Chapter XII: Part 12

The indifference of the Jews to the desolate conditions of their sanctuary opens up a problem of some difficulty. It is strange that neither Haggai nor his contemporary Zechariah mentions or implies any return of exiles from Babylon, and the suggestion has accordingly been made that the return under Cyrus described in Ezra i.-iv. is unhistorical, and that the community addressed by Haggai consisted of the remnant that had been left in Jerusalem and its neighbourhood after the majority had gone into exile or fled to Egypt (Jer. xliii.). Such a remnant, amongst whom might be members of the priestly and royal families, would gather strength and boldness as the troubles of Babylon increased and her vigilance was relaxed, and might receive from Babylon and other lands both refugees and some account at least of the writings of Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah. Stimulated by such causes and obtaining formal permission from the Persian government, they would arise as a new Israel and enter on a new phase of national life and divine revelation.

In spite, however, of the plausibility of this theory, it seems preferable to adhere to the story of Ezra i.-iv. Apart from the weighty objections that the Edomites would have frustrated such a recrudescence of the remnant Jews as has been described, it must be remembered that the main stream of Jewish life and thought had been diverted to Babylon. Thence, when the opportunity came under Cyrus, some 50,000 Jews, the spiritual heirs of the best elements of the old Israel, returned to found the new community. With them were all the resources, and the only people they found at Jerusalem were hostile gentiles and Samaritans. Full of enthusiasm, they set about rebuilding the temple and realizing the glowing promises about the prosperity and dominance of Zion that had fallen from the lips of the Second Isaiah (xlix. 14-26, xlv. 14). Bitter disappointment, however, soon overcame them, the Samaritans were strong enough to thwart and hinder their temple-building, and it seemed as though the divine favour was withdrawn. Apathy took the place of enthusiasm, and sordid worries succeeded to high hopes. "The like collapse has often been experienced in history when bands of religious men, going forth, as they thought, to freedom and the immediate erection of a holy commonwealth, have found their unity wrecked and their enthusiasm dissipated by a few inclement seasons on a barren and hostile shore."[4]

From this torpor they were roused by tidings which might well be interpreted as the restoration of divine favour. Away in the East Cyrus had been succeeded in 529 B.C. by Cambyses, who had annexed Egypt and on whose death in 522 a Magian impostor, Gaumata, had seized the throne. The fraud was short-lived, and Darius I. became king and the founder of a new dynasty. These events shook the whole Persian empire; Babylon and other subject states rose in revolt, and to the Jews it seemed that Persia was tottering and that the Messianic era was nigh. It was therefore natural that Haggai and Zechariah should urge the speedy building of the temple, in order that the great king might be fittingly received.

It is sometimes levied as a reproach against Haggai that he makes no direct reference to moral duties. But it is hardly fair to contrast his practical counsel with the more ethical and spiritual teaching of the earlier Hebrew prophets. One thing was needful--the temple. "Without a sanctuary Yahweh would have seemed a foreigner to Israel. The Jews would have thought that He had returned to Sinai, the holy mountain; and that they were deprived of the temporal blessings which were the gifts of a God who literally dwelt in the midst of his people." Haggai argued that material prosperity was conditioned by zeal in worship; the prevailing distress was an indication of divine anger due to the people's religious apathy. Haggai's reproofs touched the conscience of the Jews, and the book of Zechariah enables us in some measure to follow the course of a religious revival which, starting with the restoration of the temple, did not confine itself to matters of ceremony and ritual worship. On the other hand, Haggai's treatment of his theme, practical and effective as it was for the purpose in hand, moves on a far lower level than the aspirations of the prophet who wrote the closing chapters of Isaiah. To the latter the material temple is no more than a detail in the picture of a work of restoration eminently ideal and spiritual, and he expressly warns his hearers against attaching intrinsic importance to it (Isa. lxvi. 1). To Haggai the temple appears so essential that he teaches that while it lay waste, the people and all their works and offerings were unclean (Hag. ii. 14). In this he betrays his affinity with Ezekiel, who taught that it is by the possession of the sanctuary that Israel is sanctified (Ezek. xxxvii. 28). In truth the new movement of religious thought and feeling which started from the fall of the Hebrew state took two distinct lines, of which Ezekiel and the anonymous authors of Isa. xl.-lxvi. are the respective representatives. While the latter developed their great picture of Israel the mediatorial nation, the systematic and priestly mind of Ezekiel had shaped a more material conception of the religious vocation of Israel in that picture of the new theocracy where the temple and its ritual occupy the largest place, with a sanctity which is set in express contrast to the older conception of the holiness of the city of Jerusalem (cf. Ezek. xliii. 7 seq. with Jer. xxxi. 40, Isa. iv. 5), and with a supreme significance for the religious life of the people which is expressed in the figure of the living waters issuing from under the threshold of the house (Ezek. xlvii.). It was the conception of Ezekiel which permanently influenced the citizens of the new Jerusalem, and took final shape in the institutions of Ezra. To this consummation, with its necessary accompaniment in the extinction of prophecy, the book of Haggai already points.

AUTHORITIES.--The elaborate and valuable German commentary of A.
Kohler (Erlangen, 1860) forms the first part of his work on the
_Nachexilische Propheten_. Reinke's _Commentary_ (Munster, 1868) is
the work of a scholarly Roman Catholic. Haggai has generally been
treated in works on all the prophets, as by Ewald (2nd ed., 1868; Eng.
trans., vol. iii., 1878); or along with the other minor prophets, as
by Hitzig (3rd ed., by H. Steiner, Leipzig, 1881), Keil (1866, 3rd
ed., 1888, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1868), and Pusey (1875), S. R.
Driver (1906), W. Nowack (2nd ed., 1905), K. Marti (1904), J.
Wellhausen (3rd ed., 1898); or with the other post-exile prophets, as
by Kohler, Pressel (Gotha, 1870), Dods (1879) and others. The older
literature will be found in books of introduction or in Rosenmuller's
_Scholia_. The learned commentary of Marckius may be specially
mentioned. On the place of Haggai in the history of Old Testament
prophecy, see Duhm, _Theologie der Propheten_ (Bonn, 1875); A. B.
Davidson, _The Theology of the Old Testament_ (1904); A. F.
Kirkpatrick, _The Doctrine of the Prophets_; G. A. Smith, _The Book of
the Twelve Prophets_, vol. 2 (1903); Tony Andree, _Le Prophete Aggee_;
Ed. Meyer, _Entstehung des Judentums_ (1896). (W. R. S.; A. J. G.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In Bleek's _Einleitung_, 4th ed., p. 434.

