Chapter XIV: Part 14

HAJIPUR, a town of British India, in the Muzaffarpur district of Bengal, on the Gandak, just above its confluence with the Ganges opposite Patna. Pop. (1901), 21,398. Hajipur figures conspicuously in the history of the struggles between Akbar and his rebellious Afghan governors of Bengal, being twice besieged and captured by the imperial troops, in 1572 and 1574. Within the limits of the old fort is a small stone mosque, very plain, but of peculiar architecture, and attributed to Haji Ilyas, its traditional founder (c. 1350). Its command of water traffic in three directions makes the town a place of considerable commercial importance. Hajipur has a station on the main line of the Bengal and North-western railway.

HAJJ or HADJ, the Arabic word, meaning literally a "setting out," for the greater pilgrimage of Mahommedans to Mecca, which takes place from the 8th to the 10th of the twelfth month of the Mahommedan year; the lesser pilgrimage, called _umrah_ or _omra_, may be made to the mosque at Mecca at any time other than that of the hajj proper, and is also a meritorious act. The term _hajji_ or _hadji_ is given to those who have performed the greater pilgrimage. The word _hajj_ is sometimes loosely used of any Mahommedan pilgrimage to a sacred place or shrine, and is also applied to the pilgrimages of Christians of the East to the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem (see MECCA; MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION).

HAJJI KHALIFA [in full Mustafa ibn 'Abdallah Katib Chelebi Hajji Khalifa] (ca. 1599-1658), Arabic and Turkish author, was born at Constantinople. He became secretary to the commissariat department of the Turkish army in Anatolia, was with the army in Bagdad in 1625, was present at the siege of Erzerum, and returned to Constantinople in 1628. In the following year he was again in Bagdad and Hamadan, and in 1633 at Aleppo, whence he made the pilgrimage to Mecca (hence his title Hajji). The following year he was in Erivan and then returned to Constantinople. Here he obtained a post in the head office of the commissariat department, which afforded him time for study. He seems to have attended the lectures of great teachers up to the time of his death, and made a practice of visiting bookshops and noting the titles and contents of all books he found there. His largest work is the _Bibliographical Encyclopaedia_ written in Arabic. In this work, after five chapters dealing with the sciences generally, the titles of Arabian, Persian and Turkish books written up to his own time are arranged in alphabetical order. With the titles are given, where possible, short notes on the author, his date, and sometimes the introductory words of his work. It was edited by G. Flugel with Latin translation and a useful appendix (7 vols. Leipzig, 1835-1858). The text alone of this edition has been reproduced at Constantinople (1893).

Hajji Khalifa also wrote in Turkish: a chronological conspectus of
general history (translated into Italian by G. R. Carli, Venice,
1697); a history of the Turkish empire from 1594 to 1655
(Constantinople, 1870); a history of the naval wars of the Turks
(Constantinople, 1729; chapters 1-4 translated by J. Mitchell, London,
1831); a general geography published at Constantinople, 1732 (Latin
trans. by M. Norberg, London and Gotha, 1818; German trans. of part by
J. von Hammer, Vienna, 1812; French trans. of part by V. de St Martin
in his _Geography of Asia Minor_, vol. 1).

For his life see the preface to Flugel's edition; list of his works in
C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur_ (Berlin, 1902), vol.
ii., pp. 428-429. (G. W. T.)

HAKE, EDWARD (fl. 1579), English satirist, was educated under John Hopkins, the part-author of the metrical version of the Psalms. He resided in Gray's Inn and Barnard's Inn, London. In the address "To the Gentle Reader" prefixed to his _Newes out of Powles Churchyard ... Otherwise entitled Syr Nummus_ (2nd ed., 1579) he mentions the "first three yeeres which I spent in the Innes of Channcery, being now about a dosen of yeeres passed." In 1585 and 1586 he was mayor of New Windsor, and in 1588 he represented the borough in parliament. His last work was published in 1604. He was protected by the earl of Leicester, whose policy it was to support the Puritan party, and who no doubt found a valuable ally in so vigorous a satirist of error in clerical places as was Hake. _Newes out of Paules Churchyarde, A Trappe for Syr Monye_, first appeared in 1567, but no copy of this impression is known, and it was re-issued in 1579 with the title quoted above. The book takes the form of a dialogue between Bertulph and Paul, who meet in the aisles of the cathedral, and is divided into eight "satyrs," dealing with the corruption of the higher clergy and of judges, the greed of attorneys, the tricks of physicians and apothecaries, the sumptuary laws, extravagant living, Sunday sports, the abuse of St Paul's cathedral as a meeting-place for business and conversation, usury, &c. It is written in rhymed fourteen-syllable metre, which is often more comic than the author intended. It contains, amid much prefatory matter, a note to the "carping and scornefull Sicophant," in which he attacks his enemies with small courtesy and much alliteration. One is described as a "carping careless cankerd churle."

He also wrote a translation from Thomas a Kempis, _The Imitation, or
Following of Christ_ (1567, 1568); _A Touchstone for this Time
Present_ (1574), a scurrilous attack on the Roman Catholic Church,
followed by a treatise on education; _A Commemoration of the ...
Raigne of ... Elizabeth_ (1575), enlarged in 1578 to _A Joyfull
Continuance of the Commemoration, &c._; and of _Gold's Kingdom, and
this Unhelping Age_ (1604), a collection of pieces in prose and verse,
in which the author inveighs against the power of gold. A bibliography
of these and of Hake's other works was compiled by Mr Charles Edmonds
for his edition in 1872 of the _Newes_ (Isham Reprints, No. 2, 1872).

HAKE, THOMAS GORDON (1800-1895), English poet, was born at Leeds, of an old Devonshire family, on the 10th of March 1809. His mother was a Gordon of the Huntly branch. He studied medicine at St George's hospital and at Edinburgh and Glasgow, but had given up practice for many years before his death, and had devoted himself to a literary life. In 1839 he published a prose epic _Vates_, republished in Ainsworth's magazine as _Valdarno_, which attracted the attention of D. G. Rossetti. In after years he became an intimate member of the circle of friends and followers gathered round Rossetti, who so far departed from his usual custom as to review Hake's poems in the _Academy_ and in the _Fortnightly Review_. In 1871 he published _Madeline_; 1872, _Parables and Tales_; 1883, _The Serpent Play_; 1890, _New Day Sonnets_; and in 1892 his _Memoirs of Eighty Years_. Dr Hake's works had much subtlety and felicity of expression, and were warmly appreciated in a somewhat restricted literary circle. In his last published verse, the sonnets, he shows an advance in facility on the occasional harshness of his earlier work. He was given a Civil List literary pension in 1893, and died on the 11th of January 1895.

HAKE (_Merluccius vulgaris_), a fish which differs from the cod in having only two dorsal fins, and one anal. It is very common on the coasts of Europe and eastern North America, but its flesh is much less esteemed than that of the true _Gadi_. Specimens 4 ft. in length are not scarce. There are local variations in the use of "hake" as a name; in America the "silver hake" (_Merluccius bilinearis_), sometimes called "whiting," and "Pacific hake" (_Merluccius productus_) are also food-fishes of inferior quality.

HAKKAS ("Guests," or "Strangers"), a people of S.W. China, chiefly found in Kwang-Tung, Fu-Kien and Formosa. Their origin is doubtful, but there is some ground for believing that they may be a cross between the aboriginal Mongolic element of northern China and the Chinese proper. According to their tradition, they were in Shantung and northern China as early as the 3rd century B.C. In disposition, appearance and customs they differ from the true Chinese. They speak a distinct dialect. Their women, who are prettier than the pure Chinese, do not compress their feet, and move freely about in public. The Hakkas are a most industrious people and furnish at Canton nearly all the coolie labour employed by Europeans. Their intelligence is great, and many noted scholars have been of Hakka birth. Hung Sin-tsuan, the leader in the Taiping rebellion, was a Hakka. In Formosa they serve as intermediaries between the Chinese and European traders and the natives. From time immemorial they seem to have been persecuted by the Chinese, whom they regard as "foreigners," and with whom their means of communication is usually "pidgin English." The earliest persecution occurred under the "first universal emperor" of China, Shi-Hwang-ti (246-210 B.C.). From this time the Hakkas appear to have become wanderers. Sometimes for generations they were permitted to live unmolested, as under the Han dynasty, when some of them held high official posts. During the Tang dynasty (7th, 8th, and 9th centuries) they settled in the mountains of Fu-kien and on the frontiers of Kwang-Tung. On the invasion of Kublai Khan, the Hakkas distinguished themselves by their bravery on the Chinese side. In the 14th century further persecutions drove them into Kwang-Tung.

See "An Outline History of the Hakkas," _China Review_ (London,
1873-1874), vol. ii.; Pitou, "On the Origin and History of the
Hakkas," ib.; Dyer Ball, _Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect_ (1884),
_Things Chinese_ (London, 1893); Schaub, "Proverbs in Daily Use among
the Hakkas," in _China Review_ (London, 1894-1895), vol. xxi.; Rev. J.
Edkins, _China's Place in Philology_; Girard de Rialle, _Rev. d.
anthrop._ (Jan. and April, 1885); G. Taylor, "The Aborigines of
Formosa," _China Review_, xiv. p. 198 seq., also xvi. No. 3, "A Ramble
through Southern Formosa."

HAKLUYT, RICHARD (c. 1553-1616), British geographer, was born of good family in or near London about 1553. The Hakluyts were of Welsh extraction, not Dutch as has been supposed. They appear to have settled in Herefordshire as early as the 13th century. The family seat was Eaton, 2 m. S.E. of Leominster. Hugo Hakelute was returned M.P. for that borough in 1304/5. Richard went to school at Westminster, where he was a queen's scholar; while there his future bent was determined by a visit to his cousin and namesake, Richard Hakluyt of the Middle Temple. His cousin's discourse, illustrated by "certain bookes of cosmographie, an universall mappe, and the Bible," made young Hakluyt resolve to "prosecute that knowledge and kind of literature." Entering Christ Church, Oxford, in 1570, "his exercises of duty first performed," he fell to his intended course of reading, and by degrees perused all the printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could find. He took his B.A. In 1573/4. It is probable that, shortly after taking his M.A. (1577), he began at Oxford the first public lectures in geography that "shewed both the old imperfectly composed and the new lately reformed mappes, globes, spheares, and other instruments of this art." That this was not in London is certain, as we know that the first lecture of the kind was delivered in the metropolis on the 4th of November 1588 by Thomas Hood.

Hakluyt's first published work was his _Divers Voyages touching the Discoverie of America_ (London, 1582, 4to.). This brought him to the notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and so to that of Sir Edward Stafford, Lord Howard's brother-in-law; accordingly at the age of thirty, being acquainted with "the chiefest captaines at sea, the greatest merchants, and the best mariners of our nation," he was selected as chaplain to accompany Stafford, now English ambassador at the French court, to Paris (1583). In accordance with the instructions of Secretary Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting information of the Spanish and French movements, and "making diligent inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne discoverie in America." The first fruits of Hakluyt's labours in Paris are embodied in his important work entitled _A particuler discourse concerning Westerne discoveries written in the yere 1584, by Richarde Hackluyt of Oxforde, at the requeste and direction of the righte worshipfull Mr Walter Raghly before the comynge home of his twoo barkes_. This long-lost MS. was at last printed in 1877. Its object was to recommend the enterprise of planting the English race in the unsettled parts of North America. Hakluyt's other works consist mainly of translations and compilations, relieved by his dedications and prefaces, which last, with a few letters, are the only material we possess out of which a biography of him can be framed. Hakluyt revisited England in 1584, laid before Queen Elizabeth a copy of the _Discourse_ "along with one in Latin upon Aristotle's _Politicks_," and obtained, two days before his return to Paris, the grant of the next vacant prebend at Bristol, to which he was admitted in 1586 and held with his other preferments till his death.

While in Paris Hakluyt interested himself in the publication of the MS. journal of Laudonniere, the _Histoire notable de la Florida_, edited by Bassanier (Paris, 1586, 8vo.). This was translated by Hakluyt and published in London under the title of _A notable historie containing foure voyages made by certayne French captaynes into Florida_ (London, 1587, 4to.). The same year _De orbe novo Petri Martyris Anglerii decades octo illustratae labore et industria Richardi Hackluyti_ saw the light at Paris. This work contains the exceedingly rare copperplate map dedicated to Hakluyt and signed F. G. (supposed to be Francis Gualle); it is the first on which the name of "Virginia" appears.

In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Lady Stafford, after a residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589 he published the first edition of his chief work, _The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation_ (fol., London, 1 vol.). In the preface to this we have the announcement of the intended publication of the first terrestrial globe made in England by Molyneux. In 1598-1600 appeared the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of _The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation_ (fol., 3 vols.). Some few copies contain an exceedingly rare map, the first on the Mercator projection made in England according to the true principles laid down by Edward Wright. Hakluyt's great collection, though but little read, has been truly called the "prose epic of the modern English nation." It is an invaluable treasure of material for the history of geographical discovery and colonization, which has secured for its editor a lasting reputation. In 1601 Hakluyt edited a translation from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvano, _The Discoveries of the World_ (4to., London). In the same year his name occurs as an adviser to the East India Company, supplying them with maps, and informing them as to markets. Meantime in 1590 (April 20th) he had been instituted to the rectory of Withering-sett-cum-Brockford, Suffolk. In 1602, on the 4th of May, he was installed prebendary of Westminster, and in the following year he was elected archdeacon of Westminster. In the licence of his second marriage (30th of March 1604) he is also described as one of the chaplains of the Savoy, and his will contains a reference to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of his death; in another official document he is styled D.D. In 1605 he secured the prospective living of James Town, the intended capital of the intended colony of Virginia. This benefice he supplied, when the colony was at last established in 1607, by a curate, one Robert Hunt. In 1606 he appears as one of the chief promoters of the petition to the king for patents to colonize Virginia. He was also a leading adventurer in the London or South Virginia Company. His last publication was a translation of Fernando de Soto's discoveries in Florida, entitled _Virginia richly valued by the description of Florida her next neighbour_ (London, 1609, 4to). This work was intended to encourage the young colony of Virginia; to Hakluyt, it has been said, "England is more indebted for its American possession than to any man of that age." We may notice that it was at Hakluyt's suggestion that Robert Parke translated Mendoza's _History of China_ (London, 1588-1589) and John Pory made his version of _Leo Africanus_ (_A Geographical History of Africa_, London, 1600). Hakluyt died in 1616 (November 23rd) and was buried in Westminster Abbey (November 26th); by an error in the abbey register his burial is recorded under the year 1626. Out of his various emoluments and preferments (of which the last was Gedney rectory, Lincolnshire, in 1612) he amassed a small fortune, which was squandered by a son. A number of his MSS., sufficient to form a fourth volume of his collections of 1598-1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who inserted them in an abridged form in his _Pilgrimes_ (1625-1626, fol.). Others are preserved at Oxford (Bib. Bod. MS. Seld. B. 8). which consist chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors.

Besides the MSS. or editions noticed in the text (_Divers Voyages_
(1582); _Particuler Discourse_ (1584); Laudonniere's _Florida_ (1587);
Peter Martyr, _Decades_ (1587); _Principal Navigations_ (1589 and
1598-1600); Galvano's _Discoveries_ (1601); De Soto's Florida record,
the _Virginia richly valued_ (1609, &c.), we may notice the Hakluyt
Society's London edition of the _Divers Voyages_ in 1850, the edition
of the _Particuler Discourse_, by Charles Deane in the _Collections of
the Maine Historical Society_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1870, with an
introduction by Leonard Woods); also, among modern issues of the
_Principal Navigations_, those of 1809 (5 vols., with much additional
matter), and of 1903-1905 (Glasgow, 12 vols.). The new title-page
issued for the first volume of the final edition of the _Principal
Navigations_, in 1599, merely cancelled the former 1598 title with its
reference to the Cadiz expedition of 1596; but from this has arisen
the mistaken supposition that a new _edition_ was then (1599)
published. Hakluyt's Galvano was edited for the Hakluyt Society by
Admiral C. R. D. Bethune in 1862. This Society, which was founded in
1846 for printing rare and unpublished voyages and travels, includes
the Glasgow edition of the _Principal Navigations_ in its _extra
series_, as well as C. R. Beazley's edition of _Carpini_, _Rubruquis_,
and other medieval texts from Hakluyt (Cambridge, 1903, 1 vol.).
Reckoning in these and an issue of Purchas's _Pilgrimes_ by the
Glasgow publisher of the Hakluyt of 1903-1905, the society has now
published or "fathered" 150 vols. See also _Voyages of the Elizabethan
Seamen to America, being Select Narratives from the Principal
Navigations_, by E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1880; 1893; new edition by C. R.
Beazley, 1907).

For Hakluyt's life the dedications of the 1589 and 1598 editions of
the _Principal Navigations_ should be especially consulted; also
Winter Jones's introduction to the Kakluyt Society edition of the
_Divers Voyages_; Fuller's _Worthies of England_, "Herefordshire";
_Oxford Univ. Reg._ (Oxford Hist. Soc), ii., iii. 39; _Historical MSS.
Commission, 4th report, appendix_, p. 614, the last giving us the
Towneley MSS. referring to payments (prizes?) awarded to Hakluyt when
at Oxford, May 12th and June 4th, 1575. (C. H. C; C. R. B.)

HAKODATE, a town on the south of the island of Yezo, Japan, for many years regarded as the capital of the island until Sapporo was officially raised to that rank. Pop. (1903) 84,746. Its position, as has been frequently remarked, is not unlike that of Gibraltar, as the town is built along the north-western base of a rocky promontory (1157 ft. in height) which forms the eastern boundary of a spacious bay, and is united to the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. The summit of the rock, called the Peak, is crowned by a fort. Hakodate is one of the ports originally opened to foreign trade. The Bay of Hakodate, an inlet of Tsugaru Strait, is completely land-locked, easy of access and spacious, with deep water almost up to the shore, and good holding-ground. The Russians formerly used Hakodate as a winter port. The staple exports are beans, pulse and peas, marine products, sulphur, furs and timber; the staple imports, comestibles (especially salted fish), kerosene and oil-cake. The town is not situated so as to profit largely by the development of the resources of Yezo, and as a port of foreign trade its outlook is indifferent. Frequent steamers connect Hakodate and Yokohama and other ports, and there is daily communication with Aomori, 56 m. distant, whence there is rail-connexion with Tokyo. Hakodate was opened to American commerce in 1854. In the civil war of 1868 the town was taken by the rebel fleet, but it was recovered by the mikado in 1869.

HAL, a town of Brabant, Belgium, about 9 m. S.W. of Brussels, situated on the river Senne and the Charleroi canal. Pop. (1904) 13,541. The place is interesting chiefly on account of its fine church of Notre Dame, formerly dedicated to St Martin. This church, a good example of pure Gothic, was begun in 1341 and finished in 1409. Its principal ornament is the alabaster altar, by J. Mone, completed in 1533. The bronze font dates from 1446. Among the monuments is one in black marble to the dauphin Joachim, son of Louis XI., who died in 1460. In the treasury of the church are many costly objects presented by illustrious personages, among others by the emperor Charles V., King Henry VIII. of England, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and several popes. The church is chiefly celebrated, however, for its miraculous image of the Virgin. Legend says that during a siege the bullets fired into the town were caught by her in the folds of her dress. Some of these are still shown in a chest that stands in a side chapel. In consequence of this belief a great pilgrimage, attended by many thousands from all parts of Belgium, is paid annually to this church. The hotel de ville dates from 1616 and has been restored with more than ordinary good taste.

HALA, or HALLA (formerly known as Murtazabad), a town of British India in Hyderabad district, Sind. Pop. (1901) 4985. It has long been famous for its glazed pottery and tiles, made from a fine clay obtained from the Indus, mixed with powdered flints. The town has also a manufacture of susis or striped trouser-cloths.

HALAESA, an ancient town on the north coast of Sicily, about 14 m. E. of Cephaloedium [Cefalu], to the east of the modern Castel di Tusa, founded in 403 B.C. by Archonides, tyrant of Herbita, whose name it sometimes bore: we find, e.g. _Halaisa Archonida_ on a coin of the time of Augustus (_Corp. inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 768). It was the first town to surrender to the Romans in the First Punic War, and was granted freedom and immunity from tithe. It became a place of some importance in Roman days, especially as a port, and entirely outstripped its mother city. Halaesa is the only place in Sicily where an inscription dedicated to a Roman governor of the republican period (perhaps in 93 B.C.) has come to light. (T. As.)

HALAKHA, or HALACHA (literally "rule of conduct"), the rabbinical development of the Mosaic law; with the haggada it makes up the Talmud and Midrash (q.v.). As the haggada is the poetic, so the halakha is the legal element of the Talmud (q.v.), and arose out of the faction between the Sadducees, who disputed the traditions, and the Pharisees, who strove to prove their derivation from scripture. Among the chief attempts to codify the halakha were the _Great Rules (Halakhoth Gedoloth)_ of Simon Kayyara (9th century), based on the letters written by the Gaonim, the heads of the Babylonian schools, to Jewish inquirers in many lands, the work of Jacob Alfassi (1013-1103), the _Strong Hand of_ Maimonides (1180), and the _Table Prepared_ (_Shulhan Aruch_) of Joseph Qaro (1565), which from its practical scope and its clarity as a work of general reference became the universal handbook of Jewish life in many of its phases. (I. A.)

HALBERSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 56 m. by rail N.W. of Halle, and 29 S.W. of Magdeburg. It lies in a fertile country to the north of the Harz Mountains, on the Holzemme, at the junction of railways to Halle, Goslar and Thale. Pop. (1905) 45,534. The town has a medieval appearance, many old houses decorated with beautiful wood-carving still surviving. The Gothic cathedral (now Protestant), dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, is remarkable for the majestic impression made by the great height of the interior, with its slender columns and lofty, narrow aisles. The treasure, preserved in the former chapter-house, is rich in reliquaries, vestments and other objects of medieval church art. The beautiful spires, which had become unsafe, were rebuilt in 1890-1895. Among the other churches the only one of special interest is the Liebfrauenkirche (Church of Our Lady), a basilica, with four towers, in the later Romanesque style, dating from the 12th and 13th centuries and restored in 1848, containing old mural frescoes and carved figures. Remarkable among the other old buildings are the town-hall, of the 14th century and restored in the 17th century, with a crypt, and the Petershof, formerly the episcopal palace, but now utilized as law courts and a prison. The principal educational establishment is the gymnasium, with a library of 40,000 volumes. Close to the cathedral lies the house of the poet Gleim (q.v.), since 1899 the property of the municipality and converted into a museum. It contains a collection of the portraits of the friends of the poet-scholar and some valuable manuscripts. The principal manufactures of the town are sugar, cigars, paper, gloves, chemical products, beer and machinery. About a mile and a half distant are the Spiegelsberge, from which a fine view of the surrounding country is obtained, and the Klusberge, with prehistoric cave-dwellings cut out in the sandstone rocks.

The history of Halberstadt begins with the transfer to it, by Bishop
Hildegrim I., in 820 of the see founded by Charlemagne at
Seligenstadt. At the end of the 10th century the bishops were granted
by the emperors the right to exercise temporal jurisdiction over their
see, which became one of the most considerable of the ecclesiastical
principalities of the Empire. As such it survived the introduction of
the Reformation in 1542; but in 1566, on the death of Sigismund of
Brandenburg (also archbishop of Madgeburg from 1552 to 1566), the last
Catholic bishop, the chapter from motives of economy elected the
infant Henry Julius of Brunswick-Luneburg. In 1589 he became duke of
Brunswick, and two years later he abolished the Catholic rites in
Halberstadt. The see was governed by lay bishops until 1648, when it
was formally converted by the treaty of Westphalia into a secular
principality for the elector of Brandenburg. By the treaty of Tilsit
in 1807 it was annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia, but came again to
Prussia on the downfall of Napoleon.

The town received a charter from Bishop Arnulf in 998. In 1113 it was
burnt by the emperor Henry V., and in 1179 by Henry the Lion. During
the Thirty Years' War it was occupied alternately by the Imperialists
and the Swedes, the latter of whom handed it over to Brandenburg.

See Lucanus, _Der Dom zu Halberstadt_ (1837), _Wegweiser durch
Halberstadt_ (2nd ed., 1866) and _Die Liebfrauenkirche zu Halberstadt_
(1872); Scheffer, _Inschriften und Legenden halberstadtischer Bauten_
(1864); Schmidt, _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Halberstadt_ (Halle, 1878);
and Zschiesche, _Halberstadt, sonst und jetzi_ (1882).

HALBERT, HALBERD or HALBARD, a weapon consisting of an axe-blade balanced by a pick and having an elongated pike-head at the end of the staff, which was usually about 5 or 6 ft. in length. The utility of such a weapon in the wars of the later middle ages lay in this, that it gave the foot soldier the means of dealing with an armoured man on horseback. The pike could do no more than keep the horseman at a distance. This ensured security for the foot soldier but did not enable him to strike a mortal blow, for which firstly a long-handled and secondly a powerful weapon, capable of striking a heavy cleaving blow, was required. Several different forms of weapon responding to these requirements are described and illustrated below; it will be noticed that the thrusting pike is almost always combined with the cutting-bill hook or axe-head, so that the individual billman or halberdier should not be at a disadvantage if caught alone by a mounted opponent, or if his first descending blow missed its object. It will be noticed further that, concurrently with the disuse of complete armour and the development of firearms, the pike or thrusting element gradually displaces the axe or cleaving element in these weapons, till at last we arrive at the court halberts and partizans of the late 16th and early 17th centuries and the so-called "halbert" of the infantry officer and sergeant in the 18th, which can scarcely be classed even as partizans.

Figs. 1-6 represent types of these long cutting, cut and thrust weapons of the middle ages, details being omitted for the sake of clearness. The most primitive is the _voulge_ (fig. 1), which is simply a heavy cleaver on a pole, with a point added. The next form, the _gisarme_ or _guisarme_ (fig. 2), appears in infinite variety but is always distinguished from voulges, &c. by the hook, which was used to pull down mounted men, and generally resembles the agricultural bill-hook of to-day. The _glaive_ (fig. 3 is late German) is a broad, heavy, slightly curved sword-blade on a stave; it is often combined with the hooked gisarme as a _glaive-gisarme_ (fig. 4, Burgundian, about 1480). A _gisarme-voulge_ is shown in fig. 5 (Swiss, 14th century).

The weapon best known to Englishmen is the _bill_, which was originally a sort of scythe-blade, sharp on the concave side (whereas the glaive has the cutting edge on the convex side), but in its best-known form it should be called a bill-gisarme (fig. 6). The _partizans_, _ranseurs_ and _halberts_ proper developed naturally from the earlier types. The feature common to all, as has been said, is the combination of spear and axe. In the halberts the axe predominates, as the examples (fig. 10, Swiss, early 15th century; fig. 11, Swiss, middle 16th century; and fig. 12, German court halbert of the same period as fig. 11) show. In the _partizan_ the pike is the more important, the axe-heads being reduced to little more than an ornamental feature. A south German specimen (fig. 9, 1615) shows how this was compensated by the broadening of the spear-head, the edges of which in such weapons were sharpened. Fig. 8, a service weapon of simple form, merely has projections on either side, and from this developed the _ranseur_ (fig. 7), a partizan with a very long and narrow point, like the blade of a rapier, and with fork-like projections intended to act as "sword-breakers," instead of the atrophied axe-heads of the partizan proper.

The halbert played almost as conspicuous a part in the military history of Middle Europe during the 15th and early 16th centuries as the pike. But, even in a form distinguishable from the voulge and the glaive, it dates from the early part of the 13th century, and for many generations thereafter it was the special weapon of the Swiss. Fauchet, in his _Origines des dignitez_, printed in 1600, states that Louis XI. of France ordered certain new weapons of war called _hallebardes_ to be made at Angers and other places in 1475. The Swiss had a mixed armament of pikes and halberts at the battle of Morat in 1476. In the 15th and 16th centuries the halberts became larger, and the blades were formed in many varieties of shape, often engraved, inlaid, or pierced in open work, and exquisitely finished as works of art. This weapon was in use in England from the reign of Henry VII. to the reign of George III., when it was still carried (though in shape it had certainly lost its original characteristics, and had become half partizan and half pike) by sergeants in the guards and other infantry regiments. It is still retained as the symbol of authority borne before the magistrates on public occasions in some of the burghs of Scotland. The Lochaber axe may be called a species of halbert furnished with a hook on the end of the staff at the back of the blade. The godendag (Fr. _godendart_) is the Flemish name of the halbert in its original form.

The derivation of the word is as follows. The O. Fr. _hallebarde_, of which the English "halberd," "halbert," is an adaptation, was itself adapted from the M.H.G. _helmbarde_, mod. _Hellebarde_; the second part is the O.H.G. _barta_ or _parta_, broad-axe, probably the same word as _Bart_, beard, and so called from its shape; the first part is either _helm_, handle, cf. "helm," tiller of a ship, the word meaning "hafted axe," or else _helm_, helmet, an axe for smiting the helmet. A common derivation was to take the word as representing a Ger. _halb-barde_, half-axe; the early German form shows this to be an erroneous guess.

HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER (1768-1851), Scottish divine, the younger son of Captain James Haldane of Airthrey House, Stirlingshire, was born at Dundee on the 14th of July 1768. Educated first at Dundee and afterwards at the high school and university of Edinburgh, at the age of seventeen he joined the "Duke of Montrose" East Indiaman as a midshipman. After four voyages to India he was nominated to the command of the "Melville Castle" in the summer of 1793; but having during a long and unexpected detention of his ship begun a careful study of the Bible, and also come under the evangelical influence of David Bogue of Gosport, one of the founders of the London Missionary Society, he abruptly resolved to quit the naval profession for a religious life, and returned to Scotland before his ship had sailed. About the year 1796 he became acquainted with the celebrated evangelical divine, Charles Simeon of Cambridge, in whose society he made several tours through Scotland, endeavouring by tract-distribution and other means to awaken others to some of that interest in religious subjects which he himself so strongly felt. In May 1797 he preached his first sermon, at Gilmerton near Edinburgh, with encouraging success. In the same year he established a non-sectarian organization for tract distribution and lay preaching called the "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Home." During the next few years he made repeated missionary journeys, preaching wherever he could obtain hearers, and generally in the open air. Not originally disloyal to the Church of Scotland, he was gradually driven by the hostility of the Assembly and the exigencies of his position into separation. In 1799 he was ordained as pastor of a large Independent congregation in Edinburgh. This was the first congregational church known by that name in Scotland. In 1801 a permanent building replaced the circus in which the congregation had at first met. To this church he continued to minister gratuitously for more than fifty years. In 1808 he made public avowal of his conversion to Baptist views. As advancing years compelled him to withdraw from the more exhausting labours of itineracy and open-air preaching, he sought more and more to influence the discussion of current religious and theological questions by means of the press. He died on the 8th of February 1851.

His son, DANIEL RUTHERFORD HALDANE (1824-1887), by his second wife, a daughter of Professor Daniel Rutherford, was a prominent Scottish physician, who became president of the Edinburgh College of Physicians.

Among J. A. Haldane's numerous contributions to current theological
discussions were: _The Duty of Christian Forbearance in Regard to
Points of Church Order_ (1811); _Strictures on a Publication upon
Primitive Christianity by Mr John Walker_ (1819); _Refutation of
Edward Irving's Heretical Doctrines respecting the Person and
Atonement of Jesus Christ_. His _Observations on Universal Pardon_,
&c., was a contribution to the controversy regarding the views of
Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Campbell of Row; _Man's
Responsibility_ (1842) is a reply to Howard Hinton on the nature and
extent of the Atonement. He also published: _Journal of a Tour in the
North_; _Early Instruction Commended_ (1801); _Views of the Social
Worship of the First Churches_ (1805); _The Doctrine and Duty of
Self-Examination_ (1806); _The Doctrine of the Atonement_ (1845);
_Exposition of the Epistle to the Galatians_ (1848).

HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON (1856- ), British statesman and philosopher, was the third son of Robert Haldane of Cloanden, Perthshire, a writer to the signet, and nephew of J. S. Burdon-Sanderson. He was a grand-nephew of the Scottish divines J. A. and Robert Haldane. He was educated at Edinburgh Academy and the universities of Edinburgh and Gottingen, where he studied philosophy under Lotze. He took first-class honours in philosophy at Edinburgh, and was Gray scholar and Ferguson scholar in philosophy of the four Scottish Universities (1876). He was called to the bar in 1879, and so early as 1890 became a queen's counsel. In 1885 he entered parliament as liberal member for Haddingtonshire, for which he was re-elected continuously up to and including 1910. He was included in 1905 in Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet as secretary for war, and was the author of the important scheme for the reorganization of the British army, by which the militia and the volunteer forces were replaced by a single territorial force. Though always known as one of the ablest men of the Liberal party and conspicuous during the Boer War of 1899-1902 as a Liberal Imperialist, the choice of Mr Haldane for the task of thinking out a new army organization on business lines had struck many people as curious. Besides being a chancery lawyer, he was more particularly a philosopher, conspicuous for his knowledge of Hegelian metaphysics. But with German philosophy he had also the German sense of thoroughness and system, and his scheme, while it was much criticized, was recognized as the best that could be done with a voluntary army. Mr Haldane's chief literary publications were: _Life of Adam Smith_ (1887); _Education and Empire_ (1902); _The Pathway to Reality_ (1903). He also translated, jointly with J. Kemp, Schopenhauer's _Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung_ (_The World as Will and Idea_, 3 vols., 1883-1886).

HALDANE, ROBERT (1764-1842), Scottish divine, elder brother of J. A. Haldane (q.v.), was born in London on the 28th of February 1764. After attending classes in the Dundee grammar school and in the high school and university of Edinburgh in 1780, he joined H.M.S. "Monarch," of which his uncle Lord Duncan was at that time in command, and in the following year was transferred to the "Foudroyant," on board of which, during the night engagement with the "Pegase," he greatly distinguished himself. Haldane was afterwards present at the relief of Gibraltar, but at the peace of 1783 he finally left the navy, and soon afterwards settled on his estate of Airthrey, near Stirling. He put himself under the tuition of David Bogue of Gosport and carried away deep impressions from his academy. The earlier phases of the French Revolution excited his deepest sympathy, a sympathy which induced him to avow his strong disapproval of the war with France. As his over-sanguine visions of a new order of things to be ushered in by political change disappeared, he began to direct his thoughts to religious subjects. Resolving to devote himself and his means wholly to the advancement of Christianity, his first proposal for that end, made in 1796, was to organize a vast mission to Bengal, of which he was to provide the entire expense; with this view the greater part of his estate was sold, but the East India Company refused to sanction the scheme, which therefore had to be abandoned. In December 1797 he joined his brother and some others in the formation of the "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Home," in building chapels or "tabernacles" for congregations, in supporting missionaries, and in maintaining institutions for the education of young men to carry on the work of evangelization. He is said to have spent more than L70,000 in the course of the following twelve years (1798-1810). He also initiated a plan for evangelizing Africa by bringing over native children to be trained as Christian teachers to their own countrymen. In 1816 he visited the continent, and first at Geneva and afterwards in Montauban (1817) he lectured and interviewed large numbers of theological students with remarkable effect; among them were Malan, Monod and Merle d'Aubigne. Returning to Scotland in 1819, he lived partly on his estate of Auchengray and partly in Edinburgh, and like his brother took an active part, chiefly through the press, in many of the religious controversies of the time. He died on the 12th of December 1842.

In 1816 he published a work on the _Evidences and Authority of Divine
Revelation_, and in 1819 the substance of his theological prelections
in a _Commentaire sur l'Epitre aux Romains_. Among his later writings,
besides numerous pamphlets on what was known as "the Apocrypha
controversy," are a treatise _On the Inspiration of Scripture_ (1828),
which has passed through many editions, and a later _Exposition of the
Epistle to the Romans_ (1835), which has been frequently reprinted,
and has been translated into French and German.

See _Memoirs of R. and J. A. Haldane_, by Alexander Haldane (1852).

HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN (1812-1880), American naturalist and philologist, was born on the 12th of August 1812 at Locust Grove, Pa. He was educated at Dickinson College, and in 1851 was appointed professor of the natural sciences in the university of Pennsylvania. In 1855 he went to Delaware College, where he filled the same position, but in 1869 he returned to the university of Pennsylvania as professor of comparative philology and remained there till his death, which occurred at Chickies, Pa., on the 10th of September 1880. His writings include _Freshwater Univalve Mollusca of the United States_ (1840); _Zoological Contributions_ (1842-1843); _Analytic Orthography_ (1860); _Tours of a Chess Knight_ (1864); _Pennsylvania Dutch, a Dialect of South German with an Infusion of English_ (1872); _Outlines of Etymology_ (1877); and _Word-Building_ (1881).

HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK (1718-1791), British general and administrator, was born at Yverdun, Neuchatel, Switzerland, on the 11th of August 1718, of Huguenot descent. After serving in the armies of Sardinia, Russia and Holland, he entered British service in 1754, and subsequently naturalized as an English citizen. During the Seven Years' War he served in America, was wounded at Ticonderoga (1758) and was present at the taking of Montreal (1760). After filling with credit several administrative positions in Canada, Florida and New York, in 1778 he succeeded Sir Guy Carleton (afterwards Lord Dorchester) as governor-general of Canada. His measures against French sympathizers with the Americans have incurred extravagant strictures from French-Canadian historians, but he really showed moderation as well as energy. In 1785 he returned to London. He died at his birthplace on the 5th of June 1791.

His life has been well written by Jean McIlwraith in the "Makers of
Canada" series (Toronto, 1904). His Correspondence and Diary fill 262
volumes in the Canadian Archives, and are catalogued in the Annual
Reports (1884-1889).

HALE, EDWARD EVERETT (1822-1909), American author, was born in Boston on the 3rd of April 1822, son of Nathan Hale (1784-1863), proprietor and editor of the Boston _Daily Advertiser_, nephew of Edward Everett, the orator and statesman, and grand-nephew of Nathan Hale, the martyr spy. He graduated from Harvard in 1839; was pastor of the church of the Unity, Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1846-1856, and of the South Congregational (Unitarian) church, Boston, in 1856-1899; and in 1903 became chaplain of the United States Senate. He died at Roxbury (Boston), Massachusetts, on the 10th of June 1909. His forceful personality, organizing genius, and liberal practical theology, together with his deep interest in the anti-slavery movement (especially in Kansas), popular education (especially Chautauqua work), and the working-man's home, were active in raising the tone of American life for half a century. He was a constant and voluminous contributor to the newspapers and magazines. He was an assistant editor of the Boston _Daily Advertiser_, and edited the _Christian Examiner, Old and New_ (which he assisted in founding in 1869; in 1875 it was merged in _Scribner's Magazine_), _Lend a Hand_ (founded by him in 1886 and merged in the _Charities Review_ in 1897), and the _Lend a Hand Record_; and he was the author or editor of more than sixty books--fiction, travel, sermons, biography and history.

He first came into notice as a writer in 1859, when he contributed the short story "My Double and How He Undid Me" to the _Atlantic Monthly_. He soon published in the same periodical other stories, the best known of which was "The Man Without a Country" (1863), which did much to strengthen the Union cause in the North, and in which, as in some of his other non-romantic tales, he employed a minute realism which has led his readers to suppose the narrative a record of fact. The two stories mentioned, and such others as "The Rag-Man and the Rag-Woman" and "The Skeleton in the Closet," gave him a prominent position among the short-story writers of America. The story _Ten Times One is Ten_ (1870), with its hero Harry Wadsworth, and its motto, first enunciated in 1869 in his Lowell Institute lectures, "Look up and not down, look forward and not back, look out and not in, and lend a hand," led to the formation among young people of "Lend-a-Hand Clubs," "Look-up Legions" and "Harry Wadsworth Clubs." Out of the romantic Waldensian story _In His Name_ (1873) there similarly grew several other organizations for religious work, such as "King's Daughters," and "King's Sons."

Among his other books are _Kansas and Nebraska_ (1854); _The Ingham
Papers_ (1869); _His Level Best, and Other Stories_ (1870); _Sybaris
and Other Homes_ (1871); _Philip Nolan's Friends_ (1876), his
best-known novel, and a sequel to _The Man Without a Country; The
Kingdom of God_ (1880); _Christmas at Narragansett_ (1885); _East and
West_, a novel (1892); _For Fifty Years_ (poems, 1893); _Ralph Waldo
Emerson_ (1899); _We, the People_ (1903); _Prayers Offered in the
Senate of the United States_ (1904), and _Tarry-at-Home Travels_
(1906). He edited Lingard's _History of England_ (1853), and
contributed to Winsor's _Memorial History of Boston_ (1880-1881), and
to his _Narrative and Critical History of America_ (1886-1889). With
his son, Edward Everett Hale, Jr., he published _Franklin in France_
(2 vols., 1887-1888), based largely on original research. The most
charming books of his later years were _A New England Boyhood_ (1893),
_James Russell Lowell and His Friends_ (1899), and _Memories of a
Hundred Years_ (1902).

A uniform and revised edition of his principal writings, in ten
volumes, appeared in 1899-1901.

HALE, HORATIO (1817-1896), American ethnologist, was born in Newport, New Hampshire, on the 3rd of May 1817. He was the son of David Hale, a lawyer, and of Sarah Josepha Hale (1790-1879), a popular poet, who, besides editing _Godey's Lady's Magazine_ for many years and publishing some ephemeral books, is supposed to have written the verses "Mary had a little lamb," and to have been the first to suggest the national observance of Thanksgiving Day. The son graduated in 1837 at Harvard, and during 1838-1842 was philologist to the United States Exploring Expedition, which under Captain Charles Wilkes sailed around the world. Of the reports of that expedition Hale prepared the sixth volume, _Ethnography and Philology_ (1846), which is said to have "laid the foundations of the ethnography of Polynesia." He was admitted to the Chicago bar in 1855, and in the following year removed to Clinton, Ontario, Canada, where he practised his profession, and where on the 28th of December 1896 he died. He made many valuable contributions to the science of ethnology, attracting attention particularly by his theory of the origin of the diversities of human languages and dialects--a theory suggested by his study of "child-languages," or the languages invented by little children. He also emphasized the importance of languages as tests of mental capacity and as "criteria for the classification of human groups." He was, moreover, the first to discover that the Tutelos of Virginia belonged to the Siouan family, and to identify the Cherokee as a member of the Iroquoian family of speech. Besides writing numerous magazine articles, he read a number of valuable papers before learned societies. These include: _Indian Migrations as Evidenced by Language_ (1882); _The Origin of Languages and the Antiquity of Speaking Man_ (1886); _The Development of Language_ (1888); and _Language as a Test of Mental Capacity: Being an Attempt to Demonstrate the True Basis of Anthropology_ (1891). He also edited for Brinton's "Library of Aboriginal Literature," the _Iroquois Book of Rites_ (1883).

HALE, JOHN PARKER (1806-1873), American statesman, was born at Rochester, New Hampshire, on the 31st of March 1806. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1827, was admitted to the New Hampshire bar in 1830, was a member of the state House of Representatives in 1832, and from 1834 to 1841 was United States district attorney for New Hampshire. In 1843-1845 he was a Democratic member of the national House of Representatives, and, though his earnest co-operation with John Quincy Adams in securing the repeal of the "gag rule" directed against the presentation to Congress of anti-slavery petitions estranged him from the leaders of his party, he was renominated without opposition. In January 1845, however, he refused in a public statement to obey a resolution (28th of December 1844) of the state legislature directing him and his New Hampshire associates in Congress to support the cause of the annexation of Texas, a Democratic measure which Hale regarded as being distinctively in the interest of slavery. The Democratic State convention was at once reassembled, Hale was denounced, and his nomination withdrawn. In the election which followed Hale ran independently, and, although the Democratic candidates were elected in the other three congressional districts of the state, his vote was large enough to prevent any choice (for which a majority was necessary) in his own. Hale then set out in the face of apparently hopeless odds to win over his state to the anti-slavery cause. The remarkable canvass which he conducted is known in the history of New Hampshire as the "Hale Storm of 1845." The election resulted in the choice of a legislature controlled by the Whigs and the independent Democrats, he himself being chosen as a member of the state House of Representatives, of which in 1846 he was speaker. He is remembered, however, chiefly for his long service in the United States Senate, of which he was a member from 1847 to 1853 and again from 1855 to 1865. At first he was the only out-and-out anti-slavery senator,--he alone prevented the vote of thanks to General Taylor and General Scott for their Mexican war victories from being made unanimous in the Senate (February 1848)--but in 1849 Salmon P. Chase and William H. Seward, and in 1851 Charles Sumner joined him, and the anti-slavery cause became for the first time a force to be reckoned with in that body. In October 1847 he had been nominated for president by the Liberty party, but he withdrew in favour of Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate, in 1848. In 1851 he was senior counsel for the rescuers of the slave Shadrach in Boston. In 1852 he was the Free Soil candidate for the presidency, but received only 156,149 votes. In 1850 he secured the abolition of flogging in the U.S. navy, and through his efforts in 1862 the spirit ration in the navy was abolished. He was one of the organizers of the Republican party, and during the Civil War was an eloquent supporter of the Union and chairman of the Senate naval committee. From 1865 to 1869 he was United States minister to Spain. He died at Dover, New Hampshire, on the 19th of December 1873. A statue of Hale, presented by his son-in-law William Eaton Chandler (b. 1835), U.S. senator from New Hampshire in 1887-1901, was erected in front of the Capitol in Concord, New Hampshire, in 1892.