Chapter XI: Scientific and Ethical Elements in Religious Systems (2)

[225] _Journal of American Folklore_, xvii, 32. Cf. the
dance for the benefit of a sick man (R. B. Dixon, "Some
Shamans of Northern California," op. cit., xvii, 23 ff.).

[226] _Journal of American Folklore_, iv, 307. Cf. Will and
Spinden, _The Mandans_, pp. 129 ff., 143 ff. The gods
themselves, also, have their festive dances (W. Matthews,
_Navaho Legends_, p. 83), and are sometimes represented as
the authors of the sacred chants (ibid. p. 225).

[227] See W. Matthews, loc. cit.

[228] See, further, _Journal of American Folklore_, iii,
257; iv, 129; xii, 81 (basket dances); R. B. Dixon, _The
Northern Maidu_, p. 183 ff. (numerous and elaborate, and
sometimes economic); Robertson, _Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush_,
chap. 33; N. W. Thomas, _Australia_, chap. 7. Thomas
describes many Australian games, and Dixon (_The Shasta_, p.
441 ff.) Californian games. For stories told by the natives
of Guiana see above, § 106.

[229] 2 Sam. vi, 5.

[230] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 133 f., 409 f.

[231] A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi_, p. 226.

[232] So, probably, the Old-Hebrew ark.

[233] See the references in article "Circumambulation" in
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[234] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, 3d ed., p. 542. This
sexual instinct is carried back by Darwin (_Descent of Man_,
chap. xii) to the lower animals.

[235] Cf. Gen. iii, 7. There is no conclusive evidence that
the concealment of parts of the body by savages is prompted
by modesty (cf. Ratzel, _History of Mankind_, i, 93 ff.),
but it may have contributed to the development of this
feeling.

[236] Cf. Y. Him, _Origins of Art_, chap. xvi. For the Maori
usage see R. Taylor, _New Zealand and its Inhabitants_,
chap. xviii.

[237] Cf. Lucien Carr, "Dress and Ornaments of Certain
American Indians" (in _Proceedings of the American
Antiquarian Society_, 1897).

[238] Ratzel, op. cit., Index, s.v. _Tattooing_; Boas, _The
Central Eskimo_, p. 561; Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_,
chap. ii. Among some tribes (as the Fijians) untattooed
persons are denied entrance into the other world. Naturally
the origin of tattoo is by some tribes referred to deities:
see Turner, _Samoa_, p. 55 f.; _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xix, 100 (New Zealand); xvii,
318 ff. (Queen Charlotte Islands and Alaska). The Ainu hold
that it drives away demons (Batchelor, _The Ainu_, p. 22).

[239] Turner, op. cit., p. 141.

[240] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, chap. vi.

[241] Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, p. 31 ff.; cf. chap. i.

[242] Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., chap. vii.

[243] On a possible connection between tattoo marks and
stigmata cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 3d ed.,
p. 334.

[244] See § 23. Blood of men is sometimes drunk, simply to
assuage thirst, or as a curative (Spencer and Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 462, 464).

[245] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_,
Index, s.v. _Art, decorative_; _Journal of American
Folklore_, vol. xviii, no. 69 (April, 1905).

[246] So the dress of the Jewish high priest (Ex. xxviii),
that of the Lamas of Tibet (Abbé Huc, _Travels in Tartary,
Tibet and China_, ii, chap. ii; Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_, p.
250), and costumes in some Christian bodies.

[247] Of the same nature is Jeremy Taylor's view (_An
Apology for authorized and set forms of Liturgy_, Question
1, § 7 ff.) that, as earthly monarchs are not addressed in
the language of everyday familiar intercourse, so it is not
proper that the deity should be approached with other than
choice and dignified words--public prayers should be
carefully worded.

[248] Cf. A. C. Haddon, article "Art" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[249] A. de Quatrefages, _The Pygmies_, p. 157.

[250] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_,
Index, s.v. _Hunting_.

[251] Batchelor, _The Ainu_ (the hunting of the bear); and
so many American tribes, and, in part, some half-civilized
peoples, as the Arabs of North Africa.

[252] Teit, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, ii, 280.

[253] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
291 ff.

[254] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 8 (cf. p. 24).

[255] Hollis (op. cit., p. 6 f.) relates that on a certain
occasion when his party was driven from its wagons by a
swarm of bees, a Nandi man appeared, announced that he was
of the bee totem, and volunteered to restore quiet, which he
did, going stark naked into the swarm. His success was
doubtless due to his knowledge of the habits of bees.