[2] See the note on Ps. cxlv. 1 in Field's _Hexapla_; Kohler,
_Weissagungen Haggai's_, 32; Wright, _Zechariah and his Prophecies_,
xix.

[3] After the foundation of the temple Zerubbabel disappears from
history and lives only in legend, which continued to busy itself with
his story, as we see from the apocryphal book of Esdras (cf.
Derenbourg, _Hist. de la Palestine_, chap. i).

[4] G. A. Smith, _Minor Prophets_, ii. 235.

HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER (1856- ), English novelist, was born at Bradenham Hall, Norfolk, on the 22nd of June 1856. When he was nineteen he went to South Africa as secretary to Sir Henry Bulwer, governor of Natal. At the time of the first annexation of the Transvaal (1877), he was on the staff of the special commissioner, Sir Theophilus Shepstone; and he subsequently became a master of the high court of the Transvaal. He married in 1879 a Norfolk heiress, Miss Margitson, but returned to the Transvaal in time to witness its surrender to the Boers and the overthrow of the policy of his former chief. He returned to England and read for the bar, but soon took to literary work; he published _Cetywayo and his White Neighbours_ (1882), written in defence of Sir T. Shepstone's policy. This was followed by the novels _Dawn_ (1884), _The Witch's Head_ (1885), which contains an account of the British defeat at Isandhlwana; and in 1886 _King Solomon's Mines_, suggested by the Zimbabwe ruins, which first made him popular. _She_ (1887), another fantastic African story, was also very successful, a sequel, _Ayesha, or the Return of She_, being published in 1905. The scene of _Jess_ (1887) and of _Allan Quatermain_ (1888) was also laid in Africa. In 1895 he unsuccessfully contested the East Norfolk parliamentary division in the Unionist interest; he showed great interest in rural and agricultural questions, being a practical gardener and farmer on his estate in Norfolk. In his _Rural England_ (2 vols., 1902) he exposed the evils of depopulation in country districts. In 1905 he was commissioned by the colonial office to inquire into the Salvation Army settlements at Fort Romie, S. California, and Fort Amity, Colorado, with a view to the establishment of similar colonies in South Africa. His report on the subject was first published as a blue book, and afterwards, in an enlarged form, as _The Poor and the Land_ (1905), with suggestions for a scheme of national land settlement in Great Britain itself.

His other books include _Maiwa's Revenge_ (1888), _Mr Meeson's Will_
(1888), _Colonel Quaritch_, V.C. (1888), _Cleopatra_ (1889), _Eric
Brighteyes_ (1891), _The World's Desire_ (1890), a romance of Helen of
Troy, written with Mr Andrew Lang; _Nada the Lily_ (1892),
_Montezuma's Daughter_ (1894), _The People of the Mist_ (1894), _Joan
Haste_ (1895), _Heart of the World_ (1896), _Dr Therne_ (1898), _A
Farmer's Year_ (1899), _The New South Africa_ (1900), _Lysbeth, A Tale
of the Dutch_ (1901). _Stella Fregelius_ (1903), _A Gardener's Year_
(1905), _A Farmer's Year_ (1899, revised ed., 1906), _The Way of the
Spirit_ (1906).

HAGGIS, a dish consisting of a calf's, sheep's or other animal's heart, liver and lungs, and also sometimes of the smaller intestines, boiled in the stomach of the animal with seasoning of pepper, salt, onions, &c., chopped fine with suet and oatmeal. It is considered peculiarly a Scottish dish, but was common in England till the 18th century. The derivation of the word is obscure. The Fr. _hachis_, English "hash," is of later appearance than "haggis." It may be connected with a verb "to hag," meaning to cut in small pieces, and would then be cognate ultimately with "hash."

HAGIOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: hagios], saint, [Greek: logos], discourse), that branch of the historical sciences which is concerned with the lives of the saints. If hagiology be considered merely in the sense in which the term has come to be understood in the later stages of its development, i.e. the critical study of hagiographic remains, there would be no such science before the 17th century. But the bases of hagiology may fairly be said to have been laid at the time when hagiographic documents, hitherto dispersed, were first brought together into collections. The oldest collection of this kind, the [Greek: sunagoge ton archaion marturion] of Eusebius, to which the author refers in several passages in his writings (_Hist. Eccl._, v. proem 2; v. 20, 5), and which has left more than one trace in Christian literature, is unfortunately lost in its entirety. The _Martyrs of Palestine_, as also the writings of Theodoret, Palladius and others, on the origins of the monastic life, and, similarly, the _Dialogues_ of St Gregory (Pope Gregory I.), belong to the category of sources rather than to that of hagiologic collections. The _In gloria martyrum_ and _In gloria confessorum_ of Gregory of Tours are valuable for the sources used in their compilation. The most important collections are those which comprise the Acts of the Martyrs and the lives of saints, arranged in the order of the calendar. In the Greek Church these are called menologies (from Gr. [Greek: men], month, [Greek: logos], discourse), and their existence can be traced back with certainty to the 9th century (Theodore of Studium, _Epist._ i. 2). One of them, the menology of Metaphrastes, compiled in the second half of the 10th century, enjoyed a universal vogue (see SYMEON METAPHRASTES). The corresponding works in the Western Church are the _passionaries_ or _legendaries_, varieties of which are dispersed in libraries and have not been studied collectively. They generally draw from a common source, the Roman legendary, and the lives of the local saints, i.e. those specially honoured in a church, a province or a country. One of the best known is the Austrian legendary (_De magno legendario Austriaco_ in the _Analecta Bollandiana_, xvii. 24-264). From the menologies and legendaries various compilations were made: in the Greek Church, the Synaxaria (see SYNAXARIUM); in the Western Church, abridgments and extracts such as the _Speculum hisloriale_ of Vincent de Beauvais; the _Legenda aurea_ of Jacobus de Voragine; the _Sanctorale_ of Bernard Guy [d. 1331] (see L. Delisle, _Notice sur les manuscrits de Bernard Guy_, Paris, 1879); the _Sanctilogium_ of John of Tynemouth (c. 1366), utilized by John Capgrave, and published in 1516 under the name of _Nova legenda Angliae_ (new edition by C. Horstman, Oxford, 1901); and the _Catalogus sanctorum_ of Petrus de Natalibus (c. 1375), published at Vicenza in 1493, and many times reprinted. The _Sanctuarium_ of B. Mombritius, published at Milan about 1480, is particularly valuable because it gives a faithful reproduction of the ancient texts according to the manuscripts. One of the most zealous collectors of lives of saints was John Gielemans of Brabant (d. 1487), whose work is of great value (Bollandists, _De codicibus hagiographicis Iohannis Gielemans_, Brussels, 1895), and with him must be associated Anton Geens, or Gentius, of Groenendael, who died in 1543 (_Analecta Bollandiana_, vi. 31-34).

