Chapter IX: Part 9

_Geology._--The higher ground in the south, including the Lammermuir
Hills, is formed by shales, greywackes and grits of Ordovician and
Silurian age; a narrow belt of the former lying on the north-western
side of the latter, the strike being S.W. to N.E. The granitic mass of
Priestlaw and other felsitic rocks have been intruded into these
strata. The lower Old Red Sandstone has not been observed in this
county, but the younger sandstones and conglomerates fill up ancient
depressions in the Silurian and Ordovician, such as that running
northward from Oldhamstocks towards Dunbar and the valley of
Lauderdale. A faulted-in tract of the same formation, about 1 m. in
breadth, runs westward from Dunbar to near Gifford. Carboniferous
rocks form the remainder of the county. The Calciferous Sandstone
series, shales, thin limestones and sandstones, is exposed on the
south-eastern coast; but between Gifford and North Berwick and from
Aberlady to Dunbar it is represented by a great thickness of volcanic
rocks consisting of tuffs and coarse breccias in the lower beds, and
of porphyritic and andesitic lavas above. These rocks are well exposed
on the coast, in the Garleton Hills and Traprain Law; the latter and
North Berwick Law are volcanic necks or vents. The Carboniferous
Limestone series which succeeds the Calciferous Sandstone consists of
a middle group of sandstones, shales, coals and ironstones, with a
limestone group above and below. The coal-field is synclinal in
structure, Port Seton being about the centre; it contains ten seams of
coal, and the area covered by it is some 30 sq. m. Glacial boulder
clay lies over much of the lower ground, and ridges of gravel and sand
flank the hills and form extensive sheets. Traces of old raised
sea-beaches are found at several points along the coast. At North
Berwick, Tynninghame and elsewhere there are stretches of blown sand.
Limestone is worked at many places, and hematite was formerly obtained
from the Garleton Hills.

_Climate and Agriculture._--Though the county is exposed to the full sweep of the east wind during March, April and May, the climate is on the whole mild and equable. The rainfall is far below the average of Great Britain, the mean for the year being 25 in., highest in midsummer and lowest in spring. The average temperature for the year is 47 deg. 5 F., for January 38 deg. and for July 59 deg. Throughout nearly the whole of the 19th century East Lothian agriculture was held to be the best in Scotland, not so much in consequence of the natural fertility of the soil as because of the enterprise of the cultivators, several of whom, like George Hope of Fenton Barns (1811-1876), brought scientific farming almost to perfection. Mechanical appliances were adopted with exceptional alacrity, and indeed some that afterwards came into general use were first employed in Haddington. Drill sowing of turnips dates from 1734. The threshing machine was introduced by Andrew Meikle (1719-1811) in 1787, the steam plough in 1862, and the reaping machine soon after its invention, while tile draining was first extensively used in the county. East Lothian is famous for the richness of its grain and green crops, the size of its holdings (average 200 acres) and the good housing of its labourers. The soils vary. Much of the Lammermuirs is necessarily unproductive, though the lower slopes are cultivated, a considerable tract of the land being very good. In the centre of the shire occurs a belt of tenacious yellow clay on a tilly subsoil which is not adapted for agriculture. Along the coast the soil is sandy, but farther inland it is composed of rich loam and is very fertile. The land about Dunbar is the most productive, yielding a potato--the "Dunbar red"--which is highly esteemed in the markets. Of the grain crops oats and barley are the principal, and their acreage is almost a constant, but wheat, after a prolonged decline, has experienced a revival. Turnips and potatoes are cultivated extensively, and with marked success, and constitute nearly all the green crops raised. Although pasture-land is below the average, live-stock are reared profitably. About one-sixteenth of the total area is under wood.

_Other Industries._--Fisheries are conducted from Dunbar, North Berwick, Port Seton and Prestonpans, the catch consisting chiefly of cod, haddock, whiting and shellfish. Fireclay as well as limestone is worked, and there are some stone quarries, but the manufactures are mainly agricultural implements, pottery, woollens, artificial manures, feeding-stuffs and salt, besides brewing. Coal of a very fair quality is extensively worked at Tranent, Ormiston, Macmerry and near Prestonpans, the coal-field having an area of about 30 sq. m. Limestone is found throughout the greater part of the shire. A vein of hematite of a peculiarly fine character was discovered in 1866 at Garleton Hill, and wrought for some years. Ironstone has been mined at Macmerry.

The North British Company possess the sole running powers in the county, through which is laid their main line to Berwick and the south. Branches are sent off at Drem to North Berwick, at Longniddry to Haddington and also to Gullane, at Smeaton (in Mid-Lothian) to Macmerry, and at Ormiston to Gifford.

_Population and Government._--The population was 37,377 in 1891, and 38,665 in 1901, when 459 persons spoke Gaelic and English, and 7 spoke Gaelic only. The chief towns are Dunbar (pop. in 1901, 3581), Haddington (3993), North Berwick (2899), Prestonpans (2614) and Tranent (2584). The county, which returns one member to Parliament, forms part of the sheriffdom of the Lothians and Peebles, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Haddington, who sits also at Dunbar, Tranent and North Berwick. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, and besides high schools at Haddington and North Berwick, some of the elementary schools earn grants for higher education. The county council spends a proportion of the "residue" grant in supporting short courses of instruction in technical subjects (chiefly agriculture), in experiments in the feeding of cattle and the growing of crops, and in defraying the travelling expenses of technical students.

_History._--Of the Celts, who were probably the earliest inhabitants, traces are found in a few place names and circular camps (in the parishes of Garvald and Whittinghame) and hill forts (in the parish of Bolton). After the Roman occupation, of which few traces remain, the district formed part of the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria until 1018, when it was joined to Scotland by Malcolm II. It was comparatively prosperous till the wars of Bruce and Baliol, but from that period down to the union of the kingdoms it suffered from its nearness to the Border and from civil strife. The last battles fought in the county were those of Dunbar (1650) and Prestonpans (1745).