[256] So in the Tsimshian ceremony in eating the first fish
caught (Boas, in _Fifth Report of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science_, vol. lix, p. 51). Cf. the
Jewish rule (Ex. xii, 46), which may have had a similar
origin.

[257] Teit, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, ii, 282. A
similar provision is mentioned in Ex. xvi, 16-20.

[258] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 167 f., and _Native Tribes of Northern
Australia_, p. 308 etc.; Strehlow, _Die Aranda-und
Loritjastämme in Zentralaustralien_, part ii, p. 39 etc.

[259] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 285 f.

[260] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
177 f.

[261] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. 149.

[262] Seligmann, op. cit., p. 291 ff.

[263] Here again the taboos are precautions against
injurious supernatural influences.

[264] He is said also to imitate the cries of animals--that
is, he combines natural means with supernatural.

[265] Spencer and Gillen, and Strehlow, loc. cit.

[266] This feeling for the tribal life may be called
germinal public spirit. Cf. above, § 103.

[267] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 238 ff.

[268] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 526.

[269] Frazer (_Golden Bough_, 2d. ed., ii, 43 ff.) refers to
B. Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, ii, 311; Strachey,
_Historie_, p. 84; Krapf, _Travels_, p. 69 f.; Mone,
_Geschichte des Heldenthums im nördlichen Europa_, i, 119.
See, further, T. Williams and Calvert, _Fiji_, p. 181 f.; W.
Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_,
ii, 169.

[270] Ex. xxii, 29 [28]; xiii, 12, 13.

[271] Spencer and Gillen, op. cit., chap. vi.

[272] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxv, 104
ff.

[273] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 78.

[274] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiii, 18;
xxvi, 30. Other examples are given by Frazer in his _Golden
Bough_, 2d. ed., i, 81 ff., 163; he cites cases of persons
(priests and kings) held responsible for rain, and put to
death if they failed to supply it.

[275] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 145. On certain Roman ceremonies
(that of the lapis manalis and others) that have been
supposed to be connected with rain making see Wissowa,
_Religion und Kultus der Römer_, p. 106; W. W. Fowler,
_Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic_, iii.

[276] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 23.

[277] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 454; Westermarck,
_Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, i, 52 ff.; ii,
532 ff.

[278] There is, of course, another side to the character of
ghosts--sometimes they are friendly.

[279] Ploss, _Das Kind_, 2d ed., i, chap. iv.

[280] Numb. xix.

[281] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 39 ff.

[282] J. J. M. de Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chap.
ii.

[283] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, new ed., p. 321 f.

[284] Josh. vii (story of Achan).

[285] Examples are given in Frazer's _Golden Bough_, loc.
cit.

[286] Lev. xiv, 1-9.

[287] Lev. xvi. Cf. the vision (Zech. v, 5 ff.) in which
wickedness (or guilt), in the shape of a woman, is
represented (in no brotherly spirit) as being transferred
from Jewish soil to Shinar (Chaldea).

[288] Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of
Greek Religion_, p. 95 ff.

[289] Later the festival was certainly connected with the
driving forth of winter, but its earlier form was, probably,
as given above.

[290] W. W. Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, Index, s.v.
_Mamurius, Lupercalia_. The beating was supposed also to
have fertilizing power; cf. S. Hartland, _Primitive
Paternity_, i, 100 ff.

[291] Deut. xvi; Ex. xii.

[292] In some savage tribes the older men seem to have
nothing to do but arrange ceremonies.

[293] There is a faint survival, perhaps, in the use of
incense in churches.

[294] A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der
Gegenwart_, ed. E. H. Meyer, Index; J. H. King, _The
Supernatural_, i, 111 ff.

[295] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xii, 129
ff. (Andaman Islands); ibid. xxv, 188 (East Africa);
Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. iii; Frazer, _Golden
Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.

[296] A. L. Kroeber, in _University of California
Publications in American Archæology and Ethnology_, ii,
viii; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, chap. xliii (on homosexual relations).

[297] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 326; iii, 204 ff.;
Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, Index, s.v. _Puberty_;
Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 55.

[298] See below, under "Taboo."

[299] Emasculation, of course, does not belong here; it is
not a custom of initiation proper.

[300] Cf. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 135.

[301] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxvii, 406
(Omahas). On mutilation as a general religious rite see H.
Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, 189, 290, and as
punishment, Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the
Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Mutilation_.

[302] Roscher, _Lexikon_, articles "Attis," "Kybele." Origen
is a noteworthy example in Christian times; cf. Matt. xix,
12.