Hagiology entered on a new development with the publication of the _Sanctorum priscorum patrum vitae_ (Venice and Rome, 1551-1560) of Aloysius Lipomanus (Lippomano), bishop of Verona. As a result of the co-operation of humanist scholars a great number of Greek hagiographic texts became for the first time accessible to the West in a Latin translation. The Carthusian, Laurentius Surius, carried on the work of Lippomano, completed it, and arranged the materials strictly in the order of the calendar (_De probatis sanctorum historiis_, Cologne, 1570-1575). What prevents the work of Surius from being regarded as an improvement upon Lippomano's is that Surius thought it necessary to retouch the style of those documents which appeared to him badly written, without troubling himself about the consequent loss of their documentary value.

The actual founder of hagiologic criticism was the Flemish Jesuit, Heribert Rosweyde (d. 1629), who, besides his important works on the martyrologies (see MARTYROLOGY), published the celebrated collection of the _Vitae patrum_ (Antwerp, 1615), a veritable masterpiece for the time at which it appeared. It was he, too, who conceived the plan of a great collection of lives of saints, compiled from the manuscripts and augmented with notes, from which resulted the collection of the _Acta sanctorum_ (see BOLLANDISTS). This last enterprise gave rise to others of a similar character but less extensive in scope.

Dom T. Ruinart collected the best _Acta_ of the martyrs in his _Acta
martyrum sincera_ (Paris, 1689). The various religious orders
collected the Acta of their saints, often increasing the lists beyond
measure. The best publication of this kind, the _Acta sanctorum
ordinis S. Benedicti_ (Paris, 1668-1701) of d'Achery and Mabillon,
does not entirely escape this reproach. Countries, provinces and
dioceses also had their special hagiographic collections, conceived
according to various plans and executed with more or less historical
sense. Of these, the most important collections are those of O.
Caietanus, _Vitae sanctorum Siculorum_ (Palermo, 1657); G. A.
Lobineau, _Vie des saints de Bretagne_ (Rennes, 1725); and J. H.
Ghesquiere, _Acta sanctorum Belgii_ (Brussels and Tongerloo,
1783-1794). The principal lives of the German saints are published in
the _Monumenta Germaniae_, and a special section of the _Scriptores
rerum Merovingicarum_ is devoted to the lives of the saints. For
Scotland and Ireland mention must be made of T. Messingham's
_Florilegium insulae sanctorum_ (Paris, 1624); I. Colgan's _Acta
sanctorum veteris et maioris Scotiae seu Hiberniae_ (Louvain,
1645-1647); John Pinkerton's _Vitae antiquae sanctorum ..._ (London,
1789, of which a revised and enlarged edition was published by W. M.
Metcalfe at Paisley in 1889, under the title of _Lives of the Scottish
Saints_); W. J. Rees's _Lives of the Cambro-British Saints_
(Llandovery, 1853); _Acta sanctorum Hiberniae_ (Edinburgh, 1888);
Whitley Stokes's _Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore_ (Oxford,
1890); and J. O'Hanlon's _Lives of the Irish Saints_ (Dublin,
1875-1904). Towards the 13th century vernacular collections of lives
of saints began to increase. This literature is more interesting from
the linguistic than from the hagiologic point of view, and comes
rather within the domain of the philologist.

The hagiography of the Eastern and the Greek church also has been the
subject of important publications. The Greek texts are very much
scattered. Of them, however, may be mentioned J. B. Malou's "Symeonis
Metaphrastae opera omnia" (_Patrologia Graeca_, 114, 115, 116) and
Theophilos Ioannu, [Greek: Mnemeia agiologika] (Venice, 1884). For
Syriac, there are S. E. Assemani's _Acta sanctorum martyrum
orientalium_ (Rome, 1748) and P. Bedjan's _Acta martyrum et sanctorum_
(Paris, 1890-1897); for Armenian, the acts of martyrs and lives of
saints, published in two volumes by the Mechitharist community of
Venice in 1874; for Coptic, Hyvernat's _Les Actes des martyrs de
l'Egypte_ (Paris, 1886); for Ethiopian, K. Conti Rossini's _Scriptores
Aethiopici, vitae sanctorum_ (Paris, 1904 seq.); and for Georgian,
Sabinin's _Paradise of the Georgian Church_ (St Petersburg, 1882).

In addition to the principal collections must be mentioned the
innumerable works in which the hagiographic texts have been subjected
to detailed critical study.

