Chapter VIII: Part 8

The hostility of Austria and France, or rather of Habsburg and Bourbon, outlived the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1717 Spain conquered Sardinia, which was soon exchanged by Austria for Sicily; other struggles and other groupings of the European powers followed, and in 1735, by the treaty of Vienna, Austria gave up Naples and Sicily and received the duchies of Parma and Piacenza. These surrenders were doubtless inevitable, but they shook the position of the house of Habsburg in Italy. However, a domestic crisis was approaching which threw Italian affairs into the shade. Charles VI., who had succeeded his brother, Joseph I., as emperor in 1711, was without sons, and his prime object in life was to secure the succession of his elder daughter, Maria Theresa, to the whole of his lands and dignities. But in 1713, four years before the birth of Maria Theresa, he had first issued the famous _Pragmatic Sanction_, which declared that the Habsburg monarchy was indivisible and that in default of male heirs a female could succeed to it. Then after the death of his only son and the birth of Maria Theresa the emperor bent all his energies to securing the acceptance of the Pragmatic Sanction. Promulgated anew in 1724, it was formally accepted by the estates of the different Habsburg lands; in 1731 it was guaranteed by the imperial diet. By subordinating every other interest to this, Charles at length procured the assent of the various powers of Europe to the proposed arrangement; he married the young princess to Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, afterwards grand-duke of Tuscany, and when he died on the 20th of October 1740 he appeared to have realized his great ambition. With the emperor's death the house of Habsburg, strictly speaking, became extinct, its place being taken by the house of Habsburg-Lorraine, which sprang from the union of Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen; and it is interesting to note that the present Habsburgs are only descended in the female line from Rudolph I. and Maximilian I.

GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF HABSBURG-LORRAINE.

Maria Theresa (1717-1780) = Francis I., emperor (1708-1765).
|
+-------------------+-----------+----------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
| | | |
Joseph II., emperor Leopold II., emperor Maximilian, elector of Cologne |
(1741-1790). (1747-1792). (1756-1801). |
|
+--------------------+--------------------+--------------+-------------+-------------+------------+--------------+-------------+--------------+ |
| | | | | | | | | | |
Francis II., emperor Ferdinand III., Charles Leopold Joseph Antony John Rainer Louis Rudolph |
(1768-1835). grand-duke of Tuscany (1771-1847). (1772-1795). (1776-1847). (1780-1835). (1782-1859). (1783-1853). (1784-1864). (1788-1831). |
| (1769-1824). | | | |
| (see below.) | | +-------------+------------+-+------------+-----------+ |
| | | | | | | | |
+----+-----------------+ | Joseph Leopold Ernest Sigismund Rainer Henry |
| | | (1833-1905). (1823-1898). (1824-1899). (1826-1891). (b. 1827). (1828-1891). |
Ferdinand I. Francis Charles | | |
emperor of Austria (1802-1878). | | |
(1793-1875). | +-------------------+ Joseph Augustus +-----------------+
| | (b. 1872). |
+------------------+---+---------------+--------------+ | | |
| | | | | +--+--------------+ |
Francis Joseph, Maximilian, Charles Louis Louis Victor | | | |
emperor of Austria emperor of Mexico (1833-1896). (b. 1842). | Joseph Francis Ladislaus Ferdinand, duke of Modena
(b. 1830). (1832-1867). | | (b. 1895). (b. 1901). (1754-1806).
| | | |
Rudolph +-----------------+------+--------+ +--+----------------+---------------+ +---------------+-----------+
(1858-1889). | | | | | | | | |
Francis Ferdinand Otto Ferdinand Albert, Charles Ferdinand William Francis IV. Maximilian Ferdinand
(b. 1863). (1865-1906). Charles Louis duke of Teschen (1818-1874). (1827-1894). duke of Modena Joseph (1781-1850).
| (b. 1868). (1817-1895). | (1779-1846). (1782-1863).
| | |
+----------+-----------+ | |
| | | |
Charles Francis Joseph Maximilian Eugene +------------------+-+-----------+ +--+-----------+
(b. 1887). (b. 1895). | | | | |
Frederick Charles Stephen Eugene Francis V., Ferdinand
duke of Teschen (b. 1860). (b. 1863). duke of Modena (1821-1849).
(b. 1856). | (1819-1875).
| |
| +-----+---------+------------+
| | | |
Albert Charles Albert Leo Charles William
(b. 1897). (b. 1888). (b. 1893). (b. 1895).

TUSCANY.

Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany
(1769-1824).
|
Leopold II., grand-duke of Tuscany
(1797-1870).
|
+------------------------+--------------------+----------+--------------------+
| | | |
Ferdinand IV. Louis Salvator Charles Salvator John Nepomuck Salvator
grand-duke of Tuscany (b. 1847). (1839-1892). (1852-1891).
(b. 1835). |
| +--------+-------------+----------------+
+--------------------+---+--------------+-----------------+ | | |
| | | | Leopold Salvator Francis Salvator Albert Salvator
Leopold Ferdinand Joseph Ferdinand Peter Ferdinand Henry Ferdinand (b. 1863). (b. 1866). (1871-1896).
(b. 1872). (b. 1874). (b. 1878). | |
| | +----------+-+--------+-----------+
+-------+----+ | | | | |
| | | Francis Charles Hubert Theodore Clement
Godfrey George | Salvator Salvator Salvator Salvator
(b. 1902). (b. 1905). | (b. 1893). (b. 1894). (b. 1899). (b. 1904).
|
+--------------+-----------+--------------+
| | | |
Rainer Charles Leopold Antony Francis Joseph
(b. 1895). (b. 1897). (b. 1901). (b. 1905).

Immediately after the death of Charles the Pragmatic Sanction was forgotten. A crowd of claimants called for various parts of the Habsburg lands; Frederick the Great, talking less but acting more, invaded and conquered Silesia, and it seemed likely that the dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy would at no long interval follow the extinction of the Habsburg race. A Wittelsbach prince, Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, the emperor Charles VII., and not Francis Stephen, was chosen emperor in January 1742, and by the treaty of Breslau, made later in the same year, nearly all Silesia was formally surrendered to Prussia. But the worst was now over, and when in 1748 the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which practically confirmed the treaty of Breslau, had cleared away the dust of war, Maria Theresa and her consort were found to occupy a strong position in Europe. In the first place, in September 1745, Francis had been chosen emperor; then the imperial pair ruled Hungary and Bohemia, although the latter kingdom was shorn of Silesia; in spite of French conquests the Austrian Netherlands remained in their hands; and in Italy Francis had added Tuscany to his wife's heritage, although Parma and Piacenza had been surrendered to Spain and part of Milan to the king of Sardinia. The diplomatic _volte-face_ and the futile attempts of Maria Theresa to recover Silesia which followed this treaty belong to the general history of Europe.

The emperor Francis I. died in 1765 and was succeeded by his son Joseph II., an ambitious and able prince, whose aim was to restore the Habsburgs and the Empire to their former great positions in Europe, and whose pride did not prevent him from learning from Frederick the Great, the despoiler of his house. His projects, however, including one of uniting Bavaria with Austria, which was especially cherished, failed completely, and when he died in February 1790 he left his lands in a state of turbulence which reflected the general condition of Europe. The Netherlands had risen against the Austrians, and in January 1790 had declared themselves independent; Hungary, angered by Joseph's despotic measures, was in revolt, and the other parts of the monarchy were hardly more contented. But the 18th century saw a few successes for the Habsburgs. In 1718 a successful war with Turkey was ended by the peace of Passarowitz, which advanced the Austrian boundary very considerably to the east, and although by the treaty of Belgrade, signed twenty-one years later, a large part of this territory was surrendered, yet a residuum, the banate of Temesvar, was permanently incorporated with Hungary. The struggle over the succession to Bavaria, which was concluded in 1779 by the treaty of Teschen, was responsible for adding Innviertel, or the quarter of the Inn, to Austria; the first partition of Poland brought eastern Galicia and Lodomeria, and in 1777 the sultan ceded Bukovina. Joseph II. was followed by his brother, Leopold II., who restored the Austrian authority in the Netherlands, and the latter by his son Francis II., who resigned the crown of the Holy Roman Empire in August 1806, having two years before taken the title of emperor of Austria as Francis I.

Before the abdication of the emperor Francis in 1806 Austria had met and suffered from the fury of revolutionary France, but the cessions of territory made by her at the treaties of Campo Formio (1797), of Luneville (1801) and of Pressburg (1805) were of no enduring importance. This, however, cannot be said for the treaties of Paris and of Vienna, which in 1814 and 1815 arranged the map of Europe upon the conclusion of the Napoleonic wars. These were highly favourable to the Habsburgs. In eastern and central Europe Austria regained her former position, the lands ceded to Bavaria and also eastern Galicia, which had been in the hands of Russia since 1809, being restored; she gave up the Austrian Netherlands, soon to be known as Belgium, to the new kingdom of the Netherlands, and acquiesced in the arrangement which had taken from her the Breisgau and the remnant of the Habsburg lands upon the Rhine. In return for these losses Austria became the dominant power In Italy. A mass of northern Italy, including her former possessions in Milan and the neighbourhood, and also the lands recently forming the republic of Venice, was made into the kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, and this owned the emperor of Austria as king. Across the Adriatic Dalmatia was added to the Habsburg monarchy, the population of which, it has been estimated, was increased at this time by over four millions.

The illiberal and oppressive character of the Austrian rule in Italy made it very unpopular; it was hardly less so in Hungary and Bohemia, and the advent of the year 1848 found the subject kingdoms eager to throw off the Habsburg yoke. The whole monarchy was quickly in a state of revolution, in the midst of which the emperor Ferdinand, who had succeeded his father Francis in 1835, abdicated, and his place was taken by his young nephew Francis Joseph. The position of the Habsburg monarchy now seemed desperate. But it was strong in its immemorial tradition, which was enough to make the efforts of the Frankfort parliament to establish German unity under Prussian hegemony abortive; it was strong also in the general loyalty to the throne of the imperial army; and its counsels were directed by statesmen who knew well how to exploit in the interests of the central power the national rivalries within the monarchy. With the crushing of the Hungarian revolt by the emperor Nicholas I. of Russia in 1849 the monarchy was freed from the most formidable of its internal troubles; in 1850 the convention of Olmutz restored its influence in Germany.

Though the _status quo_ was thus outwardly re-established, the revolutions of 1848 had really unchained forces which made its maintenance impossible. In Germany Prussia was steadily preparing for the inevitable struggle with Austria for the mastery; in France Napoleon III. was preparing to pose as the champion of the oppressed nationalities which had once more settled down sullenly under the Habsburg yoke. The alliance of the French emperor and the king of Sardinia, and the Italian war of 1859 ended in the loss of Lombardy to the Habsburgs. Seven years later the crushing defeat of Koniggratz not only ended their long rule in Italy, based on the tradition of the medieval empire, by leading to the cession of Venetia to the new Italian kingdom, but led to their final exclusion from the German confederation, soon to become, under the headship of Prussia, the German empire.

By the loss of the predominance in Germany conceded to it by the treaties of Vienna, and by the shifting of its "centre of gravity" eastward, the Habsburg monarchy, however, perhaps gained more than it lost. One necessary result, indeed, was the composition (_Ausgleich_) with Hungary in 1867, by which the latter became an independent state (Francis Joseph being crowned king at Pest in June 1867) bound to the rest of the monarchy only by the machinery necessary for the carrying out of a common policy in matters of common interest. This at least restored the loyalty of the Hungarians to the Habsburg dynasty; it is too soon yet to say that it secured permanently the essential unity of the Habsburg monarchy. By the system of the Dual Monarchy the rest of the Austrian emperor's dominions (Cis-Leithan) were consolidated under a single central government, the history of which has been mainly that of the rival races within the empire struggling for political predominance. Since the development of the constitution has been consistently in a democratic direction and the Slavs are in a great majority, the tendency has been for the German element--strong in its social status and tradition of predominance--to be swamped by what it regards as an inferior race; and a considerable number of Austrian "Germans" have learned to look not to their Habsburg rulers, but to the power of the German empire for political salvation. The tendency eastwards of the monarchy was increased when in 1878 the congress of Berlin placed Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian rule. Old ambitions were now revived at the expense of the Ottoman empire, the goal of which was the port of Salonica; and not the least menacing aspect of the question of the near East has been that the rivalry of Italy and the Habsburg monarchy has been transferred to the Balkan peninsula. Yet, in spite of internal dissensions arising out of questions fundamentally insoluble, and in spite of the constant threat of external complications that may lead to war, the Habsburg monarchy as the result of the changes in the 19th and 20th centuries is seemingly stronger than ever. The shadow of universal claims to empire and sonorous but empty titles have vanished, but so have the manifold rivalries and entanglements which accompanied the Habsburg rule in Italy and the Netherlands and Habsburg preponderance in Germany. The monarchy is stronger because its sphere is more defined; because as preserving the _pax Romana_ among the jostling races of eastern Europe, it is more than ever recognized as an essential element in the maintenance of European peace, and is recognized as necessary and beneficial even by the ambitious and restless nationalities that chafe under its rule.

A few words must be said about the cadet branches of the Habsburg family. When, in 1765, Francis I. died and Joseph II. became emperor, the grand-duchy of Tuscany passed by special arrangement not to Joseph, but to his younger brother Leopold. Then in 1791, after Leopold had succeeded Joseph as emperor, he handed over the grand-duchy to his second son, Ferdinand (1769-1824). In 1801 this prince was deposed by Napoleon and Tuscany was seized by France. Restored to the Habsburgs in the person of Ferdinand in 1814, it remained under his rule, and then under that of his son Leopold (1797-1870), until the rising of 1859, when the Austrians were driven out and the grand-duchy was added to the kingdom of Sardinia. A similar fate attended the duchy of Modena, which had passed to the Habsburgs through the marriage of its heiress Mary Beatrice of Este (d. 1829) with the archduke Ferdinand (1754-1806), brother of the emperor Leopold II. From 1814 to 1846 this duchy was governed by Ferdinand's son, Duke Francis IV., and from 1846 to 1859 by his grandson, Francis V. This family became extinct on the death of Francis V. in 1875.

In addition to his successor Francis II., and to Ferdinand, grand-duke of Tuscany, the emperor Leopold II. had eight sons, five of whom, including the archduke John (1782-1859), who saw a good deal of service during the Napoleonic Wars and was chosen regent (_Reichsverweser_) of Germany in 1848, have now no living male descendants. Thus the existing branches of the family are descended from Leopold's five other sons. The descendants of Leopold, the dispossessed grand-duke of Tuscany, were in 1909 represented by his son, Ferdinand (b. 1835), who still claimed the title of grand-duke of Tuscany, and his son and grandsons; by the numerous descendants of the archduke Charles Salvator (1830-1892); and by the archduke Louis Salvator (b. 1847), a great traveller and a voluminous writer. The grand-duke's fourth son was the archduke John Nepomuck Salvator, who, after serving in the Austrian army, resigned all his rights and titles and under the name of Johann Orth took command of a sailing vessel. He is supposed to have been drowned off the coast of South America in 1891, but reports of his continued existence were circulated from time to time after that date. Of the emperor Leopold's other sons the archduke Charles, perhaps the most distinguished soldier of the family, left four sons, including Albert, duke of Teschen (1817-1895), who inherited some of his father's military ability. Charles's family was in 1909 represented by his grandsons, the sons of the archduke Charles Ferdinand (1818-1874). The archduke Joseph (1776-1847), palatine of Hungary, was represented by a grandson, Joseph Augustus (b. 1872), and the archduke Rainer (1783-1853), viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia, by a son Rainer (b. 1827), and by several grandsons.

The eldest and reigning branch of the family was in 1909 represented by the emperor Francis Joseph, whose father was the archduke Francis Charles (1802-1878), and whose grandfather was the emperor Francis II. Francis Joseph's only son Rudolph died in 1889; consequently the heir to the Habsburg monarchy was the emperor's nephew Francis Ferdinand (b. 1863), the eldest of the three sons of his brother Charles Louis (1833-1896). In 1875 Francis Ferdinand inherited the wealth of the Este family and took the title of archduke of Austria-Este; in 1900 he contracted a morganatic marriage with Sophia, countess of Chotek, renouncing for his sons the succession to the monarchy. Thus after Francis Ferdinand this would pass to the sons of his brother, the archduke Otto (1865-1906). One of the emperor's three brothers was Maximilian, emperor of Mexico from 1863 to 1867.

With the exception of Charles V. the Habsburgs have produced no statesmen of great ability, while several members of the family have displayed marked traces of insanity. Nevertheless they secured, and for over 350 years they kept, the first place among the potentates of Europe; a dignity in origin and theory elective becoming in practice hereditary in their house. This position they owe to some extent to the tenacity with which they have clung to the various lands and dignities which have passed into their possession, but they owe it much more to a series of fortunate marriages and opportune deaths. The union of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, of Philip the Handsome and Joanna of Spain, of Ferdinand and Anna of Hungary and Bohemia; the death of Ottakar of Bohemia, of John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, of Louis of Hungary and Bohemia--these are the corner-stones upon which the Habsburg monarchy has been built.

For the origin and early history of the Habsburgs see G. de Roo,
_Annales rerum ab Austriacis Habsburgicae gentis principibus a
Rudolpho I. usque ad Carolum V. gestarum_ (Innsbruck, 1592, fol.); M.
Herrgott, _Genealogia diplomatica augustae gentis Habsburgicae_
(Vienna, 1737-1738); E. M. Furst von Lichnowsky, _Geschichte des
Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1836-1844); A. Schulte, _Geschichte der
Habsburger in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten_ (Innsbruck, 1887); T. von
Liebenau, _Die Anfange des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1883); W. Merz,
_Die Habsburg_ (Aarau, 1896); W. Gisi, _Der Ursprung der Hauser
Zahringen und Habsburg_ (1888); and F. Weihrich, _Stammtafel zur
Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg_ (Vienna, 1893). For the history of the
Habsburg monarchy see Langl, _Die Habsburg und die denkwurdigen
Statten ihrer Umgebung_ (Vienna, 1895); and E. A. Freeman, _Historical
Geography of Europe_ (1881). Two English books on the subject are J.
Gilbart-Smith, _The Cradle of the Hapsburgs_ (1907); and A. R. and E.
Colquhoun, _The Whirlpool of Europe, Austria-Hungary and the
Hapsburgs_ (1906). (A. W. H.*)

HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE (1769-1834), French mathematician, was born at Mezieres, where his father was a bookseller, on the 6th of May 1769. For his early education he proceeded first to the college of Charleville, and afterwards to that of Reims. In 1788 he returned to Mezieres, where he was attached to the school of engineering as draughtsman to the professors of physics and chemistry. In 1793 he became professor of hydrography at Collioure and Port-Vendre. While there he sent several papers, in which some questions of navigation were treated geometrically, to Gaspard Monge, at that time minister of marine, through whose influence he obtained an appointment in Paris. Towards the close of 1794, when the Ecole Polytechnique was established, he was appointed along with Monge over the department of descriptive geometry. There he instructed some of the ablest Frenchmen of the day, among them S. D. Poisson, F. Arago and A. Fresnel. Accompanying Guyton de Morveau in his expedition, earlier in the year, he was present at the battle of Fleurus, and entered Brussels with the French army. In 1816, on the accession of Louis XVIII., he was expelled from his chair by government. He retained, however, till his death the office of professor in the faculty of sciences in the Ecole Normale, to which he had been appointed in 1810. The necessary royal assent was in 1823 refused to the election of Hachette to the Academie des Sciences, and it was not till 1831, after the Revolution, that he obtained that honour. He died at Paris on the 16th of January 1834. Hachette was held in high esteem for his private worth, as well as for his scientific attainments and great public services. His labours were chiefly in the field of descriptive geometry, with its application to the arts and mechanical engineering. It was left to him to develop the geometry of Monge, and to him also is due in great measure the rapid advancement which France made soon after the establishment of the Ecole Polytechnique in the construction of machinery.

Hachette's principal works are his _Deux Supplements a la Geometrie
descriptive de Monge_ (1811 and 1818); _Elements de geometrie a trois
dimensions_ (1817); _Collection des epures de geometrie_, &c. (1795
and 1817); _Applications de geometrie descriptive_ (1817); _Traite de
geometrie descriptive_, &c. (1822); _Traite elementaire des machines_
(1811); _Correspondance sur l'Ecole Polytechnique_ (1804-1815). He
also contributed many valuable papers to the leading scientific
journals of his time.

For a list of Hachette's writings see the _Catalogue of Scientific
Papers of the Royal Society of London_; also F. Arago, _Oeuvres_
(1855); and Silvestre, _Notice sur J. N. P. Hachette_ (Bruxelles,
1836).

HACHETTE, JEANNE, French heroine. Jeanne Laine, or Fourquet, called Jeanne Hachette, was born about 1454. We have no precise information about her family or origin. She is known solely for her act of heroism which on the 27th of June 1472 saved Beauvais when it was on the point of being taken by the troops of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The town was defended by only 300 men-at-arms, commanded by Louis de Balagny. The Burgundians were making an assault, and one of their number had actually planted a flag upon the battlements, when Jeanne, axe in hand, flung herself upon him, hurled him into the moat, tore down the flag, and revived the drooping courage of the garrison. In gratitude for this heroic deed, Louis XI. instituted a procession in Beauvais called the Procession of the Assault, and married Jeanne to her chosen lover Colin Pilon, loading them with favours.

See Georges Vallat, _Jeanne Hachette_ (Abbeville, 1898).

HACHETTE, LOUIS CHRISTOPHE FRANCOIS (1800-1864), French publisher, was born at Rethel in the Ardennes on the 5th of May 1800. After studying three years at a normal school with the view of becoming a teacher, he was in 1822 on political grounds expelled from the seminary. He then studied law, but in 1826 he established in Paris a publishing business for the issue of works adapted to improve the system of school instruction, or to promote the general culture of the community. He published manuals in various departments of knowledge, dictionaries of modern and ancient languages, educational journals, and French, Latin and Greek classics annotated with great care by the most eminent authorities. Subsequently to 1850 he, in conjunction with other partners, published a cheap railway library, scientific and miscellaneous libraries, an illustrated library for the young, libraries of ancient literature, of modern foreign literature, and of modern foreign romance, a series of guide-books and a series of dictionaries of universal reference. In 1855 he also founded _Le Journal pour tous_, a publication with a circulation of 150,000 weekly. Hachette also manifested great interest in the formation of mutual friendly societies among the working classes, in the establishment of benevolent institutions, and in other questions relating to the amelioration of the poor, on which subjects he wrote various pamphlets; and he lent the weight of his influence towards a just settlement of the question of international literary copyright. He died on the 31st of July 1864.

HACHURE (French for "hatching"), the term for the conventional lines used in hill or mountain shading upon a map (q.v.) to indicate the slope of the surface, the depth of shading being greatest where the slope is steepest. The method is less accurate than that of contour lines, but gives an indication of the trend and extent of a range or mountain system, especially upon small-scale maps.

HACIENDA (O. Span, _facienda_, from the Latin, meaning "things to be done"), a Spanish term for a landed estate. It is commonly applied in Spanish America to a country estate, on which stock-raising, manufacturing or mining may be carried on, usually with a dwelling-house for the owner's residence upon it. It is thus used loosely for a country house.

HACKBERRY, a name given to the fruit of _Celtis occidentalis_, belonging to the natural botanical order _Ulmaceae_, to which also belongs the elm (_Ulmus_). It is also known under the name of "sugar-berry," "beaver-wood" and "nettle-tree." The hackberry tree is of middle size, attaining from 60 to 80 ft. in height (though sometimes reaching 130 ft.), and with the aspect of an elm. The leaves are ovate in shape, with a very long taper point, rounded and usually very oblique at the base, usually glabrous above and soft-pubescent beneath. The soft filmy flowers appear early in the spring before the expansion of the leaves. The fruit is oblong, about half to three-quarters of an inch long, of a reddish or yellowish colour when young, turning to a dark purple in autumn. This tree is distributed through the deep shady forests bordering river banks from Canada (where it is very rare) to the southern states. The fruit has a sweetish and slightly astringent taste, and is largely eaten in the United States. The seeds contain an oil like that of almonds. The bark is tough and fibrous like hemp, and the wood is heavy, soft, fragile and coarse-grained, and is used for making fences and furniture. The root has been used as a dye for linens.

HACKENSACK, a town and the county-seat of Bergen county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Hackensack river, 13 m. N. of Jersey City. Pop. (1890), 6004; (1900), 9443, of whom 2009 were foreign-born and 515 were negroes; (1905) 11,098; (1910) 14,050. It is served by the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the New Jersey & New York railways, both being controlled by the Erie Company; and indirectly by the West Shore (at Bogota, 1/2 m. S.E.). Electric lines connect Hackensack with Newark, Passaic and Paterson, and with New York ferries. The town extends from the low bank of the river W. to the top of a ridge, about 40 ft. higher up, from which there are good views to the S. and E. Hackensack is principally a residential town, though there are a number of manufacturing establishments in and near it. Silk and silk goods and wall-paper are the principal manufactures. In 1905 the value of the town's factory product was $1,488,358, an increase of 90.3% since 1900. There are an historic mansion-house and an interesting old Dutch church, both erected during the 18th century; and a monument marks the grave of General Enoch Poor (1736-1780), an officer in the War of Independence, who was born at Andover, Mass., entered the Continental Army from New Hampshire, and took part in the campaign against Burgoyne, in the battle of Monmouth and in General Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois. Hackensack was settled by the Dutch about 1640, and was named after the Hackensack Indians, a division of the Unami Delawares, who lived in the valleys of the Hackensack and Passaic rivers, and whose best-known chief was Oritany, a friend of the whites. Hackensack is coextensive with the township of New Barbadoes, first incorporated with considerably larger territory in 1693.

HACKET, JOHN (1592-1670), bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, was born in London and educated at Westminster and Trinity College, Cambridge. On taking his degree he was elected a fellow of his college, and soon afterwards wrote the comedy of _Loiola_ (London, 1648), which was twice performed before James I. He was ordained in 1618, and through the influence of John Williams (1582-1650) became rector in 1621 of Stoke Hammond, Bucks, and Kirkby Underwood, Lincolnshire. In 1623 he was chaplain to James, and in 1624 Williams presented him to the livings of St Andrew's, Holborn, and Cheam, Surrey. When the so-called "root-and-branch bill" was before parliament in 1641, Hacket was selected to plead in the House of Commons for the continuance of cathedral establishments. In 1645 his living of St Andrew's was sequestered, but he was allowed to retain the rectory of Cheam. On the accession of Charles II. his fortunes improved; he frequently preached before the king, and in 1661 was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and Coventry. His best-known book is the excellent biography of his patron, Archbishop Williams, entitled _Scrinia reserata: a Memorial offered to the great Deservings of John Williams, D.D._ (London, 1693).

HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH (1808-1875), American biblical scholar, was born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 27th of December 1808. He was educated at Phillips-Andover Academy, at Amherst College, where he graduated as valedictorian in 1830, and at Andover Theological Seminary, where he graduated in 1834. He was adjunct professor of Latin and Greek Languages and Literature at Brown University in 1835-1838 and professor of Hebrew Literature there in 1838-1839, was ordained to the Baptist ministry in 1839--he had become a Baptist at Andover as the result of preparing a paper on baptism in the New Testament and the Fathers--and in 1839-1868 he was professor of Biblical literature and interpretation in Newton Theological Institution where his most important work was the introduction of the modern German methods of Biblical criticism, which he had learned from Moses Stuart at Andover and with which he made himself more familiar in Germany (especially under Tholuck at Halle) in 1841. He travelled in Egypt and Palestine in 1852, and in 1858-1859 in Greece, becoming proficient in modern Greek. From 1870 until his death in Rochester, New York, on the 2nd of November 1875, he was professor of Biblical literature and New Testament exegesis in the Rochester Theological Seminary. He was a great teacher but a greater critical and exegetical scholar.

He wrote _Christian Memorials of the War_ (1864); an English version
of Winer's _Grammar of the Chaldee Language_ (1844); _Exercises in
Hebrew Grammar_ (1847); and various articles on the Semitic language
and literature in periodicals; but his best-known work was in general
commentary on the Bible and translation, and in the special text study
of the New Testament. Under these two headings fall: _Illustrations of
Scripture; suggested by a Tour through the Holy Land_ (1855); the
American revision, with Ezra Abbot, of Smith's _Dictionary of the
Bible_, to the British edition of which he had contributed about
thirty articles; _Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts of the
Apostles_ (1852; 2nd edition, 1858), for many years the best English
commentary; _Notes on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul to
Philemon_, and a _Revised Version_ of Philemon, both published in
1860; the English versions, in Schaff's edition of Lange's
_Commentaries_, of Van Oosterzee's _Philemon_ and Braune's
_Philippians_; and for the American Bible Union Version of the Bible
he translated the books of Ruth and Judges, and aided T. J. Conant in
editorial revision; and he was one of the American translators for the
English Bible revision.

See _Memorials of Horatio Batch Hackett_ (Rochester, N.Y., 1876),
edited by G. H. Whittemore.

HACKETT, JAMES HENRY (1800-1871), American actor, was born in New York. After an unsuccessful entry into business, in 1826 he went on the stage, where he soon established a reputation as a player of eccentric character parts. As Falstaff he was no less successful in England than in America. At various times he went into management, and he was the author of _Notes and Comments on Shakespeare_ (1863).

His son, JAMES KETELTAS HACKETT (1869- ), born at Wolfe Island, Ontario, and educated at the College of the City of New York, also became an actor. He came into prominence at the Lyceum in Daniel Frohman's company, and afterwards had considerable success in romantic parts. As a manager he stood outside the American syndicate of theatres, and organized several companies to play throughout the United States. In 1897 he married Mary Mannering, the Anglo-American actress.

HACKLANDER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM VON (1816-1877), German novelist and dramatist, was born at Burtscheid near Aix-la-Chapelle on the 1st of November 1816. Having served an apprenticeship in a commercial house, he entered the Prussian artillery, but, disappointed at not finding advancement, returned to business. A soldier's life had a fascination for him, and he made his debut as an author with _Bilder aus dem Soldatenleben im Frieden_ (1841). After a journey to the east, he was appointed secretary to the crown prince of Wurttemberg, whom he accompanied on his travels. _Wachtstubenabenteuer_, a continuation of his first work, appeared in 1845, and it was followed by _Bilder aus dem Soldatenleben im Kriege_ (1849-1850). As a result of a tour in Spain in 1854, appeared _Ein Winter in Spanien_ (1855). In 1857 he founded, in conjunction with Edmund von Zoller, the illustrated weekly, _Uber Land und Meer_. In 1859 Hacklander was appointed director of royal parks and public gardens at Stuttgart, and in this post did much towards the embellishment of the city. In 1859 he was attached to the headquarters staff of the Austrian army during the Italian war; in 1861 he was raised to an hereditary knighthood in Austria; in 1864 he retired into private life, and died on the 6th of July 1877. Hacklander's literary talent is confined within narrow limits. There is much in his works of lively, adventurous and even romantic description, but the character-drawing is feeble and superficial.

Hacklander was a voluminous writer; the most complete edition of his
works is the third, published at Stuttgart in 1876, in 60 volumes.
There is also a good selection in 20 volumes (1881). Among his novels,
_Namenlose Geschichten_ (1851); _Eugen Stillfried_ (1852); _Krieg und
Frieden_ (1859), and the comedies _Der geheime Agent_ (1850) and
_Magnetische Kuren_ (1851) may be specially mentioned. His
autobiography appeared in 1878 under the title, _Der Roman meines
Lebens_ (2 vols.). See H. Morning, _Erinnerungen an F. W. Hacklander_
(1878).

HACKNEY, a north-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded W. by Stoke Newington and Islington, and S. by Shoreditch, Bethnal Green and Poplar, and extending N. and E. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901), 219,272. It is a poor and populous district, in which the main thoroughfares are Kingsland Road, continued N. as Stoke Newington Road and Stamford Hill; Mare Street, continued N.W. as Clapton Road to join Stamford Hill; and Lea Bridge Road running N.E. towards Walthamstow and Low Leyton. The borough includes the districts of Clapton in the north, Homerton in the east, and Dalston and part of Kingsland in the west. On the east lies the open flat valley of the Lea, which flows in several branches, and is bordered, immediately outside the confines of the borough, by the extensive reservoirs of the East London water-works. In these low lands lie the Hackney Marshes (338 acres; among several so-called marshes in the Lea valley), and the borough also contains part of Victoria Park and a number of open spaces collectively called the Hackney Commons, including Mill Fields, Hackney Downs, London Fields, &c. The total area of open spaces exceeds 500 acres. The tower of the ancient parish church of St Augustine, with the chapel of the Rowe family, still stands, and is the only historic building of importance. Among institutions are the German hospital, Dalston, Metropolitan hospital, Kingsland Road, and Eastern Fever hospital, Homerton; and the Hackney polytechnic institute, with which is incorporated the Sir John Cass institute. Cass (1666-1718), a merchant of the city of London, also a member of parliament and sheriff, bequeathed L1000 for the foundation of a free school; in 1732 the bequest was increased in accordance with an unfinished codicil to his will; and the income provided from it is now about L6000, some 250 boys and girls being educated. The parliamentary borough of Hackney comprises north, central and south divisions, each returning one member; and the northern division includes the metropolitan borough of Stoke Newington. The metropolitan borough of Hackney includes part of the Hornsey parliamentary division of Middlesex. The borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, 3288.9 acres.

In the 13th century the name appears as _Hackenaye_ or _Hacquenye_, but no certain derivation is advanced. Roman and other remains have been found in Hackney Marshes. In 1290 the bishop of London was lord of the manor, which was so held until 1550, when it was granted to Thomas, Lord Wentworth. In 1697 it came into the hands of the Tyssen family. Extensive property in the parish also belonged to the priory of the Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at Clerkenwell. From the 16th to the early 19th century there were many fine residences in Hackney. The neighbourhood of Hackney had at one time an evil reputation as the haunt of highwaymen.

HACKNEY (from Fr. _haquenee_, Lat. _equus_, an ambling horse or mare, especially for ladies to ride; the English "hack" is simply an abbreviation), originally a riding-horse. At the present day, however, the hackney (as opposed to a thoroughbred) is bred for driving as well as riding (see HORSE: _Breeds_). From the hiring-out of hackneys, the word came to be associated with employment for hire (so "a hack," as a general term for "drudge"), especially in combination, e.g. hackney-chair, hackney-coach, hackney-boat. The hackney-coach, a coach with four wheels and two horses, was a form of hired public conveyance (see CARRIAGE).

HADAD, the name of a Syrian deity, is met with in the Old Testament as the name of several human persons; it also occurs in compound forms like Benhadad and Hadadezer. The divinity primarily denoted by it is the storm-god who was known also as Ramman, Bir and Dadda. The Syrian kings of Damascus seem to have habitually assumed the title of Benhadad, or son of Hadad (three of this name are mentioned in Scripture), just as a series of Egyptian monarchs are known to have been accustomed to call themselves sons of Amon-Ra. The word Hadadrimmon, for which the inferior reading Hadarrimmon is found in some MSS. in the phrase "the mourning of (or at) Hadadrimmon" (Zech. xii. 11), has been a subject of much discussion. According to Jerome and all the older Christian interpreters, the mourning for something that occurred at a place called Hadadrimmon (Maximianopolis) in the valley of Megiddo is meant, the event alluded to being generally held to be the death of Josiah (or, as in the Targum, the death of Ahab at the hands of Hadadrimmon); but more recently the opinion has been gaining ground that Hadadrimmon is merely another name for Adonis (q.v.) or Tammuz, the allusion being to the mournings by which the Adonis festivals were usually accompanied (Hitzig on Zech. xii. 11, Isa. xvii. 8; Movers, _Phonizier_, i. 196). T. K. Cheyne (_Encycl. Bibl._ s.v.) points out that the Septuagint reads simply Rimmon, and argues that this may be a corruption of Migdon (Megiddo), in itself a corruption of Tammuz-Adon. He would render the verse, "In that day there shall be a great mourning in Jerusalem, as the mourning of the women who weep for Tammuz-Adon" (_Adon_ means lord).

HADDINGTON, EARL OF, a Scottish title bestowed in 1627 upon Thomas Hamilton, earl of Melrose (1563-1637). Thomas, who was a member of the great family of Hamilton, being a son of Thomas Hamilton of Priestfield, was a lawyer who became a lord of session as Lord Drumcairn in 1592. He was on very friendly terms with James VI., his legal talents being useful to the king, and he was one of the eight men who, called the Octavians, were appointed to manage the finances of Scotland in 1596. Having also become king's advocate in 1596, Hamilton was entrusted with a large share in the government of his country when James went to London in 1603; in 1612 he was appointed secretary of state for Scotland, and in 1613 he was created Lord Binning and Byres. In 1616 he became lord president of the court of session, and three years later was created earl of Melrose, a title which he exchanged in 1627 for that of earl of Haddington. After the death of James I. the earl resigned his offices of president of the court of session and secretary of state, but he served Charles I. as lord privy seal. He died on the 29th of May 1637. Haddington, who was both scholarly and wealthy, left a large and valuable collection of papers, which is now in the Advocates' library at Edinburgh. James referred familiarly to his friend as _Tam o' the Cowgate_, his Edinburgh residence being in this street.

The earl's eldest son THOMAS, the 2nd earl (1600-1640), was a covenanter and a soldier, being killed by an explosion at Dunglass castle on the 30th of August 1640. His sons, THOMAS (d. 1645) and JOHN (d. 1669), became respectively the 3rd and 4th earls of Haddington, and John's grandson THOMAS (1679-1735) succeeded his father CHARLES (c. 1650-1685), as 6th earl in 1685, although he was not the eldest but the second son. This curious circumstance arose from the fact that when Charles married Margaret (d. 1700), the heiress of the earldom of Rothes, it was agreed that the two earldoms should be left separate; thus the eldest son John became earl of Rothes while Thomas became earl of Haddington. Thomas was a supporter of George I. during the rising of 1715, and was a representative peer for Scotland from 1716 to 1734. He died on the 28th of November 1735.

The 6th earl was a writer, but in this direction his elder son, CHARLES, Lord Binning (1697-1732), is perhaps more celebrated. After fighting by his father's side at Sheriffmuir in 1715 and serving as member of parliament for St Germans, Binning died at Naples on the 27th of December 1732. His eldest son, THOMAS (c. 1720-1794), became the 7th earl in 1735, and the latter's grandson THOMAS (1780-1858) became the 9th earl in 1828. The 9th earl had been a member of parliament from 1802 to 1827, when he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Melros of Tyninghame, a title which became extinct upon his death. In 1834 he became lord-lieutenant of Ireland under Sir Robert Peel, leaving office in the following year, and in Peel's second administration (1841-1846) he served as first lord of the admiralty and then as lord privy seal. When he died without sons on the 1st of December 1858 the earldom passed to his kinsman, GEORGE BAILLIE (1802-1870), a descendant of the 6th earl. This nobleman took the name of Baillie-Hamilton, and his son GEORGE (b. 1827) became 11th earl of Haddington in 1870.

See _State Papers of Thomas, Earl of Melrose_, published by the
Abbotsford Club in 1837, and Sir W. Fraser, _Memorials of the Earls of
Haddington_ (1889).