[303] For details of diffusion, methods, etc., see article
"Circumcision" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_.

[304] This is an incision of the penis from the meatus down
to the scrotal pouch.

[305] Herodotus, ii, 37.

[306] Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 137 f.

[307] Ploss, _Das Kind_, 2d ed., i, 368 f.

[308] On phallic cults see below, § 388 ff.

[309] Gen. xxiv, 2 f.

[310] A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba_, p. 66.

[311] J. G. Frazer, in the _Independent Review_, iv, 204 ff.

[312] Circumcision of females is the removal of the clitoris
and the labia minora; introcision is the enlargement of the
vaginal orifice by tearing it downwards; infibulation is the
closing of the labia just after circumcision. Cf. Ploss,
_Das Weib_, 2d ed., i, chap. v.

[313] Cf. also the great extent to which masturbation
prevails among savages. Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xliii.

[314] A rod is thrust through the glans of the penis; see
Roth, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxii,
45 (the palang); cf. Ploss, _Das Weib_, 2d ed., i, chap. xi;
J. Macdonald, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
xx, 116.

[315] Cf. the defloration of young women (by certain
officially appointed men) on the occasion of their arriving
at the age of puberty; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 503; Spencer
and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 93;
Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 347.

[316] Gen. xvii. Islam has no divine sanction for
circumcision; it is not mentioned in the Koran, doubtless
because Mohammed took it for granted as a current usage.

[317] 1 Sam. xvii, 26.

[318] Article "Circumcision (Egyptian)" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, and the literature
there cited.

[319] Deut. x, 16; Jer. ix, 25 f.; Rom. ii, 28 f.

[320] Article "Brotherhood (artificial)" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[321] Cf. H. C. Trumbull, _The Blood-Covenant_, passim; W.
R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., Index, s.v.
_Blood Covenant_.

[322] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 422 ff.; cf.
Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 185 f.

[323] Alice Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_, p. 278.

[324] §§ 533, 1095 ff., 1161 ff.

[325] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxv, 295
(South Australia); Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East
Australia_, p. 531 f.

[326] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii, 296
(Queensland); Howitt, loc. cit.; Spencer and Gillen, _Native
Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 221, 223, and _Native
Tribes of Northern Australia_, p. 361.

[327] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, chap. ii ff.

[328] The office of sponsor exists in embryonic form in many
savage communities; for boys the sponsor is the father or
other near relation, for girls an old woman. The duties of
savage sponsors usually continue only during the period of
initiation.

[329] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_; H. N. Hutchinson,
_Marriage Customs in Many Lands_; Ch. Letourneau, _The
Evolution of Marriage and of the Family_; Crawley, _The
Mystic Rose_; and the references in G. E. Howard's _History
of Matrimonial Institutions_, i, chaps. i-iv; cf. Hartland,
_Primitive Paternity_.

[330] See below, § 429 ff.

[331] Similar restrictions existed in Greece and Rome. An
Athenian citizen was not allowed to marry a foreign woman.
In Rome connubium held in the first instance between men and
women who were citizens, though it might be extended to
include Latins and foreigners. In India marriage came to be
controlled by caste. These local and national rules
gradually yielded to rules based on degrees of
consanguinity. Marriage between near relations was looked on
with disfavor in Greece and Rome and by the Hebrews, and the
Old Testament law on this point has been adopted (with some
variations) by Christian nations. For the Arab customs see
W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, chap.
iii.

[332] Cf. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 462 ff.; W. R.
Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_, 1st ed., p.
62 ff.; Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, chaps. v, vi.

[333] In some cases, among the Todas of South India for
example, the defloration takes place shortly before the girl
reaches the age of puberty (Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 703);
more generally it is performed when she reaches this age.
This difference of time is not essential as regards the
significance of the ceremony.

[334] Cf. Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 224. For the
Old Testament Song of Songs see Budde's commentary on that
book.

[335] Sacrifices to local or other deities formed a part of
marriage ceremonies in Greece and Rome; Hera and Juno were
guardians of the sanctity of marriage. No religious ceremony
in connection with marriage is mentioned in the Old
Testament; a trace of such a ceremony occurs in the book of
Tobit (vii, 13).

[336] _The Mystic Rose_, p. 322, etc.

[337] Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, article "Marriage."

[338] The danger might continue into early childhood and
have to be guarded against; for a Greek instance see Gardner
and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 299.

[339] For details see Ploss, _Das Kind_, and works on
antiquities, Hebrew, Greek, and Roman.