To realize the present state of hagiology, the _Bibliotheca
hagiographica_, both Latin and Greek, published by the Bollandists,
and the _Bulletin hagiographique_, which appears in each number of the
_Analecta Bollandiana_ (see BOLLANDISTS), must be consulted. Thanks to
the combined efforts of a great number of scholars, the classification
of the hagiographic texts has in recent years made notable progress.
The criticism of the sources, the study of literary styles, and the
knowledge of local history now render it easier to discriminate in
this literature between what is really historical and what is merely
the invention of the genius of the people or of the imagination of
pious writers (see H. Delehaye, _Les Legendes hagiographiques_, 2nd
ed., pp. 121-141, Brussels, 1906). "Though the lives of saints," says
a recent historian, "are filled with miracles and incredible stories,
they form a rich mine of information concerning the life and customs
of the people. Some of them are 'memorials of the best men of the time
written by the best scholars of the time,'" (C. Gross, _The Sources
and Literature of English History_, p. 34, London, 1900). (H. De.)

HAGIOSCOPE (from Gr. [Greek: hagios], holy, and [Greek: skopein], to see), in architecture, an opening through the wall of a church in an oblique direction, to enable the worshippers in the transepts or other parts of the church, from which the altar was not visible, to see the elevation of the Host. As a rule these hagioscopes, or "squints" as they are sometimes called, are found on one or both sides of the chancel arch. In some cases a series of openings has been cut in the walls in an oblique line to enable a person standing in the porch (as in Bridgewater church, Somerset) to see the altar; in this case and in other instances such openings were sometimes provided for an attendant, who had to ring the Sanctus bell when the Host was elevated. Though rarely met with on the continent of Europe, there are occasions where they are found, so as to enable a monk in one of the vestries to follow the service and communicate with the bell-ringers.

HAGONOY, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on Manila Bay and on the W. branch and the delta of the Pampanga Grande river, about 25 m. N.W. of Manila. Pop. (1903), 21,304. Hagonoy is situated in a rich agricultural region, producing rice, Indian corn, sugar and a little coffee. Alcohol is made in considerable quantities from the fermented juice of the nipa palm, which grows in the neighbouring swamps, and from the leaves of which the nipa thatch is manufactured. There is good fishing. The women of the town are very skilful in weaving the native fabrics. The language is Tagalog. Hagonoy was founded in 1581.

HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, _'s Gravenhage_, or, abbreviated, _den Haag_; in Fr. _La Haye_; and in Late Lat. _Haga Comitis_), the chief town of the province of South Holland, about 2-1/2 m. from the sea, with a junction station 9-1/2 m. by rail S.W. by S. of Leiden. Steam tramways connect it with the seaside villages of Scheveningen, Kykduin and 's Gravenzande, as well as with Delft, Wassenaar and Leiden, and it is situated on a branch of the main canal from Rotterdam to Amsterdam. Pop. (1900), 212,211. The Hague is the chief town of the province, the usual residence of the court and diplomatic bodies, and the seat of the government, the states-general, the high council of the Netherlands, the council of state, the chamber of accounts and various other administrative bodies. The characteristics of the town are quite in keeping with its political position; it is as handsome as it is fashionable, and was rightly described by de Amicis in his _Olanda_ as half Dutch, half French. The Hague has grown very largely in modern times, especially on its western side, which is situated on the higher and more sandy soil, the south-eastern half of the town comprising the poorer and the business quarters. The main features in a plan of the town are its fine streets and houses and extensive avenues and well-planted squares; while, as a city, the neighbourhood of an attractive seaside resort, combined with the advantages and importance of a large town, and the possession of beautiful and wooded surroundings, give it a distinction all its own.

The medieval-looking group of government buildings situated in the Binnenhof (or "inner court"), their backs reflected in the pretty sheet of water called the Vyver, represent both historically and topographically the centre of the Hague. On the opposite side of the Vyver lies the parallelogram formed by the fine houses and magnificent avenue of trees of the Lange Voorhout, the Kneuterdyk and the Vyverburg, representing the fashionable kernel of the city. Close by lies the entrance to the Haagsche Bosch, or the wood, on one side of which is situated the deer-park, and a little beyond on the other the zoological gardens (1862). Away from the Lange Voorhout the fine Park Straat stretches to the "1813 Plein" or square, in the centre of which rises the large monument (1869) by Jaquet commemorating the jubilee of the restoration of Dutch independence in 1813. Beyond this is the Alexander Veld, used as a military drill ground, and close by is the entrance to the beautiful road called the Scheveningensche Weg, which leads through the "little woods" to Scheveningen. Parallel to the Park Straat is the busy Noordeinde, in which is situated the royal palace. The palace was purchased by the States in 1595, rebuilt by the stadtholder William III., and extended by King William I. in the beginning of the 19th century. In front of the building is an equestrian statue of William I. of Orange by Count Nieuerkerke (1845), and behind are the gardens and extensive stables. The Binnenhof, which has been already mentioned, was once surrounded by a moat, and is still entered through ancient gateways. The oldest portion was founded in 1249 by William II., count of Holland, whose son, Florens V., enlarged it and made it his residence. Several centuries later the stadtholders also lived here. The fine old hall of the knights, built by Florens, and now containing the archives of the home office, is the historic chamber in which the states of the Netherlands abjured their allegiance to Philip II. of Spain, and in front of which the grey-headed statesman Johan van Oldenbarneveldt was executed in 1619. Close by on the one side are the courts of justice, and on the other the first and second chambers of the states-general, containing some richly painted ceilings and the portraits of various stadtholders. Government offices occupy the remainder of the buildings, and in the middle of the court is a fountain surmounted by a statuette of William II., count of Holland (1227-1256). In the adjoining Buitenhof, or "outer court," is a statue of King William II. (d. 1849), and the old Gevangen Poort, or prison gate (restored 1875), consisting of a tower and gateway. It was here that the brothers Cornelis and Jan de Witt were killed by the mob in 1672. On the opposite side of the Binnenhof is the busy square called the Plein, where all the tram-lines meet. Round about it are the buildings of the ministry of justice and other government buildings, including one to contain the state archives, the large club-house of the Witte Societeit, and the Mauritshuis. The Mauritshuis was built in 1633-1644 by Count John Maurice of Nassau, governor of Brazil, and contains the famous picture gallery of the Hague. The nucleus of this collection was formed by the princes of Orange, notably by the stadtholder William V. (1748-1806). King William I. did much to restore the losses caused by the removal of many of the pictures during the French occupation. Other artistic collections in the Hague are the municipal museum (_Gernsente_ Museum), containing paintings by both ancient and modern Dutch artists, and some antiquities; the fine collection of pictures in the Steengracht gallery, belonging to Jonkheer Steengracht; the museum Meermanno-Westreenianum, named after Count Meermann and Baron Westreenen (d. 1850), containing some interesting MSS. and specimens of early typography and other curiosities; and the Mesdag Museum, containing the collection of the painter H. W. Mesdag (b. 1831) presented by him to the state. The royal library (1798) contains upwards of 500,000 volumes, including some early illuminated MSS., a valuable collection of coins and medals and some fine antique gems. In addition to the royal palace already mentioned, there are the palaces of the queen-dowager, of the prince of Orange (founded about 1720 by Count Unico of Wassenaar Twiekels) and of the prince von Wied, dating from 1825, and containing some good early Dutch and Flemish masters. There are numerous churches of various denominations in the Hague as well as an English church, a Russian chapel and two synagogues, one of which is Portuguese. The Groote Kerk of St James (15th and 16th centuries) has a fine vaulted interior, and contains some old stained glass, a carved wooden pulpit (1550), a large organ and interesting sepulchral monuments, and some escutcheons of the knights of the Golden Fleece, placed here after the chapter of 1456. The Nieuwe Kerk, or new church (first half 17th century), contains the tombs of the brothers De Witt and of the philosopher Spinoza. Spinoza is further commemorated by a monument in front of the house in which he died in 1677. The picturesque town hall (built in 1565 and restored and enlarged in 1882) contains a historical picture gallery. The principal other buildings are the provincial government offices, the royal school of music, the college of art, the large building (1874) of the society for arts and sciences, the ethnographical institute of the Netherlands Indies with fine library, the theatres, civil and military hospitals, orphanage, lunatic asylum and other charitable institutions; the fine modern railway station (1892), the cavalry and artillery and the infantry barracks, and the cannon foundry. The chief industries of the town are iron casting, copper and lead smelting, cannon founding, the manufacture of furniture and carriages, liqueur distilling, lithographing and printing.

The Hague wood has been described as the city's finest ornament. It is composed chiefly of oaks and alders and magnificent avenues of gigantic beech-trees. Together with the Haarlem wood it is thought to be a remnant of the immense forest which once extended along the coast. At the end of one of the avenues which penetrates into it from the town is the large summer club-house of the Witte Societeit, under whose auspices concerts are given here in summer. Farther into the wood are some pretty little lakes, and the famous royal villa called the Huis ten Bosch, or "house in the wood." This villa was built by Pieter Post for the Princess Amelia of Solms, in memory of her husband the stadtholder, Frederick Henry of Orange (d. 1647), and wings were added to it by Prince William IV. in 1748. The chief room is the Orange Saloon, an octagonal hall 50 ft. high, covered with paintings by Dutch and Flemish artists, chiefly of incidents in the life of Prince Frederick. In this room the International Peace Conference had its sittings in the summer of 1899. The collections in the Chinese and Japanese rooms, and the grisailles in the dining-room painted by Jacobus de Wit (1695-1754), are also noteworthy.

The history of the Hague is in some respects singular. In the 13th century it was no more than a hunting-lodge of the counts of Holland, and though Count Floris V. (b. 1254-1296) made it his residence and it thus became the seat of the supreme court of justice of Holland and the centre of the administration, and from the time of William of Orange onward the meeting-place of the states-general, it only received the status of a town, from King Louis Bonaparte, early in the 19th century.

In the latter part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th century the Hague was the centre of European diplomacy. Among the many treaties and conventions signed here may be mentioned the treaty of the Triple Alliance (January 23, 1688) between England, Sweden and the Netherlands; the concert of the Hague (March 31, 1710) between the Emperor, England and Holland, for the maintenance of the neutrality of the Swedish provinces in Germany during the war of the northern powers against Sweden; the Triple Alliance (January 4, 1717) between France, England and Holland for the guarantee of the treaty of Utrecht; the treaty of peace (Feb. 17, 1717) between Spain, Savoy and Austria, by which the first-named acceded to the principles of the Triple Alliance; the treaty of peace between Holland and France (May 16, 1795); the first "Hague Convention," the outcome of the "peace conference" assembled on the initiative of the emperor Nicholas II. of Russia (July 27, 1899), and the series of conventions, the results of the second peace conference (June 15-October 18, 1907). The International court of arbitration or Hague Tribunal was established in 1899 (see EUROPE: _History_; ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL). The Palace of Peace designed to be completed in 1913 as the seat of the tribunal, on the Scheveningen avenue, is by a French architect, L. M. Cordonnier, and A. Carnegie contributed L300,000 towards its cost.

HAHN, AUGUST (1792-1863), German Protestant theologian, was born on the 27th of March 1792 at Grossosterhausen near Eisleben, and studied theology at the university of Leipzig. In 1819 he was nominated _professor extraordinarius_ of theology and pastor of Altstadt in Konigsberg, and in 1820 received a superintendency in that city. In 1822 he became _professor ordinarius_. In 1826 he removed as professor of theology to Leipzig, where, hitherto distinguished only as editor of Bardesanes, Marcion (_Marcion's Evangelium in seiner ursprunglichen Gestalt_, 1823), and Ephraem Syrus, and the joint editor of a _Syrische Chrestomathie_ (1824), he came into great prominence as the author of a treatise, _De rationalismi qui dicitur vera indole et qua cum naturalismo contineatur ratione_ (1827), and also of an _Offene Erklarung an die Evangelische Kirche zunachst in Sachsen u. Preussen_ (1827), in which, as a member of the school of E. W. Hengstenberg, he endeavoured to convince the rationalists that it was their duty voluntarily and at once to withdraw from the national church. In 1833 Hahn's pamphlet against K. G. Bretschneider (_Uber die Lage des Christenthums in unserer Zeit_, 1832) having attracted the notice of Friedrich Wilhelm III., he was called to Breslau as theological professor and consistorial councillor, and in 1843 became "general superintendent" of the province of Silesia. He died at Breslau on the 13th of May 1863. Though uncompromising in his "supra-naturalism," he did not altogether satisfy the men of his own school by his own doctrinal system. The first edition of his _Lehrbuch des christlichen Glaubens_ (1828) was freely characterized as lacking in consistency and as detracting from the strength of the old positions in many important points. Many of these defects, however, he is considered to have remedied in his second edition (1857). Among his other works are his edition of the Hebrew Bible (1833), his _Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche_ (1842; 2nd ed. 1877) and _Predigten_ (1852).

