Chapter XI: Part 11

Various types of form are to be met with among the Haemosporidia. In
one, characteristic of most (though not of absolutely all) parasites
of warm-blooded Vertebrates, the trophozoites are of irregular
amoeboid shape; hence this section is generally known as the
_Haemamoebidae_. In another type, characteristic of the parasites of
cold-blooded Vertebrates, the body possesses a definite, vermiform,
i.e. gregariniform shape, which is retained during the
intracorpuscular as well as during the free condition; this section
comprises the _Haemogregarinidae_. Allied to this latter type of form
are the trophozoites of _Piroplasma_, which are normally pear-shaped;
they differ, however, in being very minute, and, moreover, exhibit
considerable polymorphism, rod-like (so-called bacillary) and
ring-forms being of common occurrence. It is important to note that in
a certain species of _Haemogregarina_ (fig. 3) the young trophozoites
markedly resemble _Piroplasma_ in their pyriform appearance; and a
further point of agreement between the two forms is mentioned below.
Lastly there is the Avian genus _Halteridium_, the trophozoites of
which are characteristically bean-shaped or reniform. True
Haemogregarines also differ in other slight points from "Haemamoebae."
Thus the young endoglobular trophozoite does not exhibit a ring
(vacuolar) phase; and the cytoplasm never contains, at any period, the
characteristic melanin pigment above noted. In some species of
_Haemogregarina_ the parasite, while intracorpuscular, becomes
surrounded by a delicate membrane, the cytocyst; on entering upon an
active, "free" period, the cytocyst is ruptured and left behind with
the remains of the corpuscle. A very interesting cytological feature
is the occurrence, in one or two Haemosporidia, of nuclear dimorphism,
i.e. of a larger and smaller chromatic body, probably comparable to
the trophic and kinetic nuclei of a Trypanosome, or of the
"Leishman-Donovan" bodies. Schaudinn was the first to notice this
character, in _Piroplasma canis_, and his observation has since been
confirmed by Luhe.[4] Moreover, Brumpt has also noticed nuclear
dimorphism in the ookinete of a species of _Haemogregarina_ in a leech
(as the Invertebrate host)--a highly important observation.

As regards the life-history, the endogenous (schizogonous) cycle is
known in many cases. Sometimes schizogony takes the primitive form of
simple binary (probably) longitudinal fission; this is the case in
_Piroplasma_ (fig. 4) and also in _Haemogregarina bigemina_ just
referred to. From this result the pairs of individuals ("twins") so
often found in the corpuscles. In addition, however, at any rate in
_Piroplasma_, it is probable that multiple division (more allied to
ordinary schizogony) also takes place; such is the case, according to
Laveran, in _P. equi_, and the occurrence at times of four parasites
in a corpuscle, arranged in a cruciform manner, is most likely to be
thus explained. Labbe has described schizogony in _Halteridium
danilewskyi_ as taking place in a rather peculiar manner; the parasite
becomes much drawn-out and halter-like, and the actual division is
restricted to its two ends, two clumps of merozoites being formed, at
first connected by a narrow strand of unused cytoplasm, which
subsequently disappears. Some doubt, however, attaches to this
account, as no one else appears to have seen the process. For the
rest, schizogony takes place more or less in the customary way,
allowing for variations in the mode of arrangement of the merozoites.
It remains to be noted that in _Karyolysus lacertarum_, according to
Labbe, two kinds of schizont are developed, which give rise,
respectively, to micromerozoites and megamerozoites, in either case
enclosed in a delicate cytocyst. This probably corresponds to an early
sexual differentiation (such as is found among certain Coccidia
(q.v.), the micromerozoites producing eventually micro-gametocytes,
the others megagametocytes.

FIG. 4.--Development and schizogony of _Piroplasma bigeminum_ in the
blood-corpuscles of the ox. (After Laveran and Nicolle.)

a, Youngest form.
b, Slightly older.
c and d. Division of the nucleus.
e and f, Division of the body of the parasite.
g, h, i, j, Various forms of the twin parasite.
k and l, Doubly infected corpuscles.]

It has now been recognized for some time that the sexual (exogenous)
part of the life-cycle of all the _Haemamoebidae_ takes place in an
Invertebrate (Insectan) host, and is fundamentally similar to that
above described in those cases where it has been followed. In
contradistinction to the malarial parasites, this host, in the Avian
forms (_Haemoproteus_ and _Halteridium_)[5] is a species of _Culex_
and not of _Anopheles_; in other words, gamete-formation, conjugation
and subsequent sporozoite-formation in these cases will only go on in
the former. On the other hand, in the case of the Haemogregarines, it
was thought until quite lately that the entire life-history, including
conjugation and sporogony, went on in the Vertebrate host; and only in
1902 Hintze described what purported to be the complete life-history
of _Lankesterella (Drepanidium) ranarum_ undergone in the frog. This
view was rendered obsolete by the work of Siegel and Schaudinn, who
demonstrated the occurrence of an alternation of hosts and of
generations in the case of _Haemogregarina stepanovi_, parasitic in a
tortoise, and in _Karyolysus lacertarum_; the Invertebrate hosts, in
which, in both cases, the sexual process is undergone, being
respectively a leech (_Placobdella_) and a tick (_Ixodes_). With this
discovery the main distinction (as supposed) between the Haemosporidia
of warm and of cold-blooded Vertebrates vanished. It was further
acknowledged by Schaudinn (under whom Hintze had worked) that the
latter had been misled by Coccidian cysts and spores, which he took
for those of _Lankesterella_. The gametogony and sporogony of
_Haemogregarina stepanovi_ in the leech agree in essential particulars
with the process above described. The microgametes are extremely
minute, and the sporozoites, which are developed in the salivary
glands, where the motile ookinetes finally come to rest, are extremely
"spirochaetiform"--the full significance of this latter fact being,
perhaps, not appreciated.

Christophers recently described some remarkable phases which he
regarded as belonging to the cycle of _Haemogregarina gerbilli_ (one
of the few Mammalian Haemogregarines known) in a louse
(_Haematopinus_). In a private communication, however, the author
states that he has probably mistaken phases in the development of an
ordinary gregarine parasite in the louse for part of the life-cycle of
this Haemogregarine.

The Mammalian parasite _Piroplasma_ is the one about whose
life-history our knowledge is most vague. Besides the typical and
generally occurring forms, others have also been observed in the
blood, but it is doubtful how far these are to be looked upon as
normal; for instance, Bowhill and Le Doux have described, in various
species, a phase in which a long, slender pseudopodial-like outgrowth
is present, with a swelling at the distal end. It is, moreover, quite
uncertain which are the sexual forms, comparable to gametocytes.
Doflein regards large pear-shaped forms as such (megagametocytes?),
which become spherical when maturing; and Nocard and Motas have
figured amoeboid, irregular forms, with the nucleus fragmented and
possessing flagella-like processes (possibly microgametes?). The
Invertebrate host is well known to be, in the case of all species, a
tick; thus bovine piroplasmosis (_P. bigeminum_) in America is
conveyed by _Rhipicephalus annulatus_ (_Boophilus bovis_), canine
piroplasmosis (_P. canis_) in South Africa by _Haemaphysalis leachi_
(and perhaps _Dermacentor reticulatus_), and so on. The manner in
which the infection is transmitted by the tick varies greatly. In some
cases (e.g. _P. bigeminum_ and _P. canis_) only the generation
subsequent to that which receives the infection (by feeding on an
infected ox) can transmit it back again to another ox; in other words,
true hereditary infection of the ova in the mother-tick is found to
occur. The actual period in the life of the daughter-tick at which it
can convey the infection apparently varies. On the other hand, in the
case of East African coast-fever, Theiler found that hereditary
infection does not occur, the same generation transmitting the
parasite (_P. parvum_) at different periods of life. Little is
certainly known regarding the phases of the parasite which are passed
through in the tick. Lignieres has observed a kind of multiple fission
in the stomach, several very minute bodies, consisting mostly of
chromatin, being formed, which may serve for endogenous reproduction.
Koch has published an account of certain curious forms of _P.
bigeminum_, in which the body is produced into many stiff, ray-like
processes, giving the appearance of a star; according to him fusion of
such forms takes place, and the resulting zygote becomes rounded,
perhaps transitional to the pear-shaped forms.

Classification.

The classification and nomenclature of the Haemosporidia are in a very
unsettled condition. For an account of the various systems and
modifications hitherto adopted, the article of Minchin (see under
SPOROZOA: _Bibliography_) should be consulted. With the realization
that the life-history in the case of the "Haemamoebae" and the
Haemogregarines is fundamentally similar in type, the chief reason for
grouping them as distinct suborders has disappeared. It is most
convenient to regard them as separate, but closely allied families,
the _Plasmodidae_ ("_Haemamoebidae_") and the _Haemogregarinidae_. The
_Piroplasmata_, on the other hand, constitute another family, which is
better placed in a distinct section or sub-order. In addition there
are, as already noted, two or three genera whose systematic position
must be considered as quite uncertain. One is the well-known
_Halteridium_ of Labbe, parasitic in various birds; the type-species
is _H. danilewskyi_ (Gt. and Fel.). Another is the much-debated
parasite of white blood-corpuscles (leucocytes), originally described
in birds by Danilewsky under the name of _Leucocytozoon_, a form of
which has been recently observed in Mammals.

In conclusion, the chief members of the above-mentioned families may
be enumerated.

Fam. _Plasmodidae_ ("_Haemamoebidae_").

Genus _Laverania_, Gr. and Fel. (syn. _Haemamoenas_, Ross), for L.
_malariae_, Gr. and Fel. (synn. L. s. _Plasmodium_, s. "_Haemamoeba_,"
&c., _praecox_ s. _immaculatum_, &c.), the parasite of pernicious
malaria. Genus _Plasmodium_, March. and Celli (syn. "_Haemamoeba_")
for _P. vivax_ and _P. malariae_, the tertian and quartan parasite,
respectively. There is also a form known in apes, _P. kochi_. Genus
_Haemoproteus_, Kruse (syn. _Proteosoma_), for _H. danilewskyi_ (syn.
_Proteosoma grassi_, _Plasmodium praecox_, &c.), parasitic in numerous
birds. Recently, another form has been described, from reptiles, which
Castellani and Willey have termed _Haemocystidium simondi_.

_Remarks._--The distinguishing characters of the malarial parasites
have been mentioned above. Some authorities would include _Laverania_
in the genus _Plasmodium_, as differing only specifically from the
other two forms. It has, moreover, been suggested by Sergent that all
three are merely different phases of the same parasite, predominating
at different seasons; this idea cannot be regarded, however, as in any
way proved so far. From what is known of the morphology and mode of
manifestation of these forms, the differences between _Laverania_ and
the two species of _Plasmodium_ are considerably more pronounced than
those between _P. vivax_ and _P. malariae_; if the latter are to be
considered as distinct species, the first-named is probably
generically distinct. Luhe, it may be noted, in his recent
comprehensive account of the Haematozoa, also takes this view. Lastly,
whatever be the correct solution of the above problem, there is
certainly not sufficient justification for including the Avian genus
_Haemoproteus_, as also only a species of _Plasmodium_, which is done
by some. Its different Vertebrate habitat, and also the fact that its
Insectan definitive host is Culex and not _Anopheles_, differentiate
it sharply from _Laverania_ and _Plasmodium_.

FIG. 5.--_Haemoproteus danilewskyi_, Kruse (parasite of various
birds). X about 1200. a, b, c and d from the chaffinch; d and e from
the lark. (After Labbe.)

a, Young trophozoite in a blood-corpuscle,
b and c, Older trophozoite.
d and e, Sporulation.
d, Precocious sporulation with few merozoites.
e, Sporulation of a full-grown schizont, with numerous merozoites.
f, Gametocyte.
N, Nucleus of blood-corpuscle.
n, Nucleus of parasite.
p, Pigment.
mz, Merozoites.
r.p, Residual protoplasm.]

FIG. 6.--_Haemogregarina stepanovi_, Danilewsky (par. _Emys_ and
_Cistudo_), phases of the schizogony. (a-e and j after Laveran; f-i
after Borner.) X 1000 to 1200 diameters.

a, Blood-corpuscle with young trophozoite.
b, Older trophozoite.
c, Full-grown trophozoite, ready to leave the corpuscle.
d and e, Trophozoites free in the blood-plasma, showing changes of
form.
f-i, Trophozoites, still within the blood-corpuscle (not drawn),
showing the structure of the nucleus, the coarse chromatoid
granules in the protoplasm and the manner in which the parasite
grows into the U-shaped Haemogregarine without increase of
body-mass.
j, Commencement of sporulation; the nucleus has divided into eight
nuclei, and the body of the parasite is beginning to divide up
into as many merozoites within a blood-corpuscle.
N, Nucleus of the blood-corpuscle.
n, Nucleus of the parasite.]

Fam. _Haemogregarinidae._--The different genera are characterized
chiefly by their size relative to the blood-corpuscles, and their
disposition in the latter. Here, again, it has been suggested to unite
the various types all in one genus, _Haemogregarina_, but this seems
at least premature when it is remembered how little is known in most
cases of the life-cycle, which may prove to exhibit important
divergences.

Genus _Haemogregarina_, Danilewsky (syn. _Danilewskya_, Labbe). The
body of the parasite exceeds the blood-corpuscle in length, when
adult, and is bent upon itself, like a U. A very great number of
species are known, mostly from reptiles and fishes; among them may be
mentioned _H. stepanovi_ (fig. 6), from _Emys_ and _Cistudo_, whose
sexual-cycle in a leech has been worked out by Siegel (see above), _H.
delagei_, from _Raja_, _H. bigemina_, from blennies, and _H. simondi_,
from soles. Recently one or two Mammalian forms have been observed,
_H. gerbilli_, from an Indian rat (_Gerbillus_), and _H. jaculi_, from
the jerboa.

Genus _Lankesterella_, Labbe (syn. _Drepanidium_, Lankester). The
parasite is not more than three-quarters the length of the corpuscle.
_L. ranarum_ from _Rana_ is the type-species; another, recently
described by Fantham, is _L. tritonis_, from the newt.

FIG. 7.--_Karyolysus lacertarum_ (Danil.), in the blood-corpuscles of
Lacerta muralis, showing the effects of the parasite upon the nucleus
of the corpuscle. In c and d the nucleus is broken up. N, Nucleus of
the corpuscle; n, nucleus of the parasite, seen as a number of masses
of chromatin, not enclosed by a distinct membrane. (After Marceau.)]

Genus _Karyolysus_, Labbe. The parasite does not exceed the corpuscle
in length; the forms included in this genus, moreover, although not
actually intranuclear, have a marked karyolytic and disintegrating
action upon the nucleus of the corpuscle. The type-species is the
well-known _K. lacertarum_, of lizards; another is _K.
(Haemogregarina) viperini_, from _Tropidonotus_.

In the section of the _Piroplasmata_ there is only the genus
_Piroplasma_, Patton (synn. _Babesia_, Starcovici, _Pyrosoma_, Smith
and Kilborne), the principal species of which are as follows: _P.
bigeminum_, the cause of Texas cattle-fever, tick-fever
(Rinder-malaria) of South Africa, and _P. bovis_, causing
haemoglobinuria of cattle in Southern Europe; there is some
uncertainty as to whether these two are really distinct; _P. canis_,
_P. ovis_ and _P. equi_ associated, respectively, with those animals.
Lately, a very small form, _P. parvum_, has been described by Theiler
in Rhodesia, which causes East-African coast-fever; and another, _P.
muris_, has been observed in white rats by Fantham.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(The older literature is enumerated in most treatises
on Sporozoa--see bibliography under SPOROZOA). P. Argutinsky,
"Malariastudien," _Arch. mikr. Anat._ 59, p. 315, pls. 18-21 (1901),
and _op. cit._ 61, p. 331, pl. 18 (1902); A. Balfour, "Haemogregarine
of Mammals," _J. Trop. Med._ 8, p. 241, 8 figs. (1905); C. A. Bentley,
"Leucocytozoan of the Dog," _B.M.J._ (1905), 1, pp. 988 and 1078; N.
Berestneff, "Uber einen neuen Blutparasiten der indischen Frosche,"
_Arch. Protistenk._ 2, p. 343, pl. 8 (1903); "Uber das
_'Leucocytozoan' danilewskyi_," _op. cit._ 3, p. 376, pl. 15 (1904);
A. Billet, "Contribution a l'etude du paludisme et de son hematozoaire
en Algerie," _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 16, p. 186 (1902); (Notes on
various Haemogregarines). _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 56, pp. 482, 484, 607 and
741 (1904); C. Borner, "Untersuchungen uber Hamosporidien," _Zeitschr.
wiss. Zool._ 69, p. 398, 1 pl. (1901); T. Bowhill, "Equine
piroplasmosis," &c., _J. Hyg._ 5, p. 7, pls. 1-3 (1905); Bowhill and
C. le Doux, "Contribution to the Study of '_Piroplasmosis canis_,'"
_op. cit._ 4, p. 217, pl. 11 (1904); E. Brumpt and C. Lebailly,
"Description de quelques nouvelles especes de trypanosomes et
d'hemogregarines," &c., C. R. Ac. Sci. 139, p. 613 (1904); A.
Castellani and A. Willey, "Observations on the Haematozoa of
Vertebrates in Ceylon," _Spolia Zeylan_. 2, p. 78, 1 pl. (1904), and
_Q. J. Micr. Sci._ 49, p. 383, pl. 24 (1905); S. R. Christophers,
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(1905); H. B. Fantham, "_Lankesterella tritonis_, n. sp.," &c., _Zool.
Anz._ 29, p. 257, 17 figs. (1905); "_Piroplasma muris_," &c., _Q. J.
Micr. Sci._ 50, p. 493, pl. 28 (1906); C. Graham-Smith, "A new Form of
Parasite found in the Red Blood-Corpuscles of Moles," _J. Hyg._ 5, p.
453, pls. 13 and 14 (1905); R. Hintze, "Lebensweise und Entwickelung
von _Lankesterella minima_," _Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ 15, p. 693, pl. 36
(1902); S. James, "On a Parasite found in the White Blood-Corpuscles
of Dogs," _Sci. Mem. India_, 14, 12 pp. 1 pl. (1905); R. Koch,
"Vorlaufige Mitteilungen uber die Ergebnisse einer Forschungsreise
nach Ostafrika," _Deutsch. med. Wochenschr._, 1905, p. 1865, 24 figs.;
A. Labbe, "Recherches sur les parasites endoglobulaires du sang des
vertebres," _Arch. zool. exp._ (3) ii. p. 55, 10 pls. (1894); A.
Laveran, "Sur quelques hemogregarines des ophidiens," _C. R. Ac. Sci._
135, p. 1036, 13 figs. (1902); "Sur une _Haemamoeba_ d'une mesange
(_Parus major_)," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 54, p. 1121, 10 figs. (1902);
"Sur la piroplasmose bovine bacilliforme," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 138, p.
648, 18 figs. (1903); "Contribution a l'etude de _Haemamoeba
ziemanni_," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 55, p. 620, 7 figs. (1903); "Sur une
hemogregarine des gerboises," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 141, p. 295, 9 figs.
(1905); (On different Haemogregarines) _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 59, pp. 175,
176, with figs. (1905); "Haemocytozoa. Essai de classification,"
_Bull. Inst. Pasteur_, 3, p. 809 (1905); Laveran and F. Mesnil, "Sur
les hematozoaires des poissons marins," _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 135, p. 567
(1902); "Sur quelques protozoaires parasites d'une tortue d'Asie,"
_t.c._ p. 609, 14 figs. (1902); Laveran and Negre, "Sur un protozoaire
parasite de _Hyalomma aegyptium_," _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 58, p. 964, 6
figs. (1905); (for various earlier papers by these authors, reference
should be made to the C. R. Ac. Sci. and C R. Soc. Biol. for previous
years); C. Lebailly (On Piscine Haemogregarines) _C. R. Ac. Sci._ 139,
p. 576 (1904), and _C. R. Soc. Biol._ 59, p. 304 (1905); J. Lignieres,
"Sur la 'Tristeza,'" _Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 15, p. 121, pl. 6 (1901);
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7, p. 398, pl. 4 (1903); M. Luhe, "Die im Blute schmarotzenden
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1906), 3, 1; F. Marceau, "Note sur le _Karyolysus lacertarum_," _Arch.
parasitol._ 4, p. 135, 46 figs. (1901); W. MacCallum, "On the
Haematozoan Infection of Birds," _J. Exp. Med._ 3, p. 117, pl. 12
(1898); G. Mauser, "Die Malaria perniciosa," _Centrbl. Bakter._ (1)
32, Orig. p. 695, 3 pls. (1902); C. Nicolle (On various Reptilian
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figs. (1904); Nicolle and C. Comte, "Sur le role ... de _Hyalomma_ ...
dans l'infection hemogregarinienne," op. cit. 58, p. 1045 (1905);
Norcard and Motas, "Contribution a l'etude de la piroplasmose canine,"
_Ann. Inst. Pasteur_, 16, p. 256, pls. 5 and 6 (1902); G. Nuttall and
G. Graham-Smith, "Canine piroplasmosis," _J. Hygiene_, p. 237, pl. 9
(1905); F. Schaudinn, "Der Generationswechsel der Coccidien und
Hamosporidien," _Zool. Centrbl._ 6, p. 675 (1899); "Studien uber
krankheitserregende Protozoen--II. _Plasmodium vivax_," _Arb. Kais.
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(1904), _op. cit._ 58, pp. 56, 57, 670 (1905); J. Siegel, "Die
geschlechtliche Entwickelung von _Haemogregarina_," &c., _Arch.
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l'etude des hematozoaires endoglobulaires des reptiles," _Ann. Inst.
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Cattle Fever," _Rep. Bureau Animal Industry_, U.S.A., 9 and 10, p.
177, pls. (1893); A. Theiler, "The _Piroplasma bigeminum_ of the
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1, p. 31, 2 pls. (1904). (H. M. Wo.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Compare, for example, the flagellated granules of certain
Coccidia, which point unmistakably to a Flagellate ancestry.

[2] A possible exception is a doubtful species of _Haemogregarina_,
which has been described from the walls of the blood-vessels of an
Annelid.

[3] For an interesting account of the biological relations between
parasites and their hosts, and the penalty Man pays for his roving
propensities, the reader should see Lankester's article in the
_Quarterly Review_, July 1904.

[4] This does away with one of the principal reasons on account of
which some authorities consider _Piroplasma (Leishmania) donovani_ as
quite distinct from other _Piroplasmata_ (see TRYPANOSOMES).

[5] It must not be forgotten that one species of _Halteridium (H.
[Trypanomorpha] noctuae)_ is said to have well-marked trypaniform
phases in its life-cycle; these are preferably considered under
_Trypanosomes_ (q.v.), and therefore, to avoid repetition, are only
thus alluded to here. Whether _H. danilewskyi_ also becomes
trypaniform in certain phases, and how far it really agrees with the
criteria of a Haemosporidian above postulated, are matters which are
not yet definitely known.

HAETZER, or HETZER, LUDWIG (d. 1529), Swiss divine, was born in Switzerland, at Bischofszell, in Thurgau. He studied at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and began his career in a chaplaincy at Wadenswil, on the Lake of Zurich. At this time his attachment to the old faith was tempered by a mystical turn, and by a devotion to the prophetical writings of the Old Testament, which he studied in the original. By 1523 we find him in Zurich, where he published, at first anonymously and in Latin (_Judicium Dei_), later with his name and in German (Sept. 24, 1523), a small tract against the religious use of images, and bearing the motto attached to all his subsequent works, "O Got erlosz die (or dein) Gefangnen" ("O God, set the prisoners free"). An attempt to give effect to the teaching of this (frequently reprinted) tract was followed by a public religious disputation, of which Haetzer drew up the official account. In 1524 he brought out a tract on the conversion of the Jews, and published a German version of Johann Bugenhagen's brief exposition of the epistles of St Paul (Ephesians to Hebrews); in the dedication (dated Zurich, June 29, 1524) he undertakes to translate Bugenhagen's comment on the Psalter. He then went to Augsburg, bearing Zwingli's introduction to Johann Frosch. Here he came for a time under the influence of Urbanus Regius, and was for a short time the guest of Georg Regel. Returning to Zurich, he was in intercourse with leading Anabaptists (though his own position was simply the disuse of infant baptism) till their expulsion in January 1525. Again resorting to Augsburg, and resuming work as corrector of the press for his printer Silvan Ottmar, he pushed his views to the extreme of rejecting all sacraments, reaching something like the mystical standpoint of the early Quakers. He was expelled from Augsburg in the autumn of 1525, and made his way through Constance to Basel, where Oecolampadius received him kindly. He translated into German the first treatise of Oecolampadius on the Lord's Supper (in which the words of institution are taken figuratively), and proceeding to Zurich in November, published his version there in February 1526, with a preface disclaiming connexion with the Anabaptists. His relations with Zwingli were difficult; returning to Basel he published (July 18, 1526) his translation of Malachi, with Oecolampadius's exposition, and with a preface reflecting on Zwingli. This he followed by a version of Isaiah xxxvi.-xxxvii. He next went to Strassburg, and was received by Wolfgang Capito. At Strassburg in the late autumn of 1526 he fell in with Hans Dengk or Denck, who collaborated with him in the production of his _opus magnum_, the translation of the Hebrew Prophets, _Alle Propheten nach hebraischer Sprach vertuetscht_. The preface is dated Worms, 3 April 1527; and there are editions, Worms, 13 April 1527, folio; Augsburg, 22 June 1527, folio; Worms, 7 Sept. 1527, 16 deg.; and Augsburg, 1528, folio. It was the first Protestant version of the prophets in German, preceding Luther's by five years, and highly spoken of by him. Haetzer and Denck now entered on a propagandist mission from place to place, with some success, but of short duration. Denck died at Basel in November 1527. Haetzer was arrested at Constance in the summer of 1528. After long imprisonment and many examinations he was condemned on the 3rd of February 1529 to die by the sword, and the sentence was executed on the following day. His demeanour on the scaffold impressed impartial witnesses, Hans Zwick and Thomas Blaurer, who speak warmly of his fervour and courage. The Dutch Baptist Martyrology describes him as "a servant of Jesus Christ." The Moravian Chronicle says "he was condemned for the sake of divine truth." His papers included an unpublished treatise against the essential deity of Christ, which was suppressed by Zwingli; the only extant evidence of his anti-trinitarian views being contained in eight quaint lines of German verse preserved in Sebastian Frank's _Chronica_. The discovery of his heterodox Christology (which has led modern Unitarians to regard him as their proto-martyr) was followed by charges of loose living, never heard of in his lifetime, and destitute of evidence or probability.

See Breitinger, "Anecdota quaedam de L. H." in _Museum Helveticum_
(1746), parts 21 and 23; Wallace, _Antitrinitarian Biography_ (1850);
_Dutch Martyrology_ (Hanserd Knollys Society) (1856); Th. Keim, in
Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1899). (A. Go.*)

HAFIZ. Shams-ud-din Mahommed, better known by his _takhallus_ or _nom de plume_ of Hafiz, was one of the most celebrated writers of Persian lyrical poetry. He was born at Shiraz, the capital of Fars, in the early part of the 8th century of the Mahommedan era, that is to say, in the 14th of our own. The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but he attained a ripe old age and died in 791 A.H. (A.D. 1388). This is the date given in the chronogram which is engraved on his tomb, although several Persian biographers give a different year. Very little is actually known about his life, which appears to have been passed in retirement in Shiraz, of which he always speaks in terms of affectionate admiration. He was a subject of the Muzaffar princes, who ruled in Shiraz, Yazd, Kirman and Ispahan, until the dynasty was overthrown by Timur (Tamerlane). Of these princes his especial patrons were Shah Shuja' and Shah Mansur. He early devoted himself to the study of poetry and theology, and also became learned in mystic philosophy, which he studied under Shaik Mahmud 'Attar, chief of an order of dervishes. Hafiz afterwards enrolled himself in the same order and became a professor of Koranic exegesis in a college which his friend and patron Haji Kiwam-ud-din, the vizier, specially founded for him. This was probably the reason of his adopting the sobriquet of Hafiz ("one who remembers"), which is technically applied to any person who has learned the Koran by heart. The restraints of an ascetic life seem to have been very little to Hafiz's taste, and his loose conduct and wine-bibbing propensities drew upon him the severe censure of his monastic colleagues. In revenge he satirizes them unmercifully in his verses, and seldom loses an opportunity of alluding to their hypocrisy. Hafiz's fame as a poet was soon rapidly spread throughout the Mahommedan world, and several powerful monarchs sent him presents and pressing invitations to visit them. Amongst others he was invited by Mahmud Shah Bahmani, who reigned in the south of India. After crossing the Indus and passing through Lahore he reached Hurmuz, and embarked on board a vessel sent for him by the Indian prince. He seems, however, to have been a bad sailor, and, having invented an excuse for being put ashore, made the best of his way back to Shiraz. Some biographies narrate a story of an interview between Hafiz and the invader Timur. The latter sent for him and asked angrily, "Art thou he who was so bold as to offer my two great cities Samarkand and Bokhara for the black mole on thy mistress's cheek?" alluding to a well-known verse in one of his odes. "Yes, sire," replied Hafiz, "and it is by such acts of generosity that I have brought myself to such a state of destitution that I have now to solicit your bounty." Timur was so pleased at his ready wit that he dismissed the poet with a handsome present. Unfortunately for the truth of this story Timur did not capture Shiraz till A.D. 1393, while the latest date that can be assigned to Hafiz's death is 1391. Of his private life little or nothing is known. One of his poems is said to record the death of his wife, another that of a favourite unmarried son, and several others speak of his love for a girl called _Shakh i Nabat_, "Sugar-cane branch," and this is almost all of his personal history that can be gathered from his writings. He was, like most Persians, a Shi'ite by religion, believing in the transmission of the office of Imam (head of the Moslem Church) in the family of Ali, cousin of the prophet, and rejecting the _Hadith_ (traditional sayings) of Mahomet, which form the Sunna or supplementary code of Mahommedan ceremonial law. One of his odes which contains a verse in praise of Ali is engraved on the poet's tomb, but is omitted by Sudi, the Turkish editor and commentator, who was himself a rigid Sunnite. Hafiz's heretical opinions and dissipated life caused difficulties to be raised by the ecclesiastical authorities on his death as to his interment in consecrated ground. The question was at length settled by Hafiz's own works, which had then already begun to be used, as they are now throughout the East, for the purposes of divination, in the same manner as Virgil was employed in the middle ages for the divination called _Sortes Virgilianae_. Opening the book at random after pronouncing the customary formula asking for inspiration, the objectors hit upon the following verse--"Turn not away thy foot from the bier of Hafiz, for though immersed in sin, he will be admitted into Paradise." He was accordingly buried in the centre of a small cemetery at Shiraz, now included in an enclosure called the Hafiziyeh.

His principal work is the _Diwan_, that is, a collection of short odes or sonnets called _ghazals_, and consisting of from five to sixteen _baits_ or couplets each, all the couplets in each ode having the same rhyme in the last hemistich, and the last couplet always introducing the poet's own _nom de plume_. The whole of these are arranged in alphabetical order, an arrangement which certainly facilitates reference but makes it absolutely impossible to ascertain their chronological order, and therefore detracts from their value as a means of throwing light upon the growth and development of his genius or the incidents of his career. They are often held together by a very slender thread of continuous thought, and few editions agree exactly in the order of the couplets. Still, a careful study of them, especially from the point of view indicated by the Sufiistic system of philosophy, will always show that a single idea does run throughout the whole. The nature of these poems has been the subject of much discussion in the West, some scholars seeing in their anacreontic utterances nothing but sensuality and materialism, while others, following the Oriental school, maintain that they are wholly and entirely mystic and philosophic. Something between the two would probably be nearer the truth. It must be remembered that Hafiz was a professed dervish and Sufi, and that his _ghazals_ were in all probability published from a _takia_, and arranged with at least a view to Sufiistic interpretation. At the same time it is ridiculous to suppose that the glowing imagery, the gorgeous and often tender descriptions of natural beauties, the fervent love passages, and the roystering drinking songs were composed in cool blood or with deliberate ascetic purpose. The beauty of Hafiz's poetry is that it is natural. It is the outcome of a fervent soul and a lofty genius delighting in nature and enjoying life; and it is the poet's misfortune that he lived in an age and amongst a people where rigid conventionality demanded that his free and spontaneous thoughts should be recast in an artificial mould.

Besides the _Diwan_, Hafiz wrote a number of other poems; the Leipzig
edition of his works contains 573 _ghazals_ (forming the _Diwan_), 42
_kit'as_ or fragments, 69 _ruba'iyat_ or tetrastics, 6 _masnaviyat_ or
poems in rhyming couplets, 2 _kasaid_, idylls or panegyrics, and 1
_mukhammes_ or poem in five-line strophes. Other editions contain
several _tarji'-band_ or poems with a refrain. The whole _Diwan_ was
translated into English prose by H. Wilberforce Clarke in 1891, with
introduction and exhaustive commentary and bibliography; a few rhyming
versions of single poems by Sir William Jones, J. Nott, J. Hindley,
Falconer, &c., are to be found scattered through the pages of the
_Oriental Miscellany_ and other periodicals, and a fine edition
containing a verse rendering of the principal poems by H. Bicknell
appeared in 1875. Other selections by S. Robinson (1875), A. Rogers
(1889), J. H. M'Carthy (1893), and Gertrude L. Bell (1897). The
principal German versions are by von Hammer Purgstall (1812), which
gave the first impulse to Goethe's _Westostlicher Diwan_; a rhyming
and rhythmical translation of a large portion of Hafiz's works by
Vincenz von Rosenzweig of Vienna (Vienna, 1858), which contains also
the Persian text and notes; _Der Diwan des Schemseddin Muhammed
Hafis_, by G. H. F. Nesselmann (Berlin, 1865), in which the rhyming
system of the original is imitated. Besides these, the reader may
consult d'Herbelot, _Bibliotheque orientale_, article "Hafiz"; Sir
William Ouseley's _Oriental Collections_ (1797-1798); _A Specimen of
Persian Poetry, or Odes of Hafiz_, by John Richardson (London, 1802);
_Biographical Notices of Persian Poets_, by Sir Gore Ouseley (Oriental
Translation Fund, 1846); and an excellent article by Professor E. B.
Cowell in _Macmillan's Magazine_ (No. 177, July 1874); J. A. Vullers,
_Vitae poetarum Persicorum_ (1839, translated from Daulatshah); S.
Robinson, _Persian Poetry for English Readers_ (1883). The best
edition of the text is perhaps that edited by Hermann Brockhaus of
Leipzig (1854-1856). which is based on the recension of the Turkish
editor Sudi, and contains his commentary in Turkish on the first
eighty _ghazals_. See also H. Ethe in _Grundriss der iranischen
Philologie_, ii. (Strassburg, 1896); P. Horn, _Geschichte der
persischen Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1901). (E. H. P.)

HAG. (1) (Probably a shortened form of the O. Eng. _haegtesse_, _hegtes_, cognate with Ger. _Hexe_, witch, Dutch _hecse_), a word common during the 16th and 17th centuries for a female demon or evil spirit, and so particularly applied to such supernatural beings as the harpies and fairies of classical mythology, and also to witches. In modern usage the word is generally used of a hideous old woman whose repulsive exterior is accompanied by malice or wickedness. The name is also used of an eel-like parasitic fish, _Myxine glutinosa_, allied to the lamprey.

(2) A word common in Scottish and northern English dialects for an enclosed piece of wood, a copse. This is the same word as "hedge" (see HEDGES) and "haw." "Hag" also means "to cut," and is used in Scotland of an extent of woodland marked out for felling, and of a quantity of felled wood. This word is also used of a cutting in the peat of a "moss" or "bog," and hence applied to the small plots of firm ground or heather in a bog; it is common in the form "moss-hags."

HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON (1708-1754), German poet, was born on the 23rd of April 1708 at Hamburg, where his father, a man of scientific and literary taste, was Danish minister. He was educated at the gymnasium of Hamburg, and later (1726) became a student of law at Jena. Returning to Hamburg in 1729, he obtained the appointment of unpaid private secretary to the Danish ambassador in London, where he lived till 1731. Hagedorn's return to Hamburg was followed by a period of great poverty and hardship, but in 1733 he was appointed secretary to the so-called "English Court" (_Englischer Hof_) in Hamburg, a trading company founded in the 13th century. He shortly afterwards married, and from this time had sufficient leisure to pursue his literary occupations till his death on the 28th of October 1754. Hagedorn is the first German poet who bears unmistakable testimony to the nation's recovery from the devastation wrought by the Thirty Years' War. He is eminently a social poet. His light and graceful love-songs and anacreontics, with their undisguised _joie de vivre_, introduced a new note into the German lyric; his fables and tales in verse are hardly inferior in form and in delicate persiflage to those of his master La Fontaine, and his moralizing poetry re-echoes the philosophy of Horace. He exerted a dominant influence on the German lyric until late in the 18th century.

The first collection of Hagedorn's poems was published at Hamburg
shortly after his return from Jena in 1729, under the title _Versuch
einiger Gedichte_ (reprinted by A. Sauer, Heilbronn, 1883). In 1738
appeared _Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzahlungen_; in 1742 a
collection of his lyric poems, under the title _Sammlung neuer Oden
und Lieder_; and his _Moralische Gedichte_ in 1750. A collection of
his entire works was published at Hamburg after his death in 1757. The
best is J. J. Eschenburg's edition (5 vols., Hamburg, 1800).
Selections of his poetry with an excellent introduction in F.
Muncker's _Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische Lyriker_
(Stuttgart, 1894). See also H. Schuster, _F. von Hagedorn und seine
Bedeutung fur die deutsche Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1882); W. Eigenbrodt,
_Hagedorn und die Erzahlung in Reimversen_ (Berlin, 1884).

HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (1780-1856), German philologist, chiefly distinguished for his researches in Old German literature, was born at Schmiedeberg In Brandenburg on the 19th of February 1780. After studying law at the university of Halle, he obtained a legal appointment in the state service at Berlin, but in 1806 resigned this office in order to devote himself exclusively to letters. In 1810 he was appointed _professor extraordinarius_ of German literature in the university of Berlin; in the following year he was transferred in a similar capacity to Breslau, and in 1821 returned to Berlin as _professor ordinarius_. He died at Berlin on the 11th of June 1856. Although von der Hagen's critical work is now entirely out of date, the chief merit of awakening an interest in old German poetry belongs to him.

His principal publications are the _Nibelungenlied_, of which he
issued four editions, the first in 1810 and the last in 1842; the
_Minnesinger_ (Leipzig, 1838-1856, 4 vols, in 5 parts); _Lieder der
altern Edda_ (Berlin, 1812); _Gottfried von Strassburg_ (Berlin,
1823); a collection of Old German tales under the title
_Gesamtabenteuer_ (Stuttgart, 1850, 3 vols.) and _Das Heldenbuch_
(Leipzig, 1855). He also published _Uber die altesten Darstellungen
der Faustsage_ (Berlin, 1844); and from 1835 he edited _Das neue
Jahrbuch der Berlinischen Gesellschaft fur deutsche Sprache und
Altertumskunde_. His correspondence with C. G. Heyne and G. F. Benecke
was published by K. Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1893).

HAGEN, a town of Germany, In the Prussian province of Westphalia. Pop. (1905), 77,498. It lies amid well-wooded hills at the confluence of the Ennepe with the Volme, 15 m. N.E. of Elberfeld, on the main line to Brunswick and Berlin, and at the junction of important lines of railway, connecting it with the principal towns of the Westphalian iron district. It has five Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, an Old Catholic church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, realgyrnnasium, and a technical school with special classes for machine-building. There are also a museum, a theatre, and a prettily arranged municipal park. Hagen is one of the most flourishing commercial towns in Westphalia, and possesses extensive iron and steel works, large cotton print works, woollen and cotton factories, manufactures of leather, paper, tobacco, and iron and steel wares, breweries and distilleries. There are large limestone quarries in the vicinity and also an alabaster quarry.

HAGENAU, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, situated in the middle of the Hagenau Forest, on the Moder, and on the railway from Strassburg to Weissenburg, 10 m. N.N.E. of the former city. Pop. (1905), 18,500. It has two Evangelical and two ancient Catholic churches (one dating from the 12th, the other from the 13th century), a gymnasium, a public library, a hospital, and a theatre. The principal industries are wool and cotton spinning, and the manufacture of porcelain, earthenware, boots, soap, oil, sparkling wines and beer. There is also considerable trade in hops and vegetables. Hagenau is an important military centre and has a large garrison, including three artillery battalions.

Hagenau dates from the beginning of the 12th century, and owes its origin to the erection of a hunting lodge by the dukes of Swabia. The emperor Frederick I. surrounded it with walls and gave it town rights in 1154. On the site of the hunting lodge he founded an imperial palace, in which were preserved the jewelled imperial crown, sceptre, imperial globe, and sword of Charlemagne. Subsequently it became the seat of the _Landvogt_ of Hagenau, the imperial _advocatus_ in Lower Alsace. Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans, made it an imperial city in 1257. In 1648 it came into the possession of France, and in 1673 Louis XIV. caused the fortifications to be razed. In 1675 it was captured by imperial troops, but in 1677 it was retaken by the French and nearly all destroyed by fire. In 1871 it fell, with the rest of Alsace-Lorraine, into the possession of Germany.

HAGENBACH, KARL RUDOLF (1801-1874). German church historian, was born on the 4th of March 1801 at Basel, where his father was a practising physician. His preliminary education was received at a Pestalozzian school, and afterwards at the gymnasium, whence in due course he passed to the newly reorganized local university. He early devoted himself to theological studies and the service of the church, while at the same time cherishing and developing broad "humanistic" tendencies which found expression in many ways and especially in an enthusiastic admiration for the writings of Herder. The years 1820-1823 were spent first at Bonn, where G. C. F. Lucke (1791-1855) exerted a powerful influence on his thought, and afterwards at Berlin, where Schleiermacher and Neander became his masters. Returning in 1823 to Basel, where W. M. L. de Wette had recently been appointed to a theological chair, he distinguished himself greatly by his trial-dissertation, _Observationes historico-hermeneuticae circa Origenis methodum interpretendae sacrae Scripturae_; in 1824 he became professor extraordinarius, and in 1829 professor ordinarius of theology. Apart from his academic labours in connexion with the history of dogma and of the church, he lived a life of great and varied usefulness as a theologian, a preacher and a citizen; and at his "jubilee" in 1873, not only the university and town of Basel but also the various churches of Switzerland united to do him honour. He died at Basel on the 7th of June 1874.

Hagenbach was a voluminous author in many departments, but he is specially distinguished as a writer on church history. Though neither so learned and condensed as the contributions of Gieseler, nor so original and profound as those of Neander, his lectures are clear, attractive and free from narrow sectarian prejudice. In dogmatics, while avowedly a champion of the "mediation theology" (_Vermittelungstheologie_), based upon the fundamental conceptions of Herder and Schleiermacher, he was much less revolutionary than were many others of his school. He sought to maintain the old confessional documents, and to make the objective prevail over the purely subjective manner of viewing theological questions. But he himself was aware that in the endeavour to do so he was not always successful, and that his delineations of Christian dogma often betrayed a vacillating and uncertain hand.

His works include _Tabellarische Ubersicht der Dogmengeschichte_
(1828); _Encyclopadie u. Methodologie der theol. Wissenschaften_
(1833); _Vorlesungen uber Wesen u. Geschichte der Reformation u. des
Protestantismus_ (1834-1843); _Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte_
(1840-1841, 5th ed., 1867; English transl., 1850); _Vorlesungen uber
die Geschichte der alien Kirche_ (1853-1855); _Vorlesungen uber die
Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_ (1860-1861); _Grundlinien der
Homiletik u. Liturgik_ (1863); biographies of Johannes Oecolampadius
(1482-1564) and Oswald Myconius (1488-1552) and a _Geschichte der
theol. Schule Basels_ (1860); his _Predigten_ (1858-1875), two volumes
of poems entitled _Luther u. seine Zeit_ (1838), and _Gedichte_
(1846). The lectures on church history under the general title
_Vorlesungen uber die Kirchengeschichte von der altesten Zeit bis zum
19ten Jahrhundert_ were reissued in seven volumes (1868-1872).

See especially the article in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_.

HAGENBECK, CARL (1844- ), wild-animal collector and dealer, was born at Hamburg in 1844. In 1848 his father purchased some seals and a Polar bear brought to Hamburg by a whaler, and subsequently acquired many other wild animals. At the age of twenty-one Carl Hagenbeck was given the whole collection, and before long had greatly extended the business, so that in 1873 he had to erect large buildings in Hamburg to house his animals. In 1875 he began to exhibit a collection of the representative animals of many countries, accompanied by troupes of the natives of the respective countries, throughout all the large cities of Europe. The educational value of these exhibitions was officially recognized by the French government, which in 1891 awarded Hagenbeck the diploma of the Academy. Most of the wild animals exhibited in music-halls and other popular places of entertainment throughout the world have come from Hagenbeck's collection at Stellingen, near Hamburg.

HAGERSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Maryland, U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 86 m. by rail W.N.W. from Baltimore. Pop. (1890), 10,118; (1900), 13,591, of whom 1277 were negroes; (1910, census), 16,507. Hagerstown is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Western Maryland, the Norfolk & Western, and the Cumberland Valley railways, and by an interurban electric line. It lies in a fertile valley overlooked by South Mountain to the E. and North Mountain, more distant, to the W. The city is the seat of Kee Mar College (1852; non-sectarian) for women. Hagerstown is a business centre for the surrounding agricultural district, has good water power, and as a manufacturing centre ranked third in the state in 1905, its factory products being valued in that year at $3,026,901, an increase of 66.3% over their value in 1900. Among the manufactures are flour, shirts, hosiery, gloves, bicycles, automobiles, agricultural implements, print paper, fertilizers, sash, doors and blinds, furniture, carriages, spokes and wheels. The municipality owns and operates its electric lighting plant. Hagerstown was laid out as a town in 1762 by Captain Jonathan Hager (who had received a patent to 200 acres here from Lord Baltimore in 1739), and was incorporated in 1791. It was an important station on the old National (or Cumberland) Road. General R. E. Lee concentrated his forces at Hagerstown before the battle of Gettysburg.

HAG-FISH, GLUTINOUS HAG, Or BORER (_Myxine_), a marine fish which forms with the lampreys one of the lowest orders of vertebrates (_Cyclostomata_). Similar in form to a lamprey, it is usually found within the body of dead cod or haddock, on the flesh of which it feeds after having buried itself in the abdomen. When caught, it secretes a thick glutinous slime in such quantity that it is commonly believed to have the power of converting water into glue. It is found in the North Atlantic and other temperate seas of the globe, being taken in some localities in large numbers, e.g. off the east coast of Scotland and the west coast of California (see CYCLOSTOMATA).

HAGGADA, or 'AGADA (literally "narrative"), includes the more homiletic elements of rabbinic teaching. It is not logically distinguishable from the halakha (q.v.), for the latter or forensic element makes up with the haggada the Midrash (q.v.), but, being more popular than the halakha, is often itself styled the Midrash. It may be described as the poetical and ethical element as contrasted with the legal element in the Talmud (q.v.), but the two elements are always closely connected. From one point of view the haggada, amplifying and developing the contents of Hebrew scripture in response to a popular religious need, may be termed a rabbinical commentary on the Old Testament, containing traditional stories and legends, sometimes amusing, sometimes trivial, and often beautiful. The haggada abounds in parables. The haggadic passages of the Talmud were collected in the _Eye of Jacob_, a very popular compilation completed by Jakob ibn Habib in the 16th century.

HAGGAI, in the Bible, the tenth in order of the "minor prophets," whose writings are preserved in the Old Testament. The name Haggai ([Hebrew: Haggai], Gr. [Greek: 'Aggaios], whence Aggeus in the English version of the Apocrypha) perhaps means "born on the feast day," "festive." But Wellhausen[1] is probably right in taking the word as a contraction for Hagariah ("Yahweh hath girded"), just as Zaccai (Zacchaeus) is known to be a contraction of Zechariah.

The book of Haggai contains four short prophecies delivered between the first day of the sixth month and the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month--that is, between September and December--of the second year of Darius the king. The king in question must be Darius Hystaspis (521-485 B.C.). The language of the prophet in ii. 3 suggests the probability that he was himself one of those whose memories reached across the seventy years of the captivity, and that his prophetic work began in extreme old age. This supposition agrees well with the shortness of the period covered by his book, and with the fact that Zechariah, who began to prophesy in the same autumn and was associated with Haggai's labours (Ezra v. 1), afterwards appears as the leading prophet in Jerusalem (Zech. vii. 1-4). We know nothing further of the personal history of Haggai from the Bible. Later traditions may be read in Carpzov's _Introductio_, pars 3, cap. xvi. Epiphanius (_Vitae prophetarum_) says that he came up from Babylon while still young, prophesied the return, witnessed the building of the temple and received an honoured burial near the priests. Haggai's name is mentioned in the titles of several psalms in the Septuagint (Psalms cxxxvii., cxlv.-cxlviii.) and other versions, but these titles are without value, and moreover vary in MSS. Eusebius did not find them in the Hexaplar Septuagint.[2]

In his first prophecy (i. 1-11) Haggai addresses Zerubbabel and Joshua, rebuking the people for leaving the temple unbuilt while they are busy in providing panelled houses for themselves. The prevalent famine and distress are due to Yahweh's indignation at such remissness. Let them build the house, and Yahweh will take pleasure in it and acknowledge the honour paid to Him. The rebuke took effect, and the people began to work at the temple, strengthened by the prophet's assurance that the Lord was with them (i. 12-15). In a second prophecy (ii. 1-9) delivered in the following month, Haggai forbids the people to be disheartened by the apparent meanness of the new temple. The silver and gold are the Lord's. He will soon shake all nations and their choicest gifts will be brought to adorn His house. Its glory shall be greater than that of the former temple, and in this place He will give peace. A third prophecy (ii. 10-19) contains a promise, enforced by a figure drawn from the priestly ritual, that God will remove famine and bless the land from the day of the foundation of the temple onwards. Finally, in ii. 20-23, Zerubbabel is assured of God's special love and protection in the impending catastrophe of kingdoms and nations to which the prophet had formerly pointed as preceding the glorification of God's house on Zion. In thus looking forward to a shaking of all nations Haggai agrees with earlier prophecies, especially Isa. xxiv.-xxvii., while his picture of the glory and peace of the new Zion and its temple is drawn from the great anonymous prophet who penned Isa. lx and lxvi. The characteristic features of the book are the importance assigned to the personality of Zerubbabel, who, though a living contemporary, is marked out as the Messiah; and the almost sacramental significance attached to the temple. The hopes fixed on Zerubbabel, the chosen of the Lord, dear to Him as His signet ring (cf. Jer. xxii. 24), are a last echo in Old Testament prophecy of the theocratic importance of the house of David. In the book of Zechariah Zerubbabel has already fallen into the background and the high priest is the leading figure of the Judean community.[3] The stem of David is superseded by the house of Zadok, the kingship has yielded to the priesthood, and the extinction of national hopes gives new importance to that strict organization of the hierarchy for which Ezekiel had prepared the way by his sentence of disfranchisement against the non-Zadokite priests.