HADDINGTON, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and county town of Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3993. It is situated on the Tyne, 18 m. E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway, being the terminus of a branch line from Longniddry Junction. Five bridges cross the river, on the right bank of which lies the old and somewhat decayed suburb of Nungate, interesting as having contained the Giffordgate, where John Knox was born, and where also are the ruins of the pre-Reformation chapel of St Martin. The principal building in the town is St Mary's church, a cruciform Decorated edifice in red sandstone, probably dating from the 13th century. It is 210 ft. long, and is surmounted by a square tower 90 ft. high. The nave, restored in 1892, is used as the parish church, but the choir and transepts are roofless, though otherwise kept in repair. In a vault is a fine monument in alabaster, consisting of the recumbent figures of John, Lord Maitland of Thirlestane (1545-1595), chancellor of Scotland, and his wife. The laudatory sonnet composed by James VI. is inscribed on the tomb. In the same vault John, duke of Lauderdale (1616-1682), is buried. In the choir is the tombstone which Carlyle erected over the grave of his wife, Jane Baillie Welsh (1801-1866), a native of the town. Other public edifices include the county buildings in the Tudor style, in front of which stands the monument to George, 8th marquess of Tweeddale (1787-1876), who was such an expert and enthusiastic coachman that he once drove the mail from London to Haddington without taking rest; the corn exchange, next to that of Edinburgh the largest in Scotland; the town house, with a spire 150 ft. high, in front of which is a monument to John Home, the author of _Douglas_; the district asylum to the north of the burgh; the western district hospital; the Tenterfield home for children; the free library and the Knox Memorial Institute. This last-named building was erected in 1879 to replace the old and famous grammar school, where John Knox, William Dunbar, John Major and possibly George Buchanan and Sir David Lindsay were educated. John Brown (1722-1787), a once celebrated dissenting divine, author of the _Self-Interpreting Bible_, ministered in the burgh for 36 years and is buried there; his son John the theologian (1754-1832), and his grandson Samuel (1817-1856), the chemist, noted for his inquiries into the atomic theory, were natives. Samuel Smiles (1812-1904), author of _Character, Self-Help_ and other works, was also born there, and Edward Irving was for years mathematical master in the grammar school. In Hardgate Street is "Bothwell Castle," the town house of the earl of Bothwell, where Mary Queen of Scots rested on her way to Dunbar. The ancient market cross has been restored. The leading industries are the making of agricultural implements, manufactures of woollens and sacking, brewing, tanning and coach-building, besides corn mills and engineering works.

The burgh is the retail centre for a large district, and its grain markets, once the largest in Scotland, are still of considerable importance. Haddington was created a royal burgh by David I. It also received charters from Robert Bruce, Robert II. and James VI. In 1139 it was given as a dowry to Ada, daughter of William de Warenne, earl of Surrey, on her marriage to Prince Henry, the only son of David I. It was occasionally the residence of royalty, and Alexander II. was born there in 1198. Lying in the direct road of the English invaders, the town was often ravaged. It was burned by King John in 1216 and by Henry III. in 1244. Fortified in 1548 by Lord Grey of Wilton, the English commander, it was besieged next year by the Scots and French, who forced the garrison to withdraw. So much slaughter had gone on during that period of storm and stress that it was long impossible to excavate in any direction without coming on human remains. The town has suffered much periodically from floods. One of the most memorable of these occurred on the 4th of October 1775, when the Tyne rose 8 ft. 9 in. above its bed and inundated a great part of the burgh. An inscription in the centre of the town records the event and marks the point to which the water rose.

There are many interesting places within a few miles of Haddington.
Five miles E. is Whittingehame House, and 5 m. N.E. is the thriving
village of East Linton (pop. 919). About 2-1/2 m. N. lies
Athelstaneford (locally, Elshinford), so named from the victory of
Hungus, king of the Picts, in the 8th century over the Northumbrian
Athelstane. On a hill near Drem, 3-1/2 m. N. by W., are traces of a
Romano-British settlement, and the remains of the priest's house of
the Knights Templars, to whom the barony once belonged. On the coast
is the pretty village of Aberlady on a fine bay, and in the
neighbourhood are some of the finest golf links in Scotland, such as
Luffness, Gullane, Archerfield and Muirfield. On Gosford Bay is
Gosford House, an 18th-century mansion, the seat of the earl of
Wemyss. At Gladsmuir, 3-1/2 m. W. of Haddington, alleged by some to
have been the birthplace of George Heriot. Principal Robertson was
minister and wrote most of his _History of Scotland_. Of the old seat
of the Douglases at Longniddry few traces remain, and in the chapel,
now in ruins, at the eastern end of the village, John Knox is said to
have preached occasionally. At Gifford, 4 m. to the S., John
Witherspoon (1722-1794), president of the College of New Jersey
(Princeton), and Charles Nisbet (1736-1804), president of Dickinson
College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, were born. A little to the south of
Gifford are Yester House, a seat of the marquess of Tweeddale, finely
situated in a park of old trees, and the ruins of Yester Castle. The
cavern locally known as Hobgoblin Hall is described in _Marmion_, and
is associated with all kinds of manifestations of the black art.
Lennoxlove, 1-1/2 m. to the S., a seat of Lord Blantyre, was
originally called Lethington, and for a few centuries was associated
with the Maitlands. Amisfield, adjoining Haddington on the N.E., is
another seat of the earl of Wemyss.

HADDINGTONSHIRE, or _East Lothian_, a south-eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, N.E. by the North Sea, E., S.E. and S. by Berwickshire, and S.W. and W. by Edinburghshire. It covers an area of 171,011 acres, or 267 sq. m. Its sea-coast measures 41 m. The Bass Rock and Fidra Isle belong to the shire, and there are numerous rocks and reefs off the shore, especially between Dunbar and Gullane Bay. Broadly speaking, the northern half of the shire slopes gently to the coast, and the southern half is hilly. Several of the peaks of the Lammermuirs exceed 1500 ft., and the more level tract is broken by Traprain Law (724) in the parish of Prestonkirk, North Berwick Law (612), and Garleton Hill (590) to the north of the county town. The only important river is the Tyne, which rises to the south-east of Borthwick in Mid-Lothian, and, taking a generally north-easterly direction, reaches the sea just beyond the park of Tynninghame House, after a course of 28 m., for the first 7 m. of which it belongs to its parent shire. It is noted for a very fine variety of trout, and salmon are sometimes taken below the linn at East Linton. The Whiteadder rises in the parish of Whittingehame, but, flowing towards the south-east, leaves the shire and at last joins the Tweed near Berwick. There are no natural lakes, but in the parish of Stenton is found Pressmennan Loch, an artificial sheet of water of somewhat serpentine shape, about 2 m. in length, with a width of some 400 yds., which was constructed in 1819 by damming up the ravine in which it lies. The banks are wooded and picturesque, and the water abounds with trout.