His eldest son, HEINRICH AUGUST HAHN (1821-1861), after studying theology at Breslau and Berlin, became successively _Privatdozent_ at Breslau (1845), professor _ad interim_ (1846) at Konigsberg on the death of Heinrich Havernick, professor extraordinarius (1851) and professor ordinarius (1860) at Greifswald. Amongst his published works were a commentary on the Book of Job (1850), a translation of the Song of Songs (1852), an exposition of Isaiah xl.-lxvi. (1857) and a commentary on the Book of Ecclesiastes (1860).

See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, and the
_Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_.

HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1755-1843), German physician and founder of "homoeopathy," was born at Meissen in Saxony on the 10th of April 1755. He was educated at the "elector's school" of Meissen, and studied medicine at Leipzig and Vienna, taking the degree of M.D. at Erlangen in 1779. After practising in various places, he settled in Dresden in 1784, and thence removed to Leipzig in 1789. In the following year, while translating W. Cullen's _Materia medica_ into German, he was struck by the fact that the symptoms produced by quinine on the healthy body were similar to those of the disordered states it was used to cure. He had previously felt dissatisfied with the state of the science of medicine, and this observation led him to assert the truth of the "law of similars," _similia similibus curantur_ or _curentur_--i.e. diseases are cured (or should be treated) by those drugs which produce symptoms similar to them in the healthy. He promulgated his new principle in a paper published in 1796 in C. W. Hufeland's _Journal_, and four years later, convinced that drugs in much smaller doses than were generally employed effectually exerted their curative powers, he advanced his doctrine of their potentization or dynamization. In 1810 he published his chief work, _Organon der rationellen Heilkunde_, containing an exposition of his system, which he called homoeopathy (q.v.), and in the following years appeared the six volumes of his _Reine Arzneimittellehre_, which detailed the symptoms produced by "proving" a large number of drugs, i.e. by systematically administering them to healthy subjects. In 1821 the hostility of established interests, and especially of the apothecaries, whose services were not required under his system, forced him to leave Leipzig, and at the invitation of the grand-duke of Anhalt-Cothen he went to live at Cothen. Fourteen years later he removed to Paris, where he practised with great success until his death on the 2nd of July 1843. Statues were erected to his memory at Leipzig in 1851 and at Cothen in 1855. He also wrote, in addition to the works already mentioned, _Fragmenta de viribus medicamentorum positivis_ (1805) and _Die chronischen Krankheiten_ (1828-1830).

See the article HOMOEOPATHY; also Albrecht, _Hahnemann's Leben und
Werken_ (Leipzig, 1875); Bradford, _Hahnemann's Life and Letters_
(Philadelphia, 1895).

HAHN-HAHN, IDA, COUNTESS VON (1805-1880), German author, was born at Tressow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the 22nd of June 1805, daughter of Graf (Count) Karl Friedrich von Hahn (1782-1857), well known for his enthusiasm for the stage, upon which he squandered a large portion of his fortune. She married in 1826 her wealthy cousin Count Adolf von Hahn-Hahn. With him she had an extremely unhappy life, and in 1829 her husband's irregularities led to a divorce. The countess travelled, produced some volumes of poetry indicating true lyrical feeling, and in 1838 appeared as a novelist with _Aus der Gesellschaft_, a title which, proving equally applicable to her subsequent novels, was retained as that of a series, the book originally so entitled being renamed _Ida Schonholm_. For several years the countess continued to produce novels bearing a certain subjective resemblance to those of George Sand, but less hostile to social institutions, and dealing almost exclusively with aristocratic society. The author's patrician affectations at length drew upon her the merciless ridicule of Fanny Lewald in a parody of her style entitled _Diogena_ (1847), and this and the revolution of 1848 together seem to have co-operated in inducing her to embrace the Roman Catholic religion in 1850. She justified her step in a polemical work entitled _Von Babylon nach Jerusalem_ (1851), which elicited a vigorous reply from H. Abeken. In 1852 she retired into a convent at Angers, which she, however, soon left, taking up her residence at Mainz where she founded a nunnery, in which she lived without joining the order, and continued her literary labours. For many years her novels were the most popular works of fiction in aristocratic circles; many of her later publications, however, passed unnoticed as mere party manifestoes. Her earlier works do not deserve the neglect into which they have fallen. If their sentimentalism is sometimes wearisome, it is grounded on genuine feeling and expressed with passionate eloquence. _Ulrich_ and _Grafin Faustine_, both published in 1841, mark the culmination of her power; but _Sigismund Forster_ (1843), _Cecil_ (1844), _Sibylle_ (1846) and _Maria Regina_ (1860) also obtained considerable popularity. She died at Mainz on the 12th of January 1880.

Her collected works, _Gesammelte Werke_, with an introduction by O.
von Schaching, were published in two series, 45 volumes in all
(Regensburg, 1903-1904). See H. Keiter, _Grafin Hahn-Hahn_ (Wurzburg,
undated); P. Haffner, _Grafin Ida Hahn-Hahn_, _eine psychologische
Studie_ (Frankfort, 1880); A. Jacoby, _Ida Grafin Hahn-Hahn_ (Mainz,
1894).

HAI (939-1038), Jewish Talmudical scholar, was born in 939. He was educated by his father Sherira, gaon of Pombeditha (Pumbedita), whom he afterwards assisted in his work. They were cast into prison for a short time by the caliph Qadir, and subsequently on Sherira's death Hai was appointed gaon in his place (998). This office he held till his death on the 28th of March 1038. He is famous chiefly for his answers to problems of ritual and civil law. He composed important treatises on Talmudic law and the _Mishnah_; many poems are also attributed to him on doubtful authority. In his _responsa_ he laid stress on custom and tradition provided no infringement of the law were involved, and was essentially conservative in theology. He had considerable knowledge not only of religious movements within the Jewish body, but also of Mahommedan theology and controversial method, and frequently consulted theologians of other beliefs.