[340] Cf. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 72 ff.; iv, 244
ff.

[341] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 228 ff.; and _The
Shasta_, p. 453 ff.; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 313 ff.;
Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 64 f.; D. Kidd, _Savage Childhood_,
p. 7; Lev. xii; article "Birth" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia
of Religion and Ethics_.

[342] See above, § 55 f.

[343] Tylor (_Primitive Culture_, ii, 3 ff.) suggests that
such an idea may have been supposed to account for the
general resemblance between parents and children.

[344] R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_, p. 212.

[345] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 353 ff.

[346] Turner, _Samoa_, chap. iii. In some Christian
communities the saint on whose festival day a child is born
is adopted as the child's patron saint. In the higher
ancient religions there were religious observances in
connection with the birth and rearing of children, special
divine care being sought; see, for example, the elaborate
Roman apparatus of divine guardians.

[347] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 231; H. Webster,
_Primitive Secret Societies_, p. 40 f.

[348] For methods of burial see article "Funérailles" in _La
Grande Encyclopédie_.

[349] Robertson, _The Kafirs_, chap. xxxiii; Batchelor, _The
Ainu_, chap. xlviii (the goddess of fire is asked to take
charge of the spirit of the deceased).

[350] The food and drink (of which only the soul is supposed
to be consumed by the deceased) are often utilized by the
surviving friends; such funeral feasts have played a
considerable part in religious history and survive in some
quarters to the present day.

[351] A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e_ (Dahomi), chap. viii; A. G.
Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_, p. 160 f.;
Herodotus, iv, 71 f. (Scythians); v, 5 (Thracians). Cf. the
Greek Anthesteria and the Roman Parentalia.

[352] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi, 121.

[353] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 498.

[354] For elaborate Sioux ceremonies on the death of a child
see Miss Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_ (the Shadow or Ghost
Lodge).

[355] On the disposal of the corpse, by inhumation,
cremation, exposure, etc., see article "Funérailles" cited
above; O. Schrader, in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_, ii, 16 ff.

[356] This may be in part a hygienic precaution.

[357] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 91. Cf. G. L. Kittredge,
"Disenchantment by Decapitation," in _Journal of American
Folklore_, vol. xviii, no. 68 (January, 1905).

[358] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chap. iii.

[359] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, chap. xxxvii ff.; Saussaye, _Science of Religion_
(Eng. tr.), chap. xviii; and the references given in these
works.

[360] See below, on removal of taboos.

[361] Fraser, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 306 f.

[362] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, index, s.v. _Homicide_.

[363] See below, § 201; cf. the Athenian Anthesteria and
Thargelia.

[364] In Ex. iv, 24 f., Yahweh is about to kill Moses,
apparently for neglecting a ritual act.

[365] Examples in Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 429 ff.;
cf. Knox, _Religion in Japan_, p. 39.

[366] See the practices described by Rivers, in _The Todas_,
Index, s.vv. _Bathing_, _Purification_.

[367] Schneckenburger, _Proselytentaufe_; article
"Proselyten" in Herzog, _Real-Encyklopädie_.

[368] In the New Testament baptism is said to be "for the
remission of sins" (Acts ii, 38), and is called "bath of
regeneration" (Tit. iii, 3); a quasi-magical power is
attributed to it in 1 Cor. xv, 29.

[369] For the Mazdean use of urine see _Vendidad_, Fargard
v, 160; xvi, 27, etc.; for use of buffalo's dung, Rivers,
_The Todas_, pp. 32, 173 f., etc.

[370] Rivers, op. cit., p. 367.

[371] Compare, however, the use of natural pigments for
decorative and religious purposes; see above, § 115 ff.

[372] The Toda ceremony of burning a woman's hand in the
fifth month of pregnancy, and a child's hand on the occasion
of a funeral (Rivers, _The Todas_, pp. 315, 374), may be
purificatory, but this is not clear; cf. Frazer, in _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xi.

[373] Lev. xv, 30; xvi, 15 ff.

[374] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 196.

[375] Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, p. 888 ff.; Jevons,
_Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 375; Harrison,
_Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 150 ff.

[376] Lev. xvi.

[377] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, Index, s.v.

[378] The native name of the festival, _puskita_ (busk), is
said to mean 'a fast,' but the ceremonies are largely
purificatory; Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p.
177 ff.

[379] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 300 ff.

[380] _Odyssey_, iv, 730.

[381] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, ii, 352; Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 269 f.

[382] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, chap. ix; G.
Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, pp. 60-78.

[383] Lev. viii; cf. Copleston, