriptio_ (1855); Petersen, _Das Gymnasium der Griechen_ (1858). See
also N. Laisne, _Gymnastique pratique_ (Paris, 1879); Collineau, _La
Gymnastique_ (Paris, 1884); _L'Hygiene a l'ecole_ (Paris, 1889); P. de
Coubertin, _La Gymnastique utilitaire_ (Paris, 1905); H. Nissen,
_Rational Home Gymnastics_ (Boston, 1903). (R. J. M.)

GYMNOSOPHISTS (Lat. _gymnosophistae_, from Gr. [Greek: gymnos, sophistes], "naked philosophers"), the name given by the Greeks to certain ancient Hindu philosophers who pursued asceticism to the point of regarding food and clothing as detrimental to purity of thought. From the fact that they often lived as hermits in forests, the Greeks also called them _Hylobioi_ (cf. the _Vana-prasthas_ in Sanskrit writings). Diogenes Laertius (ix. 61 and 63) refers to them, and asserts that Pyrrho of Elis, the founder of pure scepticism, came under their influence, and on his return to Elis imitated their habits of life, to what extent does not appear. Strabo (xv. 711, 714) divides them into Brahmans and Sarmans (or Shamans). See JAINS.

GYMNOSPERMS, in Botany. The Gymnosperms, with the Angiosperms, constitute the existing groups of seed-bearing plants or Phanerogams: the importance of the seed as a distinguishing feature in the plant kingdom may be emphasized by the use of the designation Spermophyta for these two groups, in contrast to the Pteridophyta and Bryophyta in which true seeds are unknown. Recent discoveries have, however, established the fact that there existed in the Palaeozoic era fern-like plants which produced true seeds of a highly specialized type; this group, for which Oliver and Scott proposed the term Pteridospermae in 1904, must also be included in the Spermophyta. Another instance of the production of seeds in an extinct plant which further reduces the importance of this character as a distinguishing feature is afforded by the Palaeozoic genus _Lepidocarpon_ described by Scott in 1901; this lycopodiaceous type possessed an integumented megaspore, to which the designation seed may be legitimately applied (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_).

As the name Gymnosperm (Gr. [Greek: gymnos], naked, [Greek: sperma], seed) implies, one characteristic of this group is the absence of an ovary or closed chamber containing the ovules. It was the English botanist Robert Brown who first recognized this important distinguishing feature in conifers and cycads in 1825; he established the gymnospermy of these seed-bearing classes as distinct from the angiospermy of the monocotyledons and dicotyledons. As Sachs says in his history of botany, "no more important discovery was ever made in the domain of comparative morphology and systematic botany." As Coulter and Chamberlain express it, "the habitats of the Gymnosperms to-day indicate that they either are not at home in the more genial conditions affected by Angiosperms, or have not been able to maintain themselves in competition with this group of plants."

These naked-seeded plants are of special interest on account of their great antiquity, which far exceeds that of the Angiosperms, and as comprising different types which carry us back to the Palaeozoic era and to the forests of the coal period. The best known and by far the largest division of the Gymnosperms is that of the cone-bearing trees (pines, firs, cedars, larches, &c.), which play a prominent part in the vegetation of the present day, especially in the higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere; certain members of this class are of considerable antiquity, but the conifers as a whole are still vigorous and show but little sign of decadence. The division known as the Cycadophyta is represented by a few living genera of limited geographical range and by a large number of extinct types which in the Mesozoic era (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_) played a conspicuous part in the vegetation of the world. Among existing Cycadophyta we find surviving types which, in their present isolation, their close resemblance to fossil forms, and in certain morphological features, constitute links with the past that not only connect the present with former periods in the earth's history, but serve as sign-posts pointing the way back along one of the many lines which evolution has followed.

It is needless to discuss at length the origin of the Gymnosperms. The two views which find most favour in regard to the Coniferales and Cycadophyta are: (1) that both have been derived from remote filicinean ancestors; (2) that the cycads are the descendants of a fern-like stock, while conifers have been evolved from lycopodiaceous ancestors. The line of descent of recent cycads is comparatively clear in so far as they have undoubted affinity with Palaeozoic plants which combined cycadean and filicinean features; but opinion is much more divided as to the nature of the phylum from which the conifers are derived. The Cordaitales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_) are represented by extinct forms only, which occupied a prominent position in the Palaeozoic period; these plants exhibit certain features in common with the living Araucarias, and others which invite a comparison with the maidenhair tree (_Ginkgo biloba_), the solitary survivor of another class of Gymnosperms, the Ginkgoales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_). The Gnetales are a class apart, including three living genera, of which we know next to nothing as regards their past history or line of descent. Although there are several morphological features in the three genera of Gnetales which might seem to bring them into line with the Angiosperms, it is usual to regard these resemblances as parallel developments along distinct lines rather than to interpret them as evidence of direct relationship.

_Gymnospermae._--Trees or shrubs; leaves vary considerably in size and
form. Flowers unisexual, except in a few cases (Gnetales) without a
perianth. Monoecious or dioecious. Ovules naked, rarely without
carpellary leaves, usually borne on carpophylls, which assume various
forms. The single megaspore enclosed in the nucellus is filled with
tissue (prothallus) before fertilization, and contains two or more
archegonia, consisting usually of a large egg-cell and a small neck,
rarely of an egg-cell only and no neck (_Gnetum_ and _Welwitschia_).
Microspore spherical or oval, with or without a bladder-like extension
of the exine, containing a prothallus of two or more cells, one of
which produces two non-motile or motile male cells. Cotyledons two or
several. Secondary xylem and phloem produced by a single cambium, or
by successive cambial zones; no true vessels (except in the Gnetales)
in the wood, and no companion-cells in the phloem.

I. _Pteridospermae_ (see PALAEOBOTANY, PALAEOZOIC).
II. _Cycadophyta_.
A. Cycadales (recent and extinct).
B. Bennettitales (see Palaeobotany: _Mesozoic_).
III. _Cordaitales_ (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Palaeozoic_).
IV. _Ginkgoales_ (recent and extinct).
V. _Coniferales_.
A. Taxaceae.
B. Pinaceae.

There is no doubt that the result of recent research and of work now
in progress will be to modify considerably the grouping of the
conifers. The family _Araucarieae_, represented by _Araucaria_ and
_Agathis_, should perhaps be separated as a special class and a
rearrangement of other genera more in accord with a natural system of
classification will soon be possible; but for the present its twofold
subdivision may be retained.

VI. _Gnetales_.
A. Ephedroideae.
B. Gnetoideae.
C. Welwitschioideae (Tumboideae).

CYCADOPHYTA.--A. _Cycadales._--Stems tuberous or columnar, not
infrequently branched, rarely epiphytic (Peruvian species of _Zamia_);
fronds pinnate, bi-pinnate in the Australian genus _Bowenia_.
Dioecious; flowers in the form of cones, except the female flowers of
_Cycas_, which consist of a rosette of leaf-like carpels at the apex
of the stem. Seeds albuminous, with one integument; the single embryo,
usually bearing two partially fused cotyledons, is attached to a long
tangled suspensor. Stems and roots increase in diameter by secondary
thickening, the secondary wood being produced by one cambium or
developed from successive cambium-rings.

The cycads constitute a homogeneous group of a few living members
confined to tropical and sub-tropical regions. As a fairly typical and
well-known example of the Cycadaceae, a species of the genus _Cycas_
(e.g. _C. circinalis_, _C. revoluta_, &c.) is briefly described. The
stout columnar stem may reach a height of 20 metres, and a diameter of
half a metre; it remains either unbranched or divides near the summit
into several short and thick branches, each branch terminating in a
crown of long pinnate leaves. The surface of the stem is covered with
rhomboidal areas, which represent the persistent bases of foliage- and
scale-leaves. In some species of _Cycas_ there is a well-defined
alternation of transverse zones on the stem, consisting of larger
areas representing foliage-leaf bases, and similar but smaller areas
formed by the bases of scale-leaves (F and S, fig. 1). The
scale-leaves clothing the terminal bud are linear-lanceolate in form,
and of a brown or yellow colour; they are pushed aside as the
stem-axis elongates and becomes shrivelled, finally falling off,
leaving projecting bases which are eventually cut off at a still lower
level. Similarly, the dead fronds fall off, leaving a ragged petiole,
which is afterwards separated from the stem by an absciss-layer a
short distance above the base. In some species of _Cycas_ the
leaf-bases do not persist as a permanent covering to the stem, but the
surface is covered with a wrinkled bark, as in _Cycas siamensis_,
which has a stem of unusual form (fig. 2). Small tuberous shoots,
comparable on a large scale with the bulbils of _Lycopodium Selago_,
are occasionally produced in the axils of some of the persistent
leaf-bases; these are characteristic of sickly plants, and serve as a
means of vegetative reproduction. In the genus _Cycas_ the female
flower is peculiar among cycads in consisting of a terminal crown of
separate leaf-like carpels several inches in length; the apical
portion of each carpellary leaf may be broadly triangular in form, and
deeply dissected on the margins into narrow woolly appendages like
rudimentary pinnae. From the lower part of a carpel are produced
several laterally placed ovules, which become bright red or orange on
ripening; the bright fleshy seeds, which in some species are as large
as a goose's egg, and the tawny spreading carpels produce a pleasing
combination of colour in the midst of the long dark-green fronds,
which curve gracefully upwards and outwards from the summit of the
columnar stem. In _Cycas_ the stem apex, after producing a cluster of
carpellary leaves, continues to elongate and produces more bud-scales,
which are afterwards pushed aside as a fresh crown of fronds is
developed. The young leaves of _Cycas_ consist of a straight rachis
bearing numerous linear pinnae, traversed by a single midrib; the
pinnae are circinately coiled like the leaf of a fern (fig. 3). The
male flower of _Cycas_ conforms to the type of structure
characteristic of the cycads, and consists of a long cone of numerous
sporophylls bearing many oval pollen-sacs on their lower faces. The
type described serves as a convenient representative of its class.
There are eight other living genera, which may be classified as
follows:--

_Classification._--A. _Cycadeae._--Characterized by (a) the
alternation of scale- and foliage-leaves (fig. 1) on the branched or
unbranched stem; (b) the growth of the main stem through the female
flower; (c) the presence of a prominent single vein in the linear
pinnae; (d) the structure of the female flower, which is peculiar in
not having the form of a cone, but consists of numerous independent
carpels, each of which bears two or more lateral ovules. Represented
by a single genus, _Cycas_. (Tropical Asia, Australia, &c.).

B. _Zamieae._--The stem does not grow through the female flower; both
male and female flowers are in the form of cones. (a)
_Stangerieae._--Characterized by the fern-like venation of the pinnae,
which have a prominent midrib, giving off at a wide angle simple or
forked and occasionally anastomosing lateral veins. A single genus,
_Stangeria_, confined to South Africa, (b) _Euzamieae._--The pinnae
are traversed by several parallel veins. _Bowenia_, an Australian
cycad, is peculiar in having bi-pinnate fronds (fig. 5). The various
genera are distinguished from one another by the shape and manner of
attachment of the pinnae, the form of the carpellary scales, and to
some extent by anatomical characters. _Encephalartos_ (South and
Tropical Africa).--Large cones; the carpellary scales terminate in a
peltate distal expansion. _Macrozamia_ (Australia).--Similar to
_Encephalartos_ except in the presence of a spinous projection from
the swollen distal end of the carpels. _Zamia_ (South America,
Florida, &c.).--Stem short and often divided into several columnar
branches. Each carpel terminates in a peltate head. _Ceratozamia_
(Mexico).--Similar in habit to _Macrozamia_, but distinguished by the
presence of two horn-like spinous processes on the apex of the
carpels. _Microcycas_ (Cuba).--Like _Zamia_, except that the ends of
the stamens are flat, while the apices of the carpels are peltate.
_Dioon_ (Mexico) (fig. 4).--Characterized by the woolly scale-leaves
and carpels; the latter terminate in a thick laminar expansion of
triangular form, bearing two placental cushions, on which the ovules
are situated. _Bowenia_ (Australia).--Bi-pinnate fronds; stem short
and tuberous (fig. 5).

FIG. 4.--_Dioon edule._]

Stem and leaf.

The stems of cycads are often described as unbranched; it is true that
in comparison with conifers, in which the numerous branches, springing
from the main stem, give a characteristic form to the tree, the
tuberous or columnar stem of the Cycadaceae constitutes a striking
distinguishing feature. Branching, however, occurs not infrequently:
in _Cycas_ the tall stem often produces several candelabra-like arms;
in _Zamia_ the main axis may break up near the base into several
cylindrical branches; in species of _Dioon_ (fig. 4) lateral branches
are occasionally produced. The South African _Encephalartos_
frequently produces several branches. Probably the oldest example of
this genus in cultivation is in the Botanic Garden of Amsterdam, its
age is considered by Professor de Vries to be about two thousand
years: although an accurate determination of age is impossible, there
is no doubt that many cycads grow very slowly and are remarkable for
longevity. The thick armour of petiole-bases enveloping the stem is a
characteristic Cycadean feature; in _Cycas_ the alternation of
scale-leaves and fronds is more clearly shown than in other cycads; in
_Encephalartos_, _Dioon_, &c., the persistent scale-leaf bases are
almost equal in size to those of the foliage-leaves, and there is no
regular alternation of zones such as characterizes some species of
_Cycas_. Another type of stem is illustrated by _Stangeria_ and
_Zamia_, also by a few forms of _Cycas_ (fig. 2), in which the fronds
fall off completely, leaving a comparatively smooth stem. The _Cyas_
type of frond, except as regards the presence of a midrib in each
pinna, characterizes the cycads generally, except _Bowenia_ and
_Stangeria_. In the monotypic genus _Bowenia_ the large fronds, borne
singly on the short and thick stem, are bi-pinnate (fig. 5); the
segments, which are broadly ovate or rhomboidal, have several forked
spreading veins, and resemble the large pinnules of some species of
_Adiantum_. In _Stangeria_, also a genus represented by one species
(_S. paradoxa_ of South Africa), the long and comparatively broad
pinnae, with an entire or irregularly incised margin, are very
fern-like, a circumstance which led Kunze to describe the plant in
1835 as a species of the fern _Lomaria_. In rare cases the pinnae of
cycads are lobed or branched: in _Dioon spinulosum_ (Central America)
the margin of the segments bears numerous spinous processes; in some
species of _Encephalartos_, e.g. _E. horridus_, the lamina is deeply
lobed; and in a species of the Australian genus _Macrozamia_, _M.
heteromera_, the narrow pinnae are dichotomously branched almost to
the base (fig. 6), and resemble the frond of some species of the fern
_Schizaea_, or the fossil genus _Baiera_ (Ginkgoales). An interesting
species of _Cycas_, _C. Micholitzii_, has recently been described by
Sir William Thiselton-Dyer from Annam, where it was collected by one
of Messrs Sanders & Son's collectors, in which the pinnae instead of
being of the usual simple type are dichotomously branched as in
_Macrozamia heteromera_. In _Ceratozamia_ the broad petiole-base is
characterized by the presence of two lateral spinous processes,
suggesting stipular appendages, comparable, on a reduced scale, with
the large stipules of the Marattiaceae among Ferns. The vernation
varies in different genera; in _Cycas_ the rachis is straight and the
pinnae circinately coiled (fig. 3); in _Encephalartos_, _Dioon_, &c.,
both rachis and segments are straight; in _Zamia_ the rachis is bent
or slightly coiled, bearing straight pinnae. The young leaves arise on
the stem-apex as conical protuberances with winged borders on which
the pinnae appear as rounded humps, usually in basipetal order; the
scale-leaves in their young condition resemble fronds, but the lamina
remains undeveloped. A feature of interest in connexion with the
phylogeny of cycads is the presence of long hairs clothing the
scale-leaves, and forming a cap on the summit of the stem-apex or
attached to the bases of petioles; on some fossil cycadean plants
these outgrowths have the form of scales, and are identical in
structure with the ramenta (paleae) of the majority of ferns.

Flower.

The male flowers of cycads are constructed on a uniform plan, and in
all cases consist of an axis bearing crowded, spirally disposed
sporophylls. These are often wedge-shaped and angular; in some cases
they consist of a short, thick stalk, terminating in a peltate
expansion, or prolonged upwards in the form of a triangular lamina.
The sporangia (pollen-sacs), which occur on the under-side of the
stamens, are often arranged in more or less definite groups or sori,
interspersed with hairs (paraphyses); dehiscence takes place along a
line marked out by the occurrence of smaller and thinner-walled cells
bounded by larger and thicker-walled elements, which form a fairly
prominent cap-like "annulus" near the apex of the sporangium, not
unlike the annulus characteristic of the Schizaeaceae among ferns. The
sporangial wall, consisting of several layers of cells, encloses a
cavity containing numerous oval spores (pollen-grains). In structure a
cycadean sporangium recalls those of certain ferns (Marattiaceae,
Osmundaceae and Schizaeaceae), but in the development of the spores
there are certain peculiarities not met with among the Vascular
Cryptogams. With the exception of _Cycas_, the female flowers are also
in the form of cones, bearing numerous carpellary scales. In _Cycas
revoluta_ and _C. circinalis_ each leaf-like carpel may produce
several laterally attached ovules, but in _C. Normanbyana_ the carpel
is shorter and the ovules are reduced to two; this latter type brings
us nearer to the carpels of _Dioon_, in which the flower has the form
of a cone, and the distal end of the carpels is longer and more
leaf-like than in the other genera of the _Zamieae_, which are
characterized by shorter carpels with thick peltate heads bearing two
ovules on the morphologically lower surface. The cones of cycads
attain in some cases (e.g. _Encephalartos_) a considerable size,
reaching a length of more than a foot. Cases have been recorded (by
Thiselton-Dyer in _Encephalartos_ and by Wieland in _Zamia_) in which
the short carpellary cone-scales exhibit a foliaceous form. It is
interesting that no monstrous cycadean cone has been described in
which ovuliferous and staminate appendages are borne on the same axis:
in the Bennettitales (see PALAEOBOTANY: _Mesozoic_) flowers were
produced bearing on the same axis both androecium and gynoecium.

Microspores and megaspores.

The pollen-grains when mature consist of three cells, two small and
one large cell; the latter grows into the pollen-tube, as in the
Coniferales, and from one of the small cells two large ciliated
spermatozoids are eventually produced. A remarkable exception to this
rule has recently been recorded by Caldwell, who found that in
_Microcycas Calocoma_ the body-cells may be eight or even ten in
number and the sperm-cells twice as numerous. One of the most
important discoveries made during the latter part of the 19th century
was that by Ikeno, a Japanese botanist, who first demonstrated the
existence of motile male cells in the genus _Cycas_. Similar
spermatozoids were observed in some species of _Zamia_ by H. J.
Webber, and more recent work enables us to assume that all cycads
produce ciliated male gametes. Before following the growth of the
pollen-grain after pollination, we will briefly describe the structure
of a cycadean ovule. An ovule consists of a conical nucellus
surrounded by a single integument. At an early stage of development a
large cell makes its appearance in the central region of the nucellus;
this increases in size and eventually forms three cells; the lowest of
these grows vigorously and constitutes the megaspore (embryo-sac),
which ultimately absorbs the greater part of the nucellus. The
megaspore-nucleus divides repeatedly, and cells are produced from the
peripheral region inwards, which eventually fill the spore-cavity with
a homogeneous tissue (prothallus); some of the superficial cells at
the micropylar end of the megaspore increase in size and divide by a
tangential wall into two, an upper cell which gives rise to the short
two-celled neck of the archegonium, and a lower cell which develops
into a large egg-cell. Each megaspore may contain 2 to 6 archegonia.
During the growth of the ovum nourishment is supplied from the
contents of the cells immediately surrounding the egg-cell, as in the
development of the ovum of _Pinus_ and other conifers. Meanwhile the
tissue in the apical region of the nucellus has been undergoing
disorganization, which results in the formation of a pollen-chamber
(fig. 7, C) immediately above the megaspore. Pollination in cycads has
always been described as anemophilous, but according to recent
observations by Pearson on South African species it seems probable
that, at least in some cases, the pollen is conveyed to the ovules by
animal agency. The pollen-grains find their way between the
carpophylls, which at the time of pollination are slightly apart owing
to the elongation of the internodes of the flower-axis, and pass into
the pollen-chamber; the large cell of the pollen-grain grows out into
a tube (Pt), which penetrates the nucellar tissue and often branches
repeatedly; the pollen-grain itself, with the prothallus-cells,
projects freely into the pollen-chamber (fig. 7). The nucleus of the
outermost (second) small cell (fig. 7, G) divides, and one of the
daughter-nuclei passes out of the cell, and may enter the lowest
(first) small cell. The outermost cell, by the division of the
remaining nucleus, produces two large spermatozoids (fig. 8, a, a). In
_Microcycas_ 16 sperm-cells are produced. In the course of division
two bodies appear in the cytoplasm, and behave as centrosomes during
the karyokinesis; they gradually become threadlike and coil round each
daughter nucleus. This thread gives rise to a spiral ciliated band
lying in a depression on the body of each spermatozoid; the large
spermatozoids eventually escape from the pollen-tube, and are able to
perform ciliary movements in the watery liquid which occurs between
the thin papery remnant of nucellar tissue and the archegonial necks.
Before fertilization a neck-canal cell is formed by the division of
the ovum-nucleus. After the body of a spermatozoid has coalesced with
the egg-nucleus the latter divides repeatedly and forms a mass of
tissue which grows more vigorously in the lower part of the fertilized
ovum, and extends upwards towards the apex of the ovum as a peripheral
layer of parenchyma surrounding a central space. By further growth
this tissue gives rise to a proembryo, which consists, at the
micropylar end, of a sac; the tissue at the chalazal end grows into a
long and tangled suspensor, terminating in a mass of cells, which is
eventually differentiated into a radicle, plumule and two cotyledons.
In the ripe seed the integument assumes the form of a fleshy envelope,
succeeded internally by a hard woody shell, internal to which is a
thin papery membrane--the apical portion of the nucellus--which is
easily dissected out as a conical cap covering the apex of the
endosperm. A thorough examination of cycadean seeds has recently been
made by Miss Stopes, more particularly with a view to a comparison of
their vascular supply with that in Palaeozoic gymnospermous seeds
(_Flora_, 1904). The first leaves borne on the seedling axis are often
scale-like, and these are followed by two or more larger laminae,
which foreshadow the pinnae of the adult frond.

P, Prothallus.
A, Archegonia.
N, Nucellus.
C, Pollen-chamber.
Pt, Pollen-tube.
Pg, Pollen-grain.
G, Generative cell (second cell of pollen-tube).]

Anatomy.

Roots.