See Steinschneider, _Hebr. Ubersetz_. p. 910, and article in _Jewish
Encyclopedia_, vi. 153.

HAIBAK, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The valley of Haibak, which is 3100 ft. above sea level, is fertile and richly cultivated. The town, which is famed in Persian legend, consists now of only a couple of streets, containing many Hindu shops and a small garrison. The inhabitants call themselves Jagatais, a Turki race, though now generally mixed with Tajiks and speaking Persian. In the neighbourhood of Haibak are some very typical Buddhist ruins. Haibak derives its importance from its position on the main line of communication between Kabul and Afghan Turkestan.

HAIDA, a tribe of North American Indians of Skittagetan stock. They still occupy their original home, the Queen Charlotte islands, British Columbia. They are skilful seamen, making long fishing expeditions in cedarwood canoes. They are noted for their carving and basket-work. They formerly made raids on the coast tribes. Slavery was hereditary, the slaves being prisoners of war. The population, some 7000 in the middle of the 19th century, is now reduced to a few hundreds.

See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). For "Haida
Texts and Myths," see _Bull. 29 Smithsonian Institution Bureau Amer.
Ethnol._ (1905).

HAIDINGER, WILHELM KARL, RITTER VON (1795-1871), Austrian mineralogist, geologist and physicist, was born at Vienna on the 5th of February 1795. His father, Karl Haidinger, contributed largely to the development of mineralogical science in the latter half of the 18th century. Having studied at the normal school of St Anne, and attended classes at the university, Wilhelm, at the age of seventeen, joined Professor F. Mohs at Gratz, and five years later accompanied the professor to Freiberg on the transfer of his labours to the mining academy of that town.

In 1822 Haidinger visited France and England with Count Breunner, and, journeying northward, took up his abode in Edinburgh. He translated into English, with additions of his own, Mohs's _Grundriss der Mineralogie_, published at Edinburgh in three volumes under the title _Treatise on Mineralogy_ (1825). After a tour in northern Europe, including the Scandinavian mining districts, he undertook the scientific direction of the porcelain works at Elbogen, belonging to his brothers. In 1840 he was appointed counsellor of mines (Bergrat) at Vienna in the place of Professor Mohs, a post which included the charge of the imperial cabinet of minerals. He devoted himself to the rearrangement and enrichment of the collections, and the museum became the first in Europe. Shortly after (1843) Haidinger commenced a series of lectures on mineralogy, which was given to the world under the title _Handbuch der bestimmenden Mineralogie_ (Vienna, 1845; tables, 1846). On the establishment of the imperial geological institute, he was chosen director (1849); and this important position he occupied for seventeen years. He was elected a member of the imperial board of agriculture and mines, and a member of the imperial academy of sciences of Vienna. He organized the society of the Freunde der Naturwissenschaften. As a physicist Haidinger ranked high, and he was one of the most active promoters of scientific progress in Austria. He was the discoverer of the interesting optical appearances which have been called after him "Haidinger's brushes." Knighted in 1865, the following year he retired to his estate at Dornbach near Vienna, where he died on the 19th of March 1871.

In addition to the works already named, Haidinger published
_Anfangsgrunde der Mineralogie_ (Leipzig, 1829); _Geognostische
Ubersichtskarte der osterreich. Monarchie_ (Vienna, 1847);
_Bemerkungen uber die Anordnung der kleinsten Theilchen in
Christallen_ (Vienna, 1853); _Interferenzlinien am Glimmer_ (Vienna,
1855); _Vergleichungen von Augit und Amphibol_ (Vienna, 1855). He also
edited the _Naturwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen_ (Vienna, 1847); the
_Berichte uber die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften
in Wien_ (Vienna, 1847-1851); and the _Jahrbuch_ of the Vienna K. K.
Geologische Reichsanstalt (1850), &c. Some of his papers will be found
in the _Transactions_ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (vol. x.) and
of the Wernerian Society (1822-1823), _Edinburgh Phil. Journal,
Brewster's Journal of Science_, and _Poggendorff's Annalen_.
(H. B. Wo.)

HAIDUK (also written _Hayduk, Heiduc, Heyduke_ and _Heyduque_), a term which appears originally to have meant "robber" or "brigand," a sense it retains in Servia and some other parts of the Balkan Peninsula. It is probably derived from the Turkish _haidud_, "marauder," but its origin is not absolutely certain. Most of the European races with which the Turks came into close contact during the 15th and 16th centuries seem to have adopted it as a loan-word, and it appears in Magyar as _hajdu_ (plural _hajduk_), in Serbo-Croatian, Rumanian, Polish and [)C]ech as _hajduk_, in Bulgarian as _hajdutin_ and in Greek as [Greek: chaintoutes]. By the beginning of the 17th century its use had spread north and west as far as Sweden and Great Britain. In Hungary it was applied to a class of mercenary foot-soldiers of Magyar stock. In 1605 these haiduks were rewarded for their fidelity to the Protestant party (see HUNGARY: _History_) with titles of nobility and territorial rights over a district situated on the left bank of the river Theiss, known thenceforward as the Haiduk region. This was enlarged in 1876 and converted into the county of Hajdu (Ger. _Hajduken_). _Hajdu_ is also a common prefix in Hungarian place-names, e.g. Hajdu-Szoboszlo, Hajdu-Namas. In Austria-Hungary, Germany, Poland, Sweden and some other countries, _haiduk_ came to mean an attendant in a court of law, or a male servant, dressed in Hungarian semi-military costume. It is also occasionally used as a synonym for "footman" or "lackey."