See J. Miller, _History of Haddington_ (1844); D. Croal, _Sketches of
East Lothian_ (Haddington, 1873); John Martine, _Reminiscences of the
County of Haddington_ (Haddington, 1890, 1894); Dr Wallace James,
_Writs and Charters of Haddington_ (Haddington, 1898).

HADDOCK (_Gadus aeglefinus_), a fish which differs from the cod in having the mental barbel very short, the first anal fin with 22 to 25 rays, instead of 17 to 20, and the lateral line dark instead of whitish; it has a large blackish spot above each pectoral fin--associated in legend with the marks of St Peter's finger and thumb, the haddock being supposed to be the fish from whose mouth he took the tribute-money. It attains to a weight of 15 [lb] and is one of the most valuable food fishes of Europe, both fresh and smoked, the "finnan haddie" of Scotland being famous. It is common round the British and Irish coasts, and generally distributed along the shores of the North Sea, extending across the Atlantic to the coast of North America.

HADDON HALL, one of the most famous ancient mansions in England. It lies on the left bank of the river Wye, 2 m. S.E. of Bakewell in Derbyshire. It is not now used as a residence, but the fabric is maintained in order. The building is of stone and oblong in form, and encloses two quadrangles separated by the great banqueting-hall and adjoining chambers. The greater part is of two storeys, and surmounted by battlements. To the south and south-east lie terraced gardens, and the south front of the eastern quadrangle is occupied by the splendid ball-room or long gallery. At the south-west corner of the mansion is the chapel; at the north-east the Peveril tower. The periods of building represented are as follows. Norman work appears in the chapel (which also served as a church for the neighbouring villagers), also in certain fundamental parts of the fabric, notably the Peveril tower. There are Early English and later additions to the chapel; the banqueting-hall, with the great kitchen adjacent to it, and part of the Peveril tower are of the 14th century. The eastern range of rooms, including the state-room, are of the 15th century; the western and north-western parts were built shortly after 1500. The ball-room is of early 17th-century construction, and the terraces and gardens were laid out at this time. A large number of interesting contemporary fittings are preserved, especially in the banqueting-hall and kitchen; and many of the rooms are adorned with tapestries of the 16th and 17th centuries, some of which came from the famous works at Mortlake in Surrey.

A Roman altar was found and is preserved here, but no trace of Roman inhabitants has been discovered. Haddon was a manor which before the Conquest and at the time of the Domesday Survey belonged to the king, but was granted by William the Conqueror to William Peverel, whose son, another William Peverel, forfeited it for treason on the accession of Henry II. Before that time, however, the manor of Haddon had been granted to the family of Avenell, who continued to hold it until one William Avenell died without male issue and his property was divided between his two daughters and heirs, one of whom married Richard Vernon, whose successors acquired the other half of the manor in the reign of Edward III. Sir George Vernon, who died in 1561, was known as the "King of the Peak" on account of his hospitality. His daughter Dorothy married John Manners, second son of the earl of Rutland, who is said to have lived for some time in the woods round Haddon Hall, disguised as a gamekeeper, until he persuaded Dorothy to elope with him. On Sir George's death without male issue Haddon passed to John Manners and Dorothy, who lived in the Hall. Their grandson John Manners succeeded to the title of earl of Rutland in 1641, and the duke of Rutland is still lord of the manor.

See _Victoria County History, Derbyshire_; S. Rayner, _History and
Antiquities of Haddon Hall_ (1836-1837); Haddon Hall, _History and
Antiquities of Haddon Hall_ (1867); G. le Blanc Smith, _Haddon, the
Manor, the Hall, its Lords and Traditions_ (London, 1906).

HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR (1818-1910), English surgeon and etcher, was born in London on the 16th of September 1818, his father, Charles Thomas Haden, being a well-known doctor and amateur of music. He was educated at University College school and University College, London, and also studied at the Sorbonne, Paris, where he took his degree in 1840. He was admitted as a member of the College of Surgeons in London in 1842. Besides his many-sided activities in the scientific world, during a busy and distinguished career as a surgeon, he followed the art of original etching with such vigour that he became not only the foremost British exponent of that art but was the principal cause of its revival in England. By his strenuous efforts and perseverance, aided by the secretarial ability of Sir W. R. Drake, he founded the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers. As president he ruled the destinies of that society with a strong hand from its first beginnings in 1880. In 1843-1844, with his friends Duval, Le Cannes and Col. Guibout, he had travelled in Italy and made his first sketches from nature. Haden attended no art school and had no art teachers, but in 1845, 1846, 1847 and 1848 he studied portfolios of prints belonging to an old second-hand dealer named Love, who had a shop in Bunhill Row, the old Quaker quarter of London. These portfolios he would carry home, and arranging the prints in chronological order, he studied the works of the great original engravers, Durer, Lucas van Leyden and Rembrandt. These studies, besides influencing his original work, led to his important monograph on the etched work of Rembrandt. By lecture and book, and with the aid of the memorable exhibition at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1877, he endeavoured to give a just idea of Rembrandt's work, separating the true from the false, and giving altogether a nobler idea of the master's mind by taking away from the list of his works many dull and unseemly plates that had long been included in the lists. His reasons are founded upon the results of a study of the master's works in chronological order, and are clearly expressed in his monograph, _The Etched Work of Rembrandt critically reconsidered_, privately printed in 1877, and in _The Etched Work of Rembrandt True and False_ (1895). Notwithstanding all this study of the old masters of his art, Haden's own plates are perhaps more individual than any artist's, and are particularly noticeable for a fine original treatment of landscape subjects, free and open in line, clear and well divided in mass, and full of a noble and dignified style of his own. Even when working from a picture his personality dominates the plate, as for example in the large plate he etched after J. M. W. Turner's "Calais Pier," which is a classical example of what interpretative work can do in black and white. Of his original plates, more than 250 in number, one of the most notable was the large "Breaking up of the Agamemnon." An early plate, rare and most beautiful, is "Thames Fisherman." "Mytton Hall" is broad in treatment, and a fine rendering of a shady avenue of yew trees leading to an old manor-house in sunlight. "Sub Tegmine" was etched in Greenwich Park in 1859; and "Early Morning--Richmond," full of the poetry and freshness of the hour, was done, the artist has said, actually at sunrise. One of the rarest and most beautiful of his plates is "A By-Road in Tipperary"; "Combe Bottom" is another; and "Shere Mill Pond" (both the small study and the larger plate), "Sunset in Ireland," "Penton Hook," "Grim Spain" and "Evening Fishing, Longparish," are also notable examples of his genius. A catalogue of his works was begun by Sir William Drake and completed by Mr N. Harrington (1880). During later years Haden began to practise the sister art of mezzotint engraving, with a measure of the same success that he had already achieved in pure etching and in dry-point. Some of his mezzotints are: "An Early Riser," a stag seen through the morning mists, "Grayling Fishing" and "A Salmon Pool on the Spey." He also produced some remarkable drawings of trees and park-like country in charcoal.

Other books by Haden not already mentioned are--_Etudes a l'eau forte_ (Paris, 1865); _About Etching_ (London, 1878-1879); _The Art of the Painter-Etcher_ (London, 1890); _The Relative Claims of Etching and Engraving to rank as Fine Arts and to be represented in the Royal Academy_ (London, 1883); _Address to Students of Winchester School of Art_ (Winchester, 1888); _Cremation: a Pamphlet_ (London, 1875); and _The Disposal of the Dead, a Plea for Legislation_ (London, 1888). As the last two indicate, he was an ardent champion of a system of "earth to earth" burial.

Among numerous distinctions he received the Grand Prix, Paris, in 1889 and 1900, and was made a member of the Institut de France, Academie des Beaux-Arts and Societe des Artistes Francais. He was knighted in 1894, and died on the 1st of June 1910. He married in 1847 a sister of the artist J. A. M. Whistler; and his elder son, Francis Seymour Haden (b. 1850), had a distinguished career as a member of the government in Natal from 1881 to 1893, being made a C.M.G. in 1890. (C. H.*)

HADENDOA (from Beja _Hada_, chief, and _endowa_, people), a nomad tribe of Africans of "Hamitic" origin. They inhabit that part of the eastern Sudan extending from the Abyssinian frontier northward nearly to Suakin. They belong to the Beja people, of which, with the Bisharin and the Ababda, they are the modern representatives. They are a pastoral people, ruled by a hereditary chief who is directly responsible to the (Anglo-Egyptian) Sudan government. Although the official capital of the Hadendoa country is Miktinab, the town of Fillik on an affluent of the Atbara is really their headquarters. A third of the total population is settled in the Suakin country. Osman Digna, one of the best-known chiefs during the Madhia, was a Hadendoa, and the tribe contributed some of the fiercest of the dervish warriors in the wars of 1883-98. So determined were they in their opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian forces that the name Hadendoa grew to be nearly synonymous with "rebel." But this was the result of Egyptian misgovernment rather than religious enthusiasm; for the Hadendoa are true Beja, and Mahommedans only in name. Their elaborate hairdressing gained them the name of "Fuzzy-wuzzies" among the British troops. They earned an unenviable reputation during the wars by their hideous mutilations of the dead on the battlefields. After the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan (1896-98) the Hadendoa accepted the new order without demur.

See _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905);
Sir F. R. Wingate, _Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan_ (London, 1891); G.
Sergi, _Africa: Anthropology of the Hamitic Race_ (1897); A. H. Keane,
_Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan_ (1884).

HADERSLEBEN (Dan. _Haderslev_), a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, 31 m. N. from Flensburg. Pop. (1905) 9289. It lies in a pleasant valley on the Hadersleben fjord, which is about 9 m. in length, and communicates with the Little Belt, and at the junction of the main line of railway from Woyens with three vicinal lines. The principal buildings are the beautiful church of St Mary, dating from the 13th century, the theological seminary established in 1870, the gymnasium and the hospital. The industries include iron-founding, tanning, and the manufacture of machines, tobacco and gloves. The harbour is only accessible to small vessels.

Hadersleben is first mentioned in 1228, and received municipal rights from Duke Waldemar II. in 1292. It suffered considerably during the wars between Schleswig and Holstein in the 15th century. In November 1864 it passed with Schleswig to Prussia. Two Danish kings, Frederick II. and Frederick III., were born at Hadersleben.

See A. Sach, _Der Ursprung der Stadt Hadersleben_ (Hadersleben, 1892).

HADING, JANE (1859- ), French actress, whose real name was Jeanne Alfredine Trefouret, was born on the 25th of November 1859 at Marseilles, where her father was an actor at the Gymnase. She was trained at the local Conservatoire and was engaged in 1873 for the theatre at Algiers, and afterwards for the Khedivial theatre at Cairo, where she played, in turn, coquette, soubrette and _ingenue_ parts. Expectations had been raised by her voice, and when she returned to Marseilles she sang in operetta, besides acting in _Ruy Blas_. Her Paris debut was in _La Chaste Suzanne_ at the Palais Royal, and she was again heard in operetta at the Renaissance. In 1883 she had a great success at the Gymnase in _Le Maitre de forges_. In 1884 she married Victor Koning (1842-1894), the manager of that theatre, but divorced him in 1887. In 1888 she toured America with Coquelin, and on her return helped to give success to Lavedan's _Prince d'Aurec_, at the Vaudeville. Her reputation as one of the leading actresses of the day was now established not only in France but in America and England. Her later repertoire included _Le Demi-monde_, Capus's _La Chatelaine_, Maurice Donnay's _Retour de Jerusalem_, _La Princesse Georges_ by Dumas fils, and Emile Bergerat's _Plus que reine_.

