Chapter XV: Part 15

HALE, SIR MATTHEW (1609-1676), lord chief justice of England, was born on the 1st of November 1609 at Alderley in Gloucestershire, where his father, a retired barrister, had a small estate. His paternal grandfather was a rich clothier of Wotton-under-Edge; on his mother's side he was connected with the noble family of the Poyntzes of Acton. Left an orphan when five years old, he was placed by his guardian under the care of the Puritan vicar of Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he remained till he attained his sixteenth year, when he entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford. At Oxford, Hale studied for several terms with a view to holy orders, but suddenly there came a change. The diligent student, at first attracted by a company of strolling players, threw aside his studies, and plunged carelessly into gay society. He soon decided to change his profession; and resolved to trail a pike as a soldier under the prince of Orange in the Low Countries. Before going abroad, however, Hale found himself obliged to proceed to London in order to give instructions for his defence in a legal action which threatened to deprive him of his patrimony. His leading counsel was the celebrated Serjeant Glanville (1586-1661), who, perceiving in the acuteness and sagacity of his youthful client a peculiar fitness for the legal profession, succeeded, with much difficulty, in inducing him to renounce his military for a legal career, and on the 8th of November 1629 Hale became a member of the honourable society of Lincoln's Inn.

He immediately resumed his habits of intense application. The rules which he laid down for himself, and which are still extant in his handwriting, prescribe sixteen hours a day of close application, and prove, not only the great mental power, but also the extraordinary physical strength he must have possessed, and for which indeed, during his residence at the university, he had been remarkable. During the period allotted to his preliminary studies, he read over and over again all the yearbooks, reports, and law treatises in print, and at the Tower of London and other antiquarian repositories examined and carefully studied the records from the foundation of the English monarchy down to his own time. But Hale did not confine himself to law. He dedicated no small portion of his time to the study of pure mathematics, to investigations in physics and chemistry, and even to anatomy and architecture; and there can be no doubt that this varied learning enhanced considerably the value of many of his judicial decisions.

Hale was called to the bar in 1637, and almost at once found himself in full practice. Though neither a fluent speaker nor bold pleader, in a very few years he was at the head of his profession. He entered public life at perhaps the most critical period of English history. Two parties were contending in the state, and their obstinacy could not fail to produce a most direful collision. But amidst the confusion Hale steered a middle course, rising in reputation, and an object of solicitation from both parties. Taking Pomponius Atticus as his political model, he was persuaded that a man, a lawyer and a judge could best serve his country and benefit his countrymen by holding aloof from partisanship and its violent prejudices, which are so apt to distort and confuse the judgment. But he is best vindicated from the charges of selfishness and cowardice by the thoughts and meditations contained in his private diaries and papers, where the purity and honour of his motives are clearly seen. It has been said, but without certainty, that Hale was engaged as counsel for the earl of Strafford; he certainly acted for Archbishop Laud, Lord Maguire, Christopher Love, the duke of Hamilton and others. It is also said that he was ready to plead on the side of Charles I. had that monarch submitted to the court. The parliament having gained the ascendancy, Hale signed the Solemn League and Covenant, and was a member of the famous assembly of divines at Westminster in 1644; but although he would undoubtedly have preferred a Presbyterian form of church government, he had no serious objection to the system of modified Episcopacy, proposed by Usher. Consistently with his desire to remain neutral, Hale took the engagement to the Commonwealth as he had done to the king, and in 1653, already serjeant, he became a judge in the court of common pleas. Two years afterwards he sat in Cromwell's parliament as one of the members for Gloucestershire. After the death of the protector, however, he declined to act as a judge under Richard Cromwell, although he represented Oxford in Richard's parliament. At the Restoration in 1660 Hale was very graciously received by Charles II., and in the same year was appointed chief baron of the exchequer, and accepted, with extreme reluctance, the honour of knighthood. After holding the office of chief baron for eleven years he was raised to the higher dignity of lord chief justice, which he held till February 1676, when his failing health compelled him to resign. He retired to his native Alderley, where he died on the 25th of December of the same year. He was twice married and survived all his ten children save two.

As a judge Sir Matthew Hale discharged his duties with resolute independence and careful diligence. His sincere piety made him the intimate friend of Isaac Barrow, Archbishop Tillotson, Bishop Wilkins and Bishop Stillingfleet, as well as of the Nonconformist leader, Richard Baxter. He is chargeable, however, with the condemnation and execution of two poor women tried before him for witchcraft in 1664, a kind of judicial murder then falling under disuse. He is also reproached with having hastened the execution of a soldier for whom he had reason to believe a pardon was preparing.

Of Hale's legal works the only two of importance are his _Historia
placitorum coronae, or History of the Pleas of the Crown_ (1736); and
the _History of the Common Law of England, with an Analysis of the
Law_, &c. (1713). Among his numerous religious writings the
_Contemplations, Moral and Divine_, occupy the first place. Others are
_The Primitive Origination of Man_ (1677); _Of the Nature of True
Religion_, &c. (1684); _A Brief Abstract of the Christian Religion_
(1688). One of his most popular works is the collection of _Letters of
Advice to his Children and Grandchildren_. He also wrote an _Essay
touching the Gravitation or Nongravitation of Fluid Bodies_ (1673);
_Difficiles Nugae, or Observations touching the Torricellian
Experiment_, &c. (1675); and a translation of the _Life of Pomponius
Atticus_, by Cornelius Nepos (1677). His efforts in poetry were
inauspicious. He left his valuable collection of MSS. and records to
the library of Lincoln's Inn. His life has been written by G. Burnet
(1682); by J. B. Williams (1835); by H. Roscoe, in his _Lives of
Eminent Lawyers_, in 1838; by Lord Campbell, in his _Lives of the
Chief Justices_, in 1849; and by E. Foss in his _Lives of the Judges_
(1848-1870).

HALE, NATHAN (1756-1776). American hero of the War of Independence, was born at Coventry, Conn., and educated at Yale, then becoming a school teacher. He joined a Connecticut regiment after the breaking out of the war, and served in the siege of Boston, being commissioned a captain at the opening of 1776. When Heath's brigade departed for New York he went with them, and the tradition is that he was one of a small and daring band who captured an English provision sloop from under the very guns of a man-of-war. But on the 21st of September, having volunteered to enter the British lines to obtain information concerning the enemy, he was captured in his disguise of a Dutch school-teacher and on the 22nd was hanged. The penalty was in accordance with military law, but young Hale's act was a brave one, and he has always been glorified as a martyr. Tradition attributes to him the saying that he only regretted that he had but one life to lose for his country; and it is said that his request for a Bible and the services of a minister was refused by his captors. There is a fine statue of Hale by Macmonnies in New York.

See H. P. Johnston, _Nathan Hale_ (1901).

HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER (1849- ), American classical scholar, was born on the 9th of February 1849 in Savannah, Georgia. He graduated at Harvard University in 1870, and took a post-graduate course in philosophy there in 1874-1876; studied classical philology at Leipzig and Gottingen in 1876-1877; was tutor in Latin at Harvard from 1877 to 1880, and professor of Latin in Cornell University from 1880 to 1892, when he became professor of Latin and head of the Latin department of the University of Chicago. From 1894 to 1899 he was chairman and in 1895-1896 first director of the American School of Classical Studies at Rome. He is best known as an original teacher on questions of syntax. In The _Cum-Constructions: Their History and Functions_, which appeared in _Cornell University Studies in Classical Philology_ (1888-1889; and in German version by Neizert in 1891), he attacked Hoffmann's distinction between absolute and relative temporal clauses as published in _Lateinische Zeitpartikeln_ (1874); Hoffmann replied in 1891, and the best summary of the controversy is in Wetzel's _Der Streit zwischen Hoffmann und Hale_ (1892). Hale wrote also _The Sequence of Tenses in Latin_ (1887-1888), _The Anticipatory Subjunctive in Greek and Latin_ (1894), and a _Latin Grammar_ (1903), to which the parts on sounds, inflection and word-formation were contributed by Carl Darling Buck.

HALEBID, a village in Mysore state, southern India; pop. (1901), 1524. The name means "old capital," being the site of Dorasamudra, the capital of the Hoysala dynasty founded early in the 11th century. In 1310 and again in 1326 it was taken and plundered by the first Mahommedan invader of southern India. Two temples, still standing, though never completed and greatly ruined, are regarded as the finest examples of the elaborately carved Chalukyan style of architecture.

HALES, or HAYLES, JOHN (d. 1571), English writer and politician, was a son of Thomas Hales of Hales Place, Halden, Kent. He wrote his _Highway to Nobility_ about 1543, and was the founder of a free school at Coventry for which he wrote _Introductiones ad grammaticam_. In political life Hales, who was member of parliament for Preston, was specially concerned with opposing the enclosure of land, being the most active of the commissioners appointed in 1548 to redress this evil; but he failed to carry several remedial measures through parliament. When the protector, the duke of Somerset, was deprived of his authority in 1550, Hales left England and lived for some time at Strassburg and Frankfort, returning to his own country on the accession of Elizabeth. However he soon lost the royal favour by writing a pamphlet, _A Declaration of the Succession of the Crowne Imperiall of Inglande_, which declared that the recent marriage between Lady Catherine Grey and Edward Seymour, earl of Hertford, was legitimate, and asserted that, failing direct heirs to Elizabeth, the English crown should come to Lady Catherine as the descendant of Mary, daughter of Henry VII. The author was imprisoned, but was quickly released, and died on the 28th of December 1571. The _Discourse of the Common Weal_, described as "one of the most informing documents of the age," and written about 1549, has been attributed to Hales. This has been edited by E. Lamond (Cambridge, 1893).

Hales is often confused with another John Hales, who was clerk of the hanaper under Henry VIII. and his three immediate successors.

HALES, JOHN (1584-1656), English scholar, frequently referred to as "the ever memorable," was born at Bath on the 19th of April 1584, and was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He was elected a fellow of Merton in 1605, and in 1612 he was appointed public lecturer on Greek. In 1613 he was made a fellow of Eton. Five years later he went to Holland, as chaplain to the English ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton, who despatched him to Dort to report upon the proceedings of the synod then sitting. In 1619 he returned to Eton and spent his time among his books and in the company of literary men, among whom he was highly reputed for his common sense, his erudition and his genial charity. Andrew Marvell called him "one of the clearest heads and best-prepared breasts in Christendom." His eirenical tract entitled _Schism and Schismaticks_ (1636) fell into the hands of Archbishop Laud, and Hales, hearing that he had disapproved of it, is said to have written to the prelate a vindication of his position. This led to a meeting, and in 1639 Hales was made one of Laud's chaplains and also a canon of Windsor. In 1642 he was deprived of his canonry by the parliamentary committee, and two years later was obliged to hide in Eton with the college documents and keys. In 1649 he refused to take the "Engagement" and was ejected from his fellowship. He then retired to Buckinghamshire, where he found a home with Mrs Salter, the sister of the bishop of Salisbury (Brian Duppa), and acted as tutor to her son. The issue of the order against harbouring malignants led him to return to Eton. Here, having sold his valuable library at great sacrifice, he lived in poverty until his death on the 19th of May 1656.

His collected works (3 vols.) were edited by Lord Hailes, and
published in 1765.

HALES, STEPHEN (1677-1761), English physiologist, chemist and inventor, was born at Bekesbourne in Kent on the 7th or 17th of September 1677, the fifth (or sixth) son of Thomas Hales, whose father, Sir Robert Hales, was created a baronet by Charles II. in 1670. In June 1696 he was entered as a pensioner of Benet (now Corpus Christi) College, Cambridge, with the view of taking holy orders, and in February 1703 was admitted to a fellowship. He received the degree of master of arts in 1703 and of bachelor of divinity in 1711. One of his most intimate friends was William Stukeley (1687-1765) with whom he studied anatomy, chemistry, &c. In 1708-1709 Hales was presented to the perpetual curacy of Teddington in Middlesex, where he remained all his life, notwithstanding that he was subsequently appointed rector of Porlock in Somerset, and later of Faringdon in Hampshire. In 1717 he was elected fellow of the Royal Society, which awarded him the Copley medal in 1739. In 1732 he was named one of a committee for establishing a colony in Georgia, and the next year he received the degree of doctor of divinity from Oxford. He was appointed almoner to the princess-dowager of Wales in 1750. On the death of Sir Hans Sloane in 1753, Hales was chosen foreign associate of the French Academy of Sciences. He died at Teddington on the 4th of January 1761.

Hales is best known for his _Statical Essays_. The first volume, _Vegetable Staticks_ (1727), contains an account of numerous experiments in plant-physiology--the loss of water in plants by evaporation, the rate of growth of shoots and leaves, variations in root-force at different times of the day, &c. Considering it very probable that plants draw "through their leaves some part of their nourishment from the air," he undertook experiments to show in "how great a proportion air is wrought into the composition of animal, vegetable and mineral substances"; though this "analysis of the air" did not lead him to any very clear ideas about the composition of the atmosphere, in the course of his inquiries he collected gases over water in vessels separate from those in which they were generated, and thus used what was to all intents and purposes a "pneumatic trough." The second volume (1733) on _Haemostaticks_, containing experiments on the "force of the blood" in various animals, its rate of flow, the capacity of the different vessels, &c., entitles him to be regarded as one of the originators of experimental physiology. But he did not confine his attention to abstract inquiries. The quest of a solvent for calculus in the bladder and kidneys was pursued by him as by others at the period, and he devised a form of forceps which, on the testimony of John Ranby (1703-1773), sergeant-surgeon to George II., extracted stones with "great ease and readiness." His observations of the evil effect of vitiated air caused him to devise a "ventilator" (a modified organ-bellows) by which fresh air could be conveyed into gaols, hospitals, ships'-holds, &c.; this apparatus was successful in reducing the mortality in the Savoy prison, and it was introduced into France by the aid of H. L. Duhamel du Monceau. Among other things Hales invented a "sea-gauge" for sounding, and processes for distilling fresh from sea water, for preserving corn from weevils by fumigation with brimstone, and for salting animals whole by passing brine into their arteries. His _Admonition to the Drinkers of Gin, Brandy, &c._, published anonymously in 1734, has been several times reprinted.

HALESOWEN, a market town in the Oldbury parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England, on a branch line of the Great Western and Midland railways, 6-1/2 m. W.S.W. of Birmingham. Pop. (1901), 4057. It lies in a pleasant country among the eastern foothills of the Lickey Hills. There are extensive iron and steel manufactures. The church of SS Mary and John the Baptist has rude Norman portions; and the poet William Shenstone, buried in 1763 in the churchyard, has a memorial in the church. His delight in landscape gardening is exemplified in the neighbouring estate of the Leasowes, which was his property. There is a grammar school founded in 1652, and in the neighbourhood is the Methodist foundation of Bourne College (1883). Close to the town, on the river Stour, which rises in the vicinity, are slight ruins of a Premonstratensian abbey of Early English date. Within the parish and 2 m. N.W. of Halesowen is Cradley, with iron and steel works, fire-clay works and a large nail and chain industry.

HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL (c. 1085-c. 1140), the greatest Hebrew poet of the middle ages, was born in Toledo c. 1085, and died in Palestine after 1140. In his youth he wrote Hebrew love poems of exquisite fancy, and several of his Wedding Odes are included in the liturgy of the Synagogue. The mystical connexion between marital affection and the love of God had, in the view of older exegesis, already expressed itself in the scriptural _Song of Songs_ and Judah Halevi used this book as his model. In this aspect of his work he found inspiration also in Arabic predecessors. The second period of his literary career was devoted to more serious pursuits. He wrote a philosophical dialogue in five books, called the _Cuzari_, which has been translated into English by Hirschfeld. This book bases itself on the historical fact that the Crimean Kingdom of the Khazars adopted Judaism, and the Hebrew poet-philosopher describes what he conceives to be the steps by which the Khazar king satisfied himself as to the claims of Judaism. Like many other medieval Jewish authors, Judah Halevi was a physician. His real fame depends on his liturgical hymns, which are the finest written in Hebrew since the Psalter, and are extensively used in the Septardic rite. A striking feature of his thought was his devotion to Jerusalem. To the love of the Holy City he devoted his noblest genius, and he wrote some memorable Odes to Zion, which have been commemorated by Heine, and doubly appreciated recently under the impulse of Zionism (q.v.). He started for Jerusalem, was in Damascus in 1140, and soon afterwards died. Legend has it that he was slain by an Arab horseman just as he arrived within sight of what Heine called his "Woebegone poor darling, Desolation's very image,--Jerusalem."

Excellent English renderings of some of Judah Halevi's poems may be
read in Mrs H. Lucas's _The Jewish Year_, and Mrs R. N. Solomon's
_Songs of Exile_. (I. A.)

HALEVY, JACQUES FRANCOIS FROMENTAL ELIE (1799-1862), French composer, was born on the 27th of May 1799, at Paris, of a Jewish family. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire under Berton and Cherubini, and in 1819 gained the grand prix de Rome with his cantata _Herminie_. In accordance with the conditions of his scholarship he started for Rome, where he devoted himself to the study of Italian music, and wrote an opera and various minor works. In 1827 his opera _L'Artisan_ was performed at the Theatre Feydeau in Paris, apparently without much success. Other works of minor importance, and now forgotten, followed, amongst which _Manon Lescaut_, a ballet, produced in 1830, deserves mention. In 1834 the Opera-Comique produced _Ludovic_, the score of which had been begun by Herold and had been completed by Halevy. In 1835 Halevy composed the tragic opera _La Juive_ and the comic opera _L'Eclair_, and on these works his fame is mainly founded. The famous air of Eleazar and the anathema of the cardinal in _La Juive_ soon became popular all over France. _L'Eclair_ is a curiosity of musical literature. It is written for two tenors and two soprani, without a chorus, and displays the composer's mastery over the most refined effects of instrumentation and vocalization in a favourable light. After these two works he wrote numerous operas of various genres, amongst which only _La Reine de Chypre_, a spectacular piece analyzed by Wagner in one of his Paris letters (1841), and _La Tempesta_, in three acts, written for Her Majesty's theatre, London (1850), need be mentioned. In addition to his productive work Halevy also rendered valuable services as a teacher. He was professor at the Conservatoire from 1827 till his death--some of the most successful amongst the younger composers in France, such as Gounod, Victor Masse and Georges Bizet, the author of _Carmen_, being amongst his pupils. He was _maestro al cembalo_ at the Theatre Italien from 1827 to 1829; then director of singing at the Opera House in Paris until 1845, and in 1836 he succeeded Reicha at the Institut de France. Halevy also tried his hand at literature. In 1857 he became permanent secretary to the Academie des Beaux Arts, and there exists an agreeable volume of _Souvenirs et portraits_ from his pen. He died at Nice, on the 17th of March 1862.

HALEVY, LUDOVIC (1834-1908), French author, was born in Paris on the 1st of January 1834. His father, Leon Halevy (1802-1883), was a clever and versatile writer, who tried almost every branch of literature--prose and verse, vaudeville, drama, history--without, however, achieving decisive success in any. His uncle, J. F. Fromental E. Halevy (q.v.), was for many years associated with the opera; hence the double and early connexion of Ludovic Halevy with the Parisian stage. At the age of six he might have been seen playing in that _Foyer de la danse_ with which he was to make his readers so familiar, and, when a boy of twelve, he would often, of a Sunday night, on his way back to the College Louis le Grand, look in at the Odeon, where he had free admittance, and see the first act of the new play. At eighteen he joined the ranks of the French administration and occupied various posts, the last being that of secretaire-redacteur to the Corps Legislatif. In that capacity he enjoyed the special favour and friendship of the famous duke of Morny, then president of that assembly. In 1865 Ludovic Halevy's increasing popularity as an author enabled him to retire from the public service. Ten years earlier he had become acquainted with the musician Offenbach, who was about to start a small theatre of his own in the Champs Elysees, and he wrote a sort of prologue, _Entrez, messieurs, mesdames_, for the opening night. Other little productions followed, _Ba-ta-clan_ being the most noticeable among them. They were produced under the pseudonym of Jules Servieres. The name of Ludovic Halevy appeared for the first time on the bills on the 1st of January 1856. Soon afterwards the unprecedented run of _Orphee aux enfers_, a musical parody, written in collaboration with Hector Cremieux, made his name famous. In the spring of 1860 he was commissioned to write a play for the manager of the Varietes in conjunction with another vaudevillist, Lambert Thiboust. The latter having abruptly retired from the collaboration, Halevy was at a loss how to carry out the contract, when on the steps of the theatre he met Henri Meilhac (1831-1897), then comparatively a stranger to him. He proposed to Meilhac the task rejected by Lambert Thiboust, and the proposal was immediately accepted. Thus began a connexion which was to last over twenty years, and which proved most fruitful both for the reputation of the two authors and the prosperity of the minor Paris theatres. Their joint works may be divided into three classes: the _operettes_, the farces, the comedies. The _operettes_ afforded excellent opportunities to a gifted musician for the display of his peculiar humour. They were broad and lively libels against the society of the time, but savoured strongly of the vices and follies they were supposed to satirize. Amongst the most celebrated works of the joint authors were _La Belle Helene_ (1864), _Barbe Bleue_ (1866), _La Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein_ (1867), and _La Perichole_ (1868). After 1870 the vogue of Parody rapidly declined. The decadence became still more apparent when Offenbach was no longer at hand to assist the two authors with his quaint musical irony, and when they had to deal with interpreters almost destitute of singing powers. They wrote farces of the old type, consisting of complicated intrigues, with which they cleverly interwove the representation of contemporary whims and social oddities. They generally failed when they attempted comedies of a more serious character and tried to introduce a higher sort of emotion. A solitary exception must be made in the case of _Frou-frou_ (1869), which, owing perhaps to the admirable talent of Aimee Desclee, remains their unique _succes de larmes_.

Meilhac and Halevy will be found at their best in light sketches of Parisian life, _Les Sonnettes_, _Le Roi Candaule_, _Madame attend Monsieur_, _Toto chez Tata_. In that intimate association between the two men who had met so opportunely on the _perron des varietes_, it was often asked who was the leading partner. The question was not answered until the connexion was finally severed and they stood before the public, each to answer for his own work. It was then apparent that they had many gifts in common. Both had wit, humour, observation of character. Meilhac had a ready imagination, a rich and whimsical fancy; Halevy had taste, refinement and pathos of a certain kind. Not less clever than his brilliant comrade, he was more human. Of this he gave evidence in two delightful books, _Monsieur et Madame Cardinal_ (1873) and _Les Petites Cardinal_, in which the lowest orders of the Parisian middle class are faithfully described. The pompous, pedantic, venomous Monsieur Cardinal will long survive as the true image of sententious and self-glorifying immorality. M. Halevy's peculiar qualities are even more visible in the simple and striking scenes of the _Invasion_, published soon after the conclusion of the Franco-German War, in _Criquette_ (1883) and _L'Abbe Constantin_ (1882), two novels, the latter of which went through innumerable editions. Zola had presented to the public an almost exclusive combination of bad men and women; in _L'Abbe Constantin_ all are kind and good, and the change was eagerly welcomed by the public. Some enthusiasts still maintain that the _Abbe_ will rank permanently in literature by the side of the equally chimerical _Vicar of Wakefield_. At any rate, it opened for M. Ludovic Halevy the doors of the French Academy, to which he was elected in 1884.

Halevy remained an assiduous frequenter of the Academy, the Conservatoire, the Comedie Francaise, and the Society of Dramatic Authors, but, when he died in Paris on the 8th of May 1908, he had produced practically nothing new for many years. His last romance, _Kari Kari_, appeared in 1892.

The _Theatre_ of MM. Meilhac and Halevy was published in 8 vols.
(1900-1902).

HALFPENNY, WILLIAM, English 18th-century architectural designer--he described himself as "architect and carpenter." He was also known as Michael Hoare; but whether his real name was William Halfpenny or Michael Hoare is uncertain. His books, of which he published a score, deal almost entirely with domestic architecture, and especially with country houses in those Gothic and Chinese fashions which were so greatly in vogue in the middle of the 18th century. His most important publications, from the point of view of their effect upon taste, were _New Designs for Chinese Temples_, in four parts (1750-1752); _Rural Architecture in the Gothic Taste_ (1752); _Chinese and Gothic Architecture Properly Ornamented_ (1752); and _Rural Architecture in the Chinese Taste_ (1750-1752). These four books were produced in collaboration with John Halfpenny, who is said to have been his son. _New Designs for Chinese Temples_ is a volume of some significance in the history of furniture, since, having been published some years before the books of Thomas Chippendale and Sir Thomas Chambers, it disproves the statement so often made that those designers introduced the Chinese taste into this country. Halfpenny states distinctly that "the Chinese manner" had been "already introduced here with success." The work of the Halfpennys was by no means all contemptible. It is sometimes distinctly graceful, but is marked by little originality.

HALF-TIMBER WORK, an architectural term given to those buildings in which the framework is of timber with vertical studs and cross pieces filled in between with brickwork, rubble masonry or plaster work on oak laths; in the first two, brick nogging or nogging are the terms occasionally employed (see CARPENTRY). Sometimes the timber structure is raised on a stone or brick foundation, as at Ledbury town hall in Herefordshire, where the lower storey is open on all sides; but more often it is raised on a ground storey, either in brick or stone, and in order to give additional size to the upper rooms projects forward, being carried on the floor joists. Sometimes the masonry or brickwork rises through two or three storeys and the half-brick work is confined to the gables. There seems to be some difference of opinion as to whether the term applies to the mixture of solid walling with the timber structure or to the alternation of wood posts and the filling in, but the latter definition is that which is generally understood. The half-timber throughout England is of the most picturesque description, and the earliest examples date from towards the close of the 15th century. In the earliest example, Newgate House, York (c. 1450), the timber framing is raised over the ground floor. The finest specimen is perhaps that of Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire (1570), where there is only a stone foundation about 12 in. high, and the same applies to Bramall Hall, near Manchester, portions of which are very early. Among other examples are Speke Hall, Lancashire; Park Hall, Shropshire (1553-1558); Hall i' th' Wood, Lancashire (1591); St Peter's Hospital, Bristol (1607); the Ludlow Feather's Inn (1610); many of the streets at Chester and Shrewsbury; the Sparrowe's Home, Ipswich; and Staple Inn, Holborn, from which in recent years the plaster coat which was put on many years ago has been removed, displaying the ancient woodwork. A similar fate has overtaken a very large number of half-timber buildings to keep out the driving winds; thus in Lewes nearly all the half-timbered houses have had slates hung on the timbers, others tiles, the greater number having been covered with plaster or stucco. Although there are probably many more half-timber houses in England than on the continent of Europe, in the north of France and in Germany are examples in many of the principal towns, and in some cases in better preservation than in England. They are also enriched with carving of a purer and better type, especially in France; thus at Chartres, Angers, Rouen, Caen, Lisieux, Bayeux, St Lo and Beauvais, are many extremely fine examples of late Flamboyant and early Transitional examples. Again on the borders of the Rhine in all the small towns most of the houses are in half-timber work, the best examples being at Bacharach, Rhense and Boppart. Far more elaborate examples, however, are found in the vicinity of the Harz Mountains; the supply of timber from the forests there being very abundant; thus at Goslar, Wernigerode and Quedlingburg there is an endless variety, as also farther on at Gelnhausen and Hameln, the finest series of all being at Hildesheim. In Bavaria at Nuremberg, Rothenburg and Dinkelsbuhl, half-timber houses dating from the 16th century are still well preserved; and throughout Switzerland the houses constructed in timber and plaster are the most characteristic features of the country.

HALFWAY COVENANT, an expedient adopted in the Congregational churches of New England between 1657 and 1662. Under its terms baptized persons of moral life and orthodox belief might receive the privilege of baptism for their children and other church benefits, without the full enrolment in membership which admitted them to the communion of the Lord's Supper.

See CONGREGATIONALISM: _American_.

HALHED, NATHANIEL BRASSEY (1751-1830), English Orientalist and philologist, was born at Westminster on the 25th of May 1751. He was educated at Harrow, where he began his intimacy with Richard Brinsley Sheridan (see SHERIDAN FAMILY) continued after he entered Christ Church, Oxford, where, also, he made the acquaintance of Sir William Jones, the famous Orientalist, who induced him to study Arabic. Accepting a writership in the service of the East India Company, Halhed went out to India, and here, at the suggestion of Warren Hastings, by whose orders it had been compiled, translated the Gentoo code from a Persian version of the original Sanskrit. This translation was published in 1776 under the title _A Code of Gentoo Laws_. In 1778 he published a Bengali grammar, to print which he set up, at Hugli, the first press in India. It is claimed for him that he was the first writer to call attention to the philological connexion of Sanskrit with Persian, Arabic, Greek and Latin. In 1785 he returned to England, and from 1790-1795 was M.P. for Lymington, Hants. For some time he was a disciple of Richard Brothers (q.v.), and his unwise speech in parliament in defence of Brothers made it impossible for him to remain in the House, from which he resigned in 1795. He subsequently obtained a home appointment under the East India Company. He died in London on the 18th of February 1830.

His collection of Oriental manuscripts was purchased by the British
Museum, and there is an unfinished translation by him of the
_Mahabharata_ in the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER (1796-1865), British writer, long a judge of Nova Scotia, was born at Windsor, Nova Scotia, in 1796, and received his education there, at King's College. He was called to the bar in 1820, and became a member of the House of Assembly. He distinguished himself as a barrister, and in 1828 was promoted to the bench as a chief-justice of the common pleas. In 1829 he published _An Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia_. But it is as a brilliant humourist and satirist that he is remembered, in connexion with his fictitious character "Sam Slick." In 1835 he contributed anonymously to a local paper a series of letters professedly depicting the peculiarities of the genuine Yankee. These sketches, which abounded in clever picturings of national and individual character, drawn with great satirical humour, were collected in 1837, and published under the title of _The Clockmaker, or Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville_. A second series followed in 1838, and a third in 1840. _The Attache, or Sam Slick in England_ (1843-1844), was the result of a visit there in 1841. His other works include: _The Old Judge, or Life in a Colony_ (1843); _The Letter Bag of the Great Western_ (1839); _Rule and Misrule of the English in America_ (1851); _Traits of American Humour_ (1852); and _Nature and Human Nature_ (1855).

Meanwhile he continued to secure popular esteem in his judicial capacity. In 1840 he was promoted to be a judge of the supreme court; but within two years he resigned his seat on the bench, removed to England, and in 1859 entered parliament as the representative of Launceston, in the Conservative interest. But the tenure of his seat for Launceston was brought to an end by the dissolution of the parliament in 1865, and he did not again offer himself to the constituency. He died on the 27th of August of the same year, at Gordon House, Isleworth, Middlesex.

A memoir of Haliburton, by F. Blake Crofton, appeared in 1889.

HALIBUT, or HOLIBUT (_Hippoglossus vulgaris_), the largest of all flat-fishes, growing to a length of 10 ft. or more, specimens of 5 ft. in length and of 100 [lb] in weight being frequently exposed for sale in the markets. Indeed, specimens under 2 ft. in length are very rarely caught, and singularly enough, no instance is known of a very young specimen having been obtained. Small ones are commonly called "chicken halibut." The halibut is much more frequent in the higher latitudes of the temperate zone than in its southern portion; it is a circumpolar species, being found on the northern coasts of America, Europe and Asia, extending in the Pacific southwards to California. On the British coasts it keeps at some distance from the shore, and is generally caught in from 50 to 150 fathoms. Its flesh is generally considered coarse, but it is white and firm, and when properly served is excellent for the table. The name is derived from "holy" (M.E. _haly_), and recalls its use for food on holy days.

HALICARNASSUS (mod. _Budrum_), an ancient Greek city on the S.W. coast of Caria, Asia Minor, on a picturesque and advantageous site on the Ceramic Gulf or Gulf of Cos. It originally occupied only the small island of Zephyria close to the shore, now occupied by the great castle of St Peter, built by the Knights of Rhodes in 1404; but in course of time this island was united to the mainland and the city extended so as to incorporate Salmacis, an older town of the Leleges and Carians.

About the foundation of Halicarnassus various traditions were current; but they agree in the main point as to its being a Dorian colony, and the figures on its coins, such as the head of Medusa, Athena and Poseidon, or the trident, support the statement that the mother cities were Troezen and Argos. The inhabitants appear to have accepted as their legendary founder Anthes, mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the title of Antheadae. At an early period Halicarnassus was a member of the Doric Hexapolis, which included Cos, Cnidus, Lindus, Camirus and Ialysus; but one of the citizens, Agasicles, having taken home the prize tripod which he had won in the Triopian games instead of dedicating it according to custom to the Triopian Apollo, the city was cut off from the league. In the early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of Artemisia, who made herself famous at the battle of Salamis. Of Pisindalis, her son and successor, little is known; but Lygdamis, who next attained to power, is notorious for having put to death the poet Panyasis and caused Herodotus, the greatest of Halicarnassians, to leave his native city (c. 457 B.C.). In the 5th century B.C. Halicarnassus and other Dorian cities of Asia were to some extent absorbed by the Delian League, but the peace of Antalcidas in 387 made them subservient to Persia; and it was under Mausolus, a Persian satrap who assumed independent authority, that Halicarnassus attained its highest prosperity. Struck by the natural strength and beauty of its position, Mausolus removed to Halicarnassus from Mylasa, increasing the population of the city by the inhabitants of six towns of the Leleges. He was succeeded by Artemisia, whose military ability was shown in the stratagem by which she captured the Rhodian vessels attacking her city, and whose magnificence and taste have been perpetuated by the "Mausoleum," the monument she erected to her husband's memory (see MAUSOLUS). One of her successors, Pixodarus, tried to ally himself with the rising power of Macedon, and is said to have gained the momentary consent of the young Alexander to wed his daughter. The marriage, however, was forbidden by Philip. Alexander, as soon as he had reduced Ionia, summoned Halicarnassus, where Memnon, the paramount satrap of Asia Minor, had taken refuge with the Persian fleet, to surrender; and on its refusal took the city after hard fighting and devastated it, but not being able to reduce the citadel, was forced to leave it blockaded. He handed the government of the city back to the family of Mausolus, as represented by Ada, sister of the latter. Not long afterwards we find the citizens receiving the present of a gymnasium from Ptolemy, and building in his honour a stoa or portico; but the city never recovered altogether from the disasters of the siege, and Cicero describes it as almost deserted. The site is now occupied in part by the town of Budrum; but the ancient walls can still be traced round nearly all their circuit, and the position of several of the temples, the theatre, and other public buildings can be fixed with certainty.

From the ruins of the Mausoleum sufficient has been recovered by the excavations carried out in 1857 by C. T. Newton to enable a fairly complete restoration of its design to be made. The building consisted of five parts--a basement or podium, a pteron or enclosure of columns, a pyramid, a pedestal and a chariot group. The basement, covering an area of 114 ft. by 92, was built of blocks of greenstone and cased with marble. Round the base of it were probably disposed groups of statuary. The pteron consisted (according to Pliny) of thirty-six columns of the Ionic order, enclosing a square _cella_. Between the columns probably stood single statues. From the portions that have been recovered, it appears that the principal frieze of the pteron represented combats of Greeks and Amazons. In addition to these, there are also many life-size fragments of animals, horsemen, &c., belonging probably to pedimental sculptures, but formerly supposed to be parts of minor friezes. Above the pteron rose the pyramid, mounting by 24 steps to an apex or pedestal. On this apex stood the chariot with the figure of Mausolus himself and an attendant. The height of the statue of Mausolus in the British Museum is 9 ft. 9-1/2 in. without the plinth. The hair rising from the forehead falls in thick waves on each side of the face and descends nearly to the shoulder; the beard is short and close, the face square and massive, the eyes deep set under overhanging brows, the mouth well formed with settled calm about the lips. The drapery is grandly composed. All sorts of restorations of this famous monument have been proposed. The original one, made by Newton and Pullan, is obviously in error in many respects; and that of Oldfield, though to be preferred for its lightness (the Mausoleum was said anciently to be "suspended in mid-air"), does not satisfy the conditions postulated by the remains. The best on the whole is that of the veteran German architect, F. Adler, published in 1900; but fresh studies have since been made (see below).

See C T. Newton and R. P. Pullan, _History of Discoveries at
Halicarnassus_ (1862-1863); J. Fergusson, _The Mausoleum at
Halicarnassus_ restored (1862); E. Oldfield, "The Mausoleum," in
_Archaeologia_ (1895); F. Adler, _Mausoleum zu Halikarnass_ (1900); J.
P. Six in _Journ. Hell. Studies_ (1905); W. B. Dinsmoor, in _Amer.
Journ. of Arch._ (1908); J. J. Stevenson, _A Restoration of the
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus_ (1909); J. B. K. Preedy, "The Chariot
Group of the Mausoleum," in _Journ. Hell. Stud._, 1910. (D. G. H.)

HALICZ, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 70 m. by rail S.S.E. of Lemberg. Pop. (1900), 4809. It is situated at the confluence of the Luckow with the Dniester and its principal resources are the recovery of salt from the neighbouring brine wells, soap-making and the trade in timber. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the old castle, the seat of the ruler of the former kingdom from which Galicia derived its Polish name. Halicz, which is mentioned in annals as early as 1113, was from 1141 to 1255 the residence of the princes of that name, one of the principalities into which western Russia was then divided. The town was then much larger, as is shown by excavations in the neighbourhood made during the 19th century, and probably met its doom during the Mongol invasion of 1240. In 1349 it was incorporated in the kingdom of Poland.

HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGUE, EARL OF (1661-1715), English statesman and poet, fourth son of the Hon. George Montague, fifth son of the first earl of Manchester, was born at Horton, Northamptonshire, on the 16th of April 1661. In his fourteenth year he was sent to Westminster school, where he was chosen king's scholar in 1677, and distinguished himself in the composition of extempore epigrams made according to custom upon theses appointed for king's scholars at the time of election. In 1679 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he acquired a solid knowledge of the classics and surpassed all his contemporaries at the university in logic and ethics. Latterly, however, he preferred to the abstractions of Descartes the practical philosophy of Sir Isaac Newton; and he was one of the small band of students who assisted Newton in forming the Philosophical Society of Cambridge. But it was his facility in verse-writing, and neither his scholarship nor his practical ability, that first opened up to him the way to fortune. His clever but absurdly panegyrical poem on the death of Charles II. secured for him the notice of the earl of Dorset, who invited him to town and introduced him to the principal wits of the time; and in 1687 his joint authorship with Prior of the _Hind and Panther transversed to the Story of the Country Mouse and the City Mouse_, a parody of Dryden's political poem, not only increased his literary reputation but directly helped him to political influence.

In 1689, through the patronage of the earl of Dorset, he entered parliament as member for Maldon, and sat in the convention which resolved that William and Mary should be declared king and queen of England. About this time he married the countess-dowager of Manchester, and it would appear, according to Johnson, that it was still his intention to take orders; but after the coronation he purchased a clerkship to the council. On being introduced by Earl Dorset to King William, after the publication of his poetical _Epistle occasioned by his Majesty's Victory in Ireland_, he was ordered to receive an immediate pension of L500 per annum, until an opportunity should present itself of "making a man of him." In 1691 he was chosen chairman of the committee of the House of Commons appointed to confer with a committee of the Lords in regard to the bill for regulating trials in cases of high treason; and he displayed in these conferences such tact and debating power that he was made one of the commissioners of the treasury and called to the privy council. But his success as a politician was less due to his oratorical gifts than to his skill in finance, and in this respect he soon began to manifest such brilliant talents as completely eclipsed the painstaking abilities of Godolphin. Indeed it may be affirmed that no other statesman has initiated schemes which have left a more permanent mark on the financial history of England. Although perhaps it was inevitable that England should sooner or later adopt the continental custom of lightening the annual taxation in times of war by contracting a national debt, the actual introduction of the expedient was due to Montague, who on the 15th of December 1692 proposed to raise a million of money by way of loan. Previous to this the Scotsman William Paterson (q.v.) had submitted to the government his plan of a national bank, and when in the spring of 1694 the prolonged contest with France had rendered another large loan absolutely necessary, Montague introduced a bill for the incorporation of the Bank of England. The bill after some opposition passed the House of Lords in May, and immediately after the prorogation of parliament Montague was rewarded by the chancellorship of the exchequer. In 1695 he was triumphantly returned for the borough of Westminster to the new parliament, and succeeded in passing his celebrated measure to remedy the depreciation which had taken place in the currency on account of dishonest manipulations. To provide for the expense of recoinage, Montague, instead of reviving the old tax of hearth money, introduced the window tax, and the difficulties caused by the temporary absence of a metallic currency were avoided by the issue for the first time of exchequer bills. His other expedients for meeting the emergencies of the financial crisis were equally successful, and the rapid restoration of public credit secured him a commanding influence both in the House of Commons and at the board of the treasury; but although Godolphin resigned office in October 1696, the king hesitated for some time between Montague and Sir Stephen Fox as his successor, and it was not till 1697 that the former was appointed first lord. In 1697 he was accused by Charles Duncombe, and in 1698 by a Col. Granville, of fraud, but both charges broke down, and Duncombe was shown to have been guilty of extreme dishonesty himself. In 1698 and 1699 he acted as one of the council of regency during the king's absence from England. With the accumulation of his political successes his vanity and arrogance became, however, so offensive that latterly they utterly lost him the influence he had acquired by his administrative ability and his masterly eloquence; and when his power began to be on the wane he set the seal to his political overthrow by conferring the lucrative sinecure office of auditor of the exchequer on his brother in trust for himself should he be compelled to retire from power. This action earned him the offensive nickname of "Filcher," and for some time afterwards, in attempting to lead the House of Commons, he had to submit to constant mortifications, often verging on personal insults. After the return of the king in 1699 he resigned his offices in the government and succeeded his brother in the auditorship.

On the accession of the Tories to power he was removed in 1701 to the House of Lords by the title of Lord Halifax. In the same year he was impeached for malpractices along with Lord Somers and the earls of Portland and Oxford, but all the charges were dismissed by the Lords; and in 1703 a second attempt to impeach him was still more unsuccessful. He continued out of office during the reign of Queen Anne, but in 1706 he was named one of the commissioners to negotiate the union with Scotland; and after the passing of the Act of Settlement in favour of the house of Hanover, he was appointed ambassador to the elector's court to convey the insignia of order of the garter to George I. On the death of Anne (1714) he was appointed one of the council of regency until the arrival of the king from Hanover; and after the coronation he received the office of first lord of the treasury in the new ministry, being at the same time created earl of Halifax and Viscount Sunbury. He died on the 19th of May 1715 and left no issue. He was buried in the vault of the Albemarle family in Westminster Abbey. His nephew George (d. 1739) succeeded to the barony, and was created Viscount Sunbury and earl of Halifax in 1715.