HAIFA, a town of Palestine at the foot of Mt. Carmel, on the south of the Bay of Acre. It represents the classical Sycaminum, but the present town is entirely modern. It has developed since about 1890 into an important port, and is connected by railway with Damascus. The population is estimated at 12,000 (Moslems 6000, Christians 4000, Jews 1500, Germans 500; the last belong for the greater part to the Unitarian sect of the "Templars," who have colonies also at Jaffa and Jerusalem). The exports (grain and oil) were valued at L178,738 in 1900. Much of the trade that formerly went to Acre has been attracted to Haifa. This port is the best natural harbour on the Palestine coast.

HAIK (an Arabic word, from _hak_, to weave), a piece of cloth, usually of coarse hand-woven wool, worn by Arabs, Moors and other Mahommedan peoples. It is generally 6 to 6-1/2 yds. long, and about 2 broad. It is either striped or plain, and is worn equally by both sexes, usually as an outer covering; but it is often the only garment of the poorer classes. By women the "haik" is arranged to cover the head and, in the presence of men, is held so as to conceal the face. A thin "haik" of silk, like a veil, is used by brides at their marriage.

HAIL (O. Eng. _haegl_ and _hagol_,[1] cf. the cognate Teutonic _hagel_, as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr. [Greek: kachlex], pebble, is probably allied), the name for rounded masses or single pellets of ice falling from the clouds in a shower. True hail has a concentric structure caused by the frozen particles of moisture first descending into a warm cloud, whence they are carried upwards on an ascending current of heated air into a cold stratum where the fresh coating of water vapour deposited in the cloud is frozen. The hailstone descends again, receives a fresh coating, is carried up once more, refrozen, and again descends. Thus the hailstone grows until the current is no longer strong enough to support it when it falls to the ground. At times masses of hail are frozen together, and a very sudden cooling will sometimes result in the formation of ragged masses of ice that fall with disastrous results. Hail must be distinguished from the frozen snow, "soft-hail" or "graupel," that often falls at the rear of a spring cyclone, since true hail is almost entirely a summer phenomenon, and falls most frequently in thunderstorms which are produced under the conditions that are favourable to the formation of hail, i.e. great heat, a still atmosphere, the production of strong local convection currents in consequence, and the passage of a cold upper drift.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] "Hail," a call of greeting or salutation, a shout to attract
attention, must, of course, be distinguished. This word represents
the Old Norwegian _heill_, prosperity, cognate with O. Eng. _hal_,
whence "hale," "whole," and _hael_, whence "health," "heal."

HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE, LORD (1726-1792), Scottish lawyer and historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of October 1726. His father, Sir James Dalrymple, Bart., of Hailes, in the county of Haddington, auditor-general of the exchequer of Scotland, was a grandson of James, first Viscount Stair; and his mother, Lady Christian Hamilton, was a daughter of Thomas, 6th earl of Haddington. David was the eldest of sixteen children. He was educated at Eton, and studied law at Utrecht, being intended for the Scottish bar, to which he was admitted shortly after his return to Scotland in 1748. As a pleader he attained neither high distinction nor very extensive practice, but he rapidly established a well-deserved reputation for sound knowledge, unwearied application and strict probity; and in 1766 he was elevated to the bench, when he assumed the title of Lord Hailes. Ten years later he was appointed a lord of justiciary. He died on the 29th of November 1792. He was twice married, and had a daughter by each wife. The baronetcy to which he had succeeded passed to the son of his brother John, provost of Edinburgh. Another brother was Alexander Dalrymple (1737-1808), the first admiralty hydrographer, who distinguished himself in the East India Company's service and as a geographer. Lord Hailes's younger daughter married Sir James Fergusson; and their grandson, Sir Charles Dalrymple, 1st Bart. (cr. 1887), M.P. for Bute from 1868 to 1885, afterwards came into Lord Hailes's estate and took his family name.

Lord Hailes's most important contribution to literature was the _Annals of Scotland_, of which the first volume, "From the accession of Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, to the accession of Robert I.," appeared in 1776, and the second, "From the accession of Robert I., surnamed Bruce, to the accession of the house of Stewart," in 1779. It is, as Dr Johnson justly described this work at the time of its appearance, a "Dictionary" of carefully sifted facts, which tells all that is wanted and all that is known, but without any laboured splendour of language or affected subtlety of conjecture. The other works of Lord Hailes include _Historical Memoirs concerning the Provincial Councils of the Scottish Clergy_ (1769); _An Examination of some of the Arguments for the High Antiquity of Regiam Majestatem_ (1769); three volumes entitled _Remains of Christian Antiquity_ ("Account of the Martyrs of Smyrna and Lyons in the Second Century," 1776; "The Trials of Justin Martyr, Cyprian, &c.," 1778; "The History of the Martyrs of Palestine, translated from Eusebius," 1780); _Disquisitions concerning the Antiquities of the Christian Church_ (1783); and editions or translations of portions of Lactantius, Tertullian and Minucius Felix. In 1786 he published _An Inquiry into the Secondary Causes which Mr Gibbon has assigned for the Rapid Growth of Christianity_ (Dutch translation, Utrecht, 1793), one of the most respectable of the very many replies which were made to the famous 15th and 16th chapters of the _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_.

A "Memoir" of Lord Hailes is prefixed to the 1808 reprint of his _Inquiry into the Secondary Causes_.

HAILSHAM, a market-town in the Eastbourne parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 54 m. S.S.E. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 4197. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular. The picturesque Augustinian priory of Michelham lies 2 m. W. by the Cuckmere river; it is altered into a dwelling house, but retains a gate-house, crypt and other portions of Early English date. There was also a Premonstratensian house at Otham, 3 m. S., but the remains are scanty. Hailsham has a considerable agricultural trade, and manufactures of rope and matting are carried on.

HAINAN, or, as it is usually called in Chinese, _K'iung-chow-fu_, a large island belonging to the Chinese province of Kwang-tung, and situated between the Chinese Sea and the Gulf of Tong-king from 20 deg. 8' to 17 deg. 52' N., and from 108 deg. 32' to 111 deg. 15' E. It measures 160 m. from N.E. to S.W., and the average breadth is about 90 m. The area is estimated at from 1200 to 1400 sq. m., or two-thirds the size of Sicily. From the peninsula of Lei-chow on the north it is separated by the straits of Hainan, which have a breadth of 15 or 20 m.