HADLEIGH, a market town in the Sudbury parliamentary division of Suffolk, England; 70 m. N.E. from London, the terminus of a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of Urban district (1901), 3245. It lies pleasantly in a well-wooded country on the small river Brett, a tributary of the Stour. The church of St Mary is of good Perpendicular work, with Early English tower and Decorated spire. The Rectory Tower, a turreted gate-house of brick, dates from c. 1495. The gild-hall is a Tudor building, and there are other examples of this period. There are a town-hall and corn exchange, and an industry in the manufacture of matting and in malting. Hadleigh was one of the towns in which the woollen industry was started by Flemings, and survived until the 18th century. Among the rectors of Hadleigh several notable names appear, such as Rowland Taylor, the martyr, who was burned at the stake outside the town in 1555, and Hugh James Rose, during whose tenancy of the rectory an initiatory meeting of the leaders of the Oxford Movement took place here in 1833.

Hadleigh, called by the Saxons Heapde-leag, appears in Domesday Book as Hetlega. About 885 Aethelflaed, lady of the Mercians, with the consent of Aethelred her husband, gave Hadleigh to Christ Church, Canterbury. The dean and chapter of Canterbury have held possession of it ever since the Dissolution. In the 17th century Hadleigh was famous for the manufacture of cloth, and in 1618 was sufficiently important to receive incorporation. It was constituted a free borough under the title of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Hadleigh. In 1635, in a list of the corporate towns of Suffolk to be assessed for ship money, Hadleigh is named as third in importance. In 1636, owing to a serious visitation of the plague, 200 families were thrown out of work, and in 1687 so much had its importance declined that it was deprived of its charter. An unsuccessful attempt to recover it was made in 1701. There is evidence of the existence of a market here as early as the 13th century. James I., in his charter of incorporation, granted fairs on Monday and Tuesday in Whitsun week, and confirmed an ancient fair at Michaelmas and a market on Monday.

HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING (1856- ), American political economist and educationist, president of Yale University, was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on the 23rd of April 1856. He was the son of James Hadley, the philologist, from whom, as from his mother--whose brother, Alexander Catlin Twining (1801-1884), was an astronomer and authority on constitutional law--he inherited unusual mathematical ability. He graduated at Yale in 1876 as valedictorian, having taken prizes in English, classics and astronomy; studied political science at Yale (1876-1877) and at Berlin (1878-1879); was a tutor at Yale in 1879-1883, instructor in political science in 1883-1886, professor of political science in 1886-1891, professor of political economy in 1891-1899, and dean of the Graduate School in 1892-1895; and in 1899 became president of Yale University--the first layman to hold that office. He was commissioner of the Connecticut bureau of labour statistics in 1885-1887. As an economist he first became widely known through his investigation of the railway question and his study of railway rates, which antedated the popular excitement as to rebates. His _Railroad Transportation, its History and Laws_ (1885) became a standard work, and appeared in Russian (1886) and French (1887); he testified as an expert on transportation before the Senate committee which drew up the Interstate Commerce Law; and wrote on railways and transportation for the Ninth and Tenth Editions (of which he was one of the editors) of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, for Lalor's _Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and Political History of the United Stales_ (3 vols., 1881-1884), for _The American Railway_ (1888), and for _The Railroad Gazette_ in 1884-1891, and for other periodicals. His idea of the broad scope of economic science, especially of the place of ethics in relation to political economy and business, is expressed in his writings and public addresses. In 1907-1908 he was Theodore Roosevelt professor of American History and Institutions in the university of Berlin.

Among his other publications are: _Economics: an Account of the
Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare_ (1896); _The
Education of the American Citizen_ (1901); _The Relations between
Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government_
(1903, in Yale Lectures on the Responsibilities of Citizenship);
_Baccalaureate Addresses_ (1907); and _Standards of Public Morality_
(1907), being the Kennedy Lectures for 1906.

HADLEY, JAMES (1821-1872), American scholar, was born on the 30th of March 1821 in Fairfield, Herkimer county, New York, where his father was professor of chemistry in Fairfield Medical College. At the age of nine an accident lamed him for life. He graduated from Yale in 1842, having entered the Junior class in 1840; studied in the Theological Department of Yale, and in 1844-1845 was a tutor in Middlebury College. He was tutor at Yale in 1845-1848, assistant professor of Greek in 1848-1851, and professor of Greek, succeeding President Woolsey, from 1851 until his death in Hew Haven on the 14th of November 1872. As an undergraduate he showed himself an able mathematician, but the influence of Edward Elbridge Salisbury, under whom Hadley and W. D. Whitney studied Sanskrit together, turned his attention toward the study of language. He knew Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Armenian, several Celtic languages and the languages of modern Europe; but he published little, and his scholarship found scant outlet in the college class-room. His most original written work was an essay on Greek accent, published in a German version in Curtius's _Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik_. Hadley's _Greek Grammar_ (1860; revised by Frederic de Forest Allen, 1884) was based on Curtius's _Schulgrammatik_ (1852, 1855, 1857, 1859), and long held its place in American schools. Hadley was a member of the American Committee for the revision of the New Testament, was president of the American Oriental Society (1871-1872), and contributed to Webster's dictionary an essay on the _History of the English Language_. In 1873 were published his _Introduction to Roman Law_ (edited by T. D. Woolsey) and his _Essays, Philological and Critical_ (edited by W. D. Whitney).

See the memorial by Noah Porter in _The New Englander_, vol. xxxii.
(Jan. 1873), pp. 35-55; and the sketch by his son, A. T. Hadley, in
_Biographical Memoirs_ of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. v.
(1905), pp. 247-254.

HADLEY, a township of Hampshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, about 20 m. N. of Springfield, served by the Boston & Maine railway. Pop. (1900), 1789; (1905, state census), 1895; (1910) 1999. Area, about 20 sq. m. The principal villages are Hadley (or Hadley Center) and North Hadley. The level country along the river is well adapted to tobacco culture, and the villages are engaged in the manufacture of tobacco and brooms. Hadley was settled in 1659 by members of the churches in Hartford and Wethersfield, Connecticut, who were styled "Strict Congregationalists" and withdrew from these Connecticut congregations because of ecclesiastical and doctrinal laxity there. At first the town was called Norwottuck, but within a year or two it was named after Hadleigh in England, and was incorporated under this name in 1661. Hopkins Academy (1815) developed from Hopkins school, founded here in 1664. The English regicides Edward Whalley and his son-in-law William Goffe found a refuge at Hadley from 1664 apparently until their deaths, and there is a tradition that Goffe or Whalley in 1675 led the people in repelling an Indian attack. From 1675 to 1713 Hadley, being in almost constant danger of attack from the Indians, was protected by a palisade enclosure and by stockades around the meeting-house. From Hadley, Hatfield was set apart in 1670, South Hadley in 1753, and Amherst in 1759.

See Alice M. Walker, _Historic Hadley_ (New York, 1906); and Sylvester
Judd, _History of Hadley_ (Northampton, 1863; new ed., 1905).

HADRAMUT, a district on the south coast of Arabia, bounded W. by Yemen, E. by Oman and N. by the Dahna desert. The modern Arabs restrict the name to the coast between Balhaf and Sihut, and the valley of the Wadi Hadramut in the interior; in its wider and commonly accepted signification it includes also the Mahra and Gara coasts extending eastwards to Mirbat; thus defined, its limits are between 14 deg. and 18 deg. N. and 47 deg. 30' to 55 deg. E., with a total length of 550 m. and a breadth of 150 m.

The coastal plain is narrow, rarely exceeding 10 m. in width, and in
places the hills extend to the seashore. The principal ports are
Mukalla and Shihr, both considerable towns, and Kusair and Raida,
small fishing villages; inland there are a few villages near the foot
of the hills, with a limited area of cultivation irrigated by springs
or wells in the hill torrent beds. Behind the littoral plain a range
of mountains, or rather a high plateau, falling steeply to the south
and more gently to the north, extends continuously from the Yemen
highlands on the west to the mouth of the Hadramut valley, from which
a similar range extends with hardly a break to the border of Oman. Its
crest-line is generally some 30 m. from the coast, and its average
height between 4000 and 5000 ft. A number of wadis or ravines cutting
deeply into the plateau run northward to the main Wadi Hadramut, a
broad valley lying nearly east and west, with a total length from its
extreme western heads on the Yemen highlands to its mouth near Sihut
of over 500 m. Beyond the valley and steadily encroaching on it lies
the great desert extending for 300 m. to the borders of Nejd. The most
westerly village in the main valley is Shabwa, in ancient days the
capital, but now almost buried by the advancing desert. Lower down the
first large villages are Henan and Ajlania, near which the wadis 'Amd,
Duwan and el 'Ain unite, forming the W. Kasr. In the W. Duwan and its
branches are the villages of Haura, el Hajren, Kaidun and al Khureba.
Below Haura for some 60 m. there is a succession of villages with
fields, gardens and date groves; several tributaries join on either
side, among which the W. bin Ali and W. Adim from the south contain
numerous villages. The principal towns are Shibam, al Ghurfa, Saiyun,
Tariba, el Ghuraf, Tarim, formerly the chief place, 'Ainat and el
Kasm. Below the last-named place there is little cultivation Or
settled population. The shrines of Kabr Salih and Kabr Hud are looked
on as specially sacred, and are visited by numbers of pilgrims. The
former, which is in the Wadi Ser about 20 m. N.W. of Shibam, was
explored by Theodore Bent in 1894; the tomb itself is of no interest,
but in the neighbourhood there are extensive ruins with Himyaritic
inscriptions on the stones. Kabr Hud is in the main valley some
distance east of Kasm; not far from it is Bir Borhut, a natural
grotto, where fumes of burning sulphur issue from a number of volcanic
vents; al-Masudi mentions it in the 10th century as an active volcano.
Except after heavy rain, there is no running water in the Hadramut
valley, the cultivation therefore depends on artificial irrigation
from wells. The principal crops are wheat, millet, indigo, dates and
tobacco; this latter, known as Hamumi tobacco, is of excellent
quality.

Hadramut has preserved its name from the earliest times; it occurs in Genesis as Hazarmaveth and Hadoram, sons of Joktan; and the old Greek geographers mention Adramytta and Chadramotites in their accounts of the frankincense country. The numerous ruins discovered in the W. Duwan and Adim, as well as in the main valley, are evidences of its former prosperity and civilization.

The people, known as Hadrami (plural Hadarim), belong generally to the south Arabian stock, claiming descent from Ya'rab bin Kahtan. There is, however, a large number of Seyyids or descendants of the Prophet, and of townsmen of northern origin, besides a considerable class of African or mixed descent. Van den Berg estimates the total population of Hadramut (excluding the Mahra and Gara) at 150,000, of which he locates 50,000 in the valley between Shibam and Tarim, 25,000 in the W. Duwan and its tributaries, and 25,000 in Mukalla, Shihr and the coast villages, leaving 50,000 for the non-agricultural population scattered over the rest of the country, probably an excessive estimate.

The Seyyids, descendants of [H.]osain, grandson of Mahomet, form a numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are divided into families, the chiefs of which are known as Munsibs, who are looked on as the religious leaders of the people, and are even in some cases venerated as saints. Among the leading families are the Sheikh Abu Bakr of Ainat, the el-Aidrus of Shihr and the Sakkaf of Saiyun. They do not bear arms, nor occupy themselves in trade or manual labour or even agriculture; though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ slaves or hired labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the other classes, they are well educated, and are strict in their observance of religious duties, and owing to the respect due to their descent, they exercise a strong influence both in temporal and spiritual affairs.

The tribesmen, as in Arabia generally, are the predominant class in the population; all the adults carry arms; some of the tribes have settled towns and villages, others lead a nomadic life, keeping, however, within the territory which is recognized as belonging to the tribe. They are divided into sections or families, each headed by a chief or abu (lit. father), while the head of the tribe is called the mukaddam or sultan; the authority of the chief depends largely on his personality: he is the leader in peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he can only rule with their support. The most powerful tribe at present in Hadramut is the Kaiti, a branch of the Yafa tribe whose settlements lie farther west. Originally invited by the Seyyids to protect the settled districts from the attacks of marauding tribes, they have established themselves as practically the rulers of the country, and now possess the coast district with the towns of Shihr and Mukalla, as well as Haura, Hajren and Shibam in the interior. The head of the family has accumulated great wealth, and risen to the highest position in the service of the nizam of Hyderabad in India, as Jamadar, or commander of an Arab levy composed of his tribesmen, numbers of whom go abroad to seek their fortune. The Kathiri tribe was formerly the most powerful; they occupy the towns of Saiyun, Tarim and el-Ghuraf in the richest part of the main Hadramut valley. The chiefs of both the Kaiti and Kathiri are in political relations with the British government, through the resident at Aden (q.v.). The 'Amudi in the W. Duwan, and the Nahdi, Awamir and Tamimi in the main valley, are the principal tribes possessing permanent villages; the Saiban, Hamumi and Manahil occupy the mountains between the main valley and coast.

The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and villages as distinguished from the Seyyids and the tribesmen: they do not carry arms, but are the working members of the community, merchants, artificers, cultivators and servants, and are entirely dependent on the tribes and chiefs under whose protection they live. The servile class contains a large African element, brought over formerly when the slave trade flourished on this coast; as in all Mahommedan countries they are well treated, and often rise to positions of trust.

As already mentioned, a large number of Arabs from Hadramut go abroad; the Kaiti tribesmen take service in India in the irregular troops of Hyderabad; emigration on a large scale has also gone on, to the Dutch colonies in Java and Sumatra, since the beginning of the 19th century. According to the census of 1885, quoted by Van den Berg in his _Report_ published by the government of the Dutch East Indies in 1886, the number of Arabs in those colonies actually born in Arabia was 2500, while those born in the colonies exceeded 20,000; nearly all of the former are from the towns in the Hadramut valley between Shibam and Tarim. Mukalla and Shihr have a considerable trade with the Red Sea and Persian Gulf ports, as well as with the ports of Aden, Dhafar and Muscat; a large share of this is in the hands of Parsee and other British Indian traders who have established themselves in the Hadramut ports. The principal imports are wheat, rice, sugar, piece goods and hardware. The exports are small; the chief items are honey, tobacco and sharks' fins. In the towns in the interior the principal industries are weaving and dyeing.

The Mahra country adjoins the Hadramut proper, and extends along the
coast from Sihut eastwards to the east of Kamar Bay, where the Gara
coast begins and stretches to Mirbat. The sultan of the Mahra, to whom
Sokotra also belongs, lives at Kishin, a poor village consisting of a
few scattered houses about 30 m. west of Ras Fartak. Sihut is a
similar village 20 m. farther west. The mountains rise to a height of
4000 ft. within a short distance of the coast, covered in places with
trees, among which are the myrrh- and frankincense-bearing shrubs.
These gums, for which the coast was celebrated in ancient days, are
still produced; the best quality is obtained in the Gara country, on
the northern slope of the mountains. Dhafar and the mountains behind
it were visited and surveyed by Mr Bent's party in 1894. There are
several thriving villages on the coast, of which el-Hafa is the
principal port of export for frankincense; 9000 cwt. is exported
annually to Bombay.

Ruins of Sabaean buildings were found by J. T. Bent in the
neighbourhood of Dhafar, and a remarkable cove or small harbour was
discovered at Khor Rori, which he identified with the ancient port of
Moscha.

AUTHORITIES.--L. Van den Berg, _Le Hadramut et les colonies arabes_
(Batavia, 1885); L. Hirsch, _Reise in Sudarabien_ (Leiden, 1897); J.
T. Bent, _Southern Arabia_ (London, 1895); A. von Wrede, _Reise in
Hadhramut_ (Brunswick, 1870); H. J. Carter, _Trans. Bombay As. Soc._
(1845), 47-51; _Journal R.G.S._ (1837). (R. A. W.)

HADRIA [mod. _Atri_ (q.v.)], perhaps the original terminal point of the Via Caecilia, Italy. It belonged to the Praetutii. It became a colony of Rome in 290 B.C. and remained faithful to Rome. The coins which it issued (probably during the Punic Wars), are remarkable. The crypt of the cathedral of the modern town was originally a large Roman cistern; another forms the foundation of the ducal palace; and in the eastern portion of the town there is a complicated system of underground passages for collecting and storing water.

See _Notizie degli scavi_ (1902), 3. (T. As.)

HADRIAN (PUBLIUS AELIUS HADRIANUS), Roman emperor A.D. 117-138, was born on the 24th of January A.D. 76, at Italica in Hispania Baetica (according to others, at Rome), where his ancestors, originally from Hadria in Picenum, had been settled since the time of the Scipios. On his father's death in 85 or 86 he was placed under the guardianship of two fellow-countrymen, his kinsman Ulpius Trajanus (afterwards the emperor Trajan), and Caelius Attianus (afterwards prefect of the praetorian guard). He spent the next five years at Rome, but at the age of fifteen he returned to his native place and entered upon a military career. He was soon, however, recalled to Rome by Trajan, and appointed to the offices of _decemvir stlitibus judicandis_, _praefectus feriarum Latinarum_, and _sevir turmae equitum Romanorum_. About 95 he was military tribune in lower Moesia. In 97 he was sent to upper Germany to convey the congratulations of the army to Trajan on his adoption by Nerva; and, in January of the following year, he hastened to announce the death of Nerva to Trajan at Cologne. Trajan, who had been set against Hadrian by reports of his extravagance, soon took him into favour again, chiefly owing to the goodwill of the empress Plotina, who brought about the marriage of Hadrian with (Vibia) Sabina, Trajan's great-niece. In 101 Hadrian was quaestor, in 105 tribune of the people, in 106 praetor. He served with distinction in both Dacian campaigns: in the second Trajan presented him with a valuable ring which he himself had received from Nerva, a token of regard which seemed to designate Hadrian as his successor. In 107 Hadrian was _legatus praetorius_ of lower Pannonia, in 108 _consul suffectus_, in 112 _archon_ at Athens, _legatus_ in the Parthian campaign (113-117), in 117 _consul designatus_ for the following year, in 119 consul for the third and last time only for four months. When Trajan, owing to a severe illness, decided to return home from the East, he left Hadrian in command of the army and governor of Syria. On the 9th of August 117, Hadrian, at Antioch, was informed of his adoption by Trajan, and, on the 11th, of the death of the latter at Selinus in Cilicia. According to Dio Cassius (lxix. 1) the adoption was entirely fictitious, the work of Plotina and Attianus, by whom Trajan's death was concealed for a few days in order to facilitate the elevation of Hadrian. Whichever may have been the truth, his succession was confirmed by the army and the senate. He hastened to propitiate the former by a donative of twice the usual amount, and excused his hasty acceptance of the throne to the senate by alleging the impatient zeal of the soldiers and the necessity of an imperator for the welfare of the state.

Hadrian's first important act was to abandon as untenable the conquests of Trajan beyond the Euphrates (Assyria, Mesopotamia and Armenia), a recurrence to the traditional policy of Augustus. The provinces were unsettled, the barbarians on the borders restless and menacing, and Hadrian wisely judged that the old limits of Augustus afforded the most defensible frontier. Mesopotamia and Assyria were given back to the Parthians, and the Armenians were allowed a king of their own. From Antioch Hadrian set out for Dacia to punish the Roxolani, who, incensed by a reduction of the tribute hitherto paid them, had invaded the Danubian provinces. An arrangement was patched up, and while Hadrian was still in Dacia he received news of a conspiracy against his life. Four citizens of consular rank were accused of being concerned in it, and were put to death by order of the senate before he could interfere. Hurrying back to Rome, Hadrian endeavoured to remove the unfavourable impression produced by the whole affair and to gain the goodwill of senate and people. He threw the responsibility for the executions upon the prefect of the praetorian guard, and swore that he would never punish a senator without the assent of the entire body, to which he expressed the utmost deference and consideration. Large sums of money and games and shows were provided for the people, and, in addition, all the arrears of taxation for the last fifteen years (about L10,000,000) were cancelled and the bonds burnt in the Forum of Trajan. Trajan's scheme for the "alimentation" of poor children was carried out upon a larger scale under the superintendence of a special official called _praefectus alimentorum_.

The record of Hadrian's journeys[1] through all parts of the empire forms the chief authority for the events of his life down to his final settlement in the capital during his last years. They can only be briefly touched upon here. His first great journey probably lasted from 121 to 126. After traversing Gaul he visited the Germanic provinces on the Rhine, and crossed over to Britain (spring, 122), where he built the great rampart from the Tyne to the Solway, which bears his name (see BRITAIN: _Roman_). He returned through Gaul into Spain, and then proceeded to Mauretania, where he suppressed an insurrection. A war with the Parthians was averted by a personal interview with their king (123). From the Parthian frontier he travelled through Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean to Athens (autumn, 125), where he introduced various political and commercial changes, was initiated at the Eleusinia, and presided at the celebration of the greater Dionysia. After visiting Central Greece and Peloponnesus, he returned by way of Sicily to Rome (end of 126). The next year was spent at Rome, and, after a visit to Africa, he set out on his second great journey (September 128). He travelled by way of Athens, where he completed and dedicated the buildings (see ATHENS) begun during his first visit, chief of which was the Olympieum or temple of Olympian Zeus, on which occasion Hadrian himself assumed the name of Olympius. In the spring of 129 he visited Asia Minor and Syria, where he invited the kings and princes of the East to a meeting (probably at Samosata). Having passed the winter at Antioch, he set out for the south (spring, 130). He ordered Jerusalem to be rebuilt (see JERUSALEM) under the name of Aelia Capitolina, and made his way through Arabia to Egypt, where he restored the tomb of Pompey at Pelusium with great magnificence. After a short stay at Alexandria he took an excursion up the Nile, during which he lost his favourite Antinous. On the 21st of November 130, Hadrian (or at any rate his wife Sabina) heard the music which issued at sunrise from the statue of Memnon at Thebes (see MEMNON). From Egypt Hadrian returned through Syria to Europe (his movements are obscure), but was obliged to hurry back to Palestine (spring, 133) to give his personal attention (this is denied by some historians) to the revolt of the Jews, which had broken out (autumn, 131, or spring, 132) after he had left Syria. The founding of a Roman colony on the site of Jerusalem (Dio Cass. lxix. 12) and the prohibition of circumcision (Spartianus, _Hadrianus_, 14) are said to have been the causes of the war, but authorities differ considerably as to this and as to the measures which followed the revolt (see art. JEWS; also E. Schurer, _Hist. of the Jewish People_, Eng. tr., div. 1, vol. ii. p. 288; and S. Krauss in _Jewish Encyc. s.v._ "Hadrian"), which lasted till 135. Leaving the conduct of affairs in the hands of his most capable general, Julius Severus, in the spring of 134 Hadrian returned to Rome. The remaining years of his life were spent partly in the capital, partly in his villa at Tibur. His health now began to fail, and it became necessary for him to choose a successor, as he had no children of his own. Against the advice of his relatives and friends he adopted L. Ceionius Commodus under the name of L. Aelius Caesar, who was in a feeble state of health and died on the 1st of January 138, before he had an opportunity of proving his capabilities. Hadrian then adopted Arrius Antoninus (see ANTONINUS PIUS) on condition that he should adopt M. Annius Verus (afterwards the emperor Marcus Aurelius) and the son of L. Aelius Caesar, L. Ceionius Commodus (afterwards the emperor Commodus). Hadrian died at Baiae on the 10th of July 138.

He was without doubt one of the most capable emperors who ever occupied the throne, and devoted his great and varied talents to the interests of the state. One of his chief objects was the abolition of distinctions between the provinces and the mother country, finally carried out by Caracalla, while at the same time he did not neglect reforms that were urgently called for in Italy. Provincial governors were kept under strict supervision; extortion was practically unheard of; the _jus Latii_ was bestowed upon several communities; special officials were instituted for the control of the finances; and the emperor's interest in provincial affairs was shown by bis personal assumption of various municipal offices. New towns were founded and old ones restored; new streets were laid out, and aqueducts, temples and magnificent buildings constructed. In Italy itself the administration of justice and the finances required special attention. Four _legati juridici_ (or simply _juridici_) of consular rank were appointed for Italy, who took over certain important judicial functions formerly exercised by local magistrates (cases of _fideicommissa_, the nomination of guardians). The judicial council (_consiliarii Augusti_, later called _consistorium_), composed of persons of the highest rank (especially jurists), became a permanent body of advisers, although merely consultative. Roman law owes much to Hadrian, who instructed Salvius Julianus to draw up an _edictum perpetuum_, to a great extent the basis of Justinian's _Corpus juris_ (see M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen Literatur_, iii. p. 167). In the administration of finance, in addition to the remission of arrears already mentioned, a revision of claims was ordered to be made every fifteen years, thereby anticipating the "indictions" (see CALENDAR; CHRONOLOGY). Direct collection of taxes by imperial procurators was substituted for the system of farming, and a special official (_advocatus fisci_) was instituted to look after the interests of the imperial treasury. The gift of "coronary gold" (_aurum coronarium_), presented to the emperor on certain occasions, was entirely remitted in the case of Italy, and partly in the case of the provinces. The administration of the postal service throughout the empire was taken over by the state, and municipal officials were relieved from the burden of maintaining the imperial posts. Humane regulations as to the treatment of slaves were strictly enforced; the master was forbidden to put his slave to death, but was obliged to bring him before a court of justice; if he ill-treated him it was a penal offence. The sale of slaves (male and female) for immoral and gladiatorial purposes was forbidden; the custom of putting all the household to death when their master was murdered was modified. The public baths were kept under strict supervision; the toga was ordered to be worn in public by senators and equites on solemn occasions; extravagant banquets were prohibited; rules were made to prevent the congestion of traffic in the streets. In military matters Hadrian was a strict disciplinarian, but his generosity and readiness to share their hardships endeared him to the soldiers. He effected a material and moral improvement in the conditions of service and mode of life, but in other respects he does not appear to have introduced any important military reforms. During his reign an advance was made in the direction of creating an organized body of servants at the disposal of the emperor by the appointment of equites to important administrative posts, without their having performed the _militiae equestres_ (see EQUITES). Among these posts were various procuratorships (chief of which was that of the imperial fisc), and the offices _ab epistulis_, _a rationibus_ and _a libellis_ (secretary, accountant, receiver of petitions). The prefect of the praetorian guard was now the most important person in the state next to the emperor, and subsequently became a supreme judge of appeal. Among the magnificent buildings erected by Hadrian mention may be made of the following: In the capital, the temple of Venus and Roma; his splendid mausoleum, which formed the groundwork of the castle of St Angelo; the pantheon of Agrippa; the Basilica Neptuni; at Tibur the great villa 8 m. in extent, a kind of epitome of the world, with miniatures of the most celebrated places in the provinces. Athens, however, was the favourite site of his architectural labours; here he built the temple of Olympian Zeus, the Panhellenion, the Pantheon, the library, a gymnasium and a temple of Hera.

Hadrian was fond of the society of learned men--poets, scholars, rhetoricians and philosophers--whom he alternately humoured and ridiculed. In painting, sculpture and music he considered himself the equal of specialists. The architect Apollodorus of Damascus owed his banishment and death to his outspoken criticism of the emperor's plans. The sophist Favorinus was more politic; when reproached for yielding too readily to the emperor in some grammatical discussion, he replied that it was unwise to contradict the master of thirty legions. The Athenaeum (q.v.) owed its foundation to Hadrian. He was a man of considerable intellectual attainments, of prodigious memory, master of both Latin and Greek, and wrote prose and verse with equal facility. His taste, however, was curious; he preferred Cato the elder, Ennius and Caelius Antipater to Cicero, Virgil and Sallust, the obscure poet Antimachus to Homer and Plato. As a writer he displayed great versatility. He composed an autobiography, published under the name of his freedman Phlegon; wrote speeches, fragments of two of which are preserved in inscriptions (a panegyric on his mother-in-law Matidia, and an address to the soldiers at Lambaesis in Africa). In imitation of Antimachus he wrote a work called _Catachannae_, probably a kind of miscellanea. The Latin and Greek anthologies contain about a dozen epigrams under his name. The letter of Hadrian to the consul Servianus (in Vopiscus, _Vita Saturnini_, 8) is no longer considered genuine. Hadrian's celebrated dying address to his soul may here be quoted:--

"Animula vagula, blandula,
Hospes comesque corporis,
Quae nunc abibis in loca
Pallidula, rigida, nudula;
Nec, ut soles, dabis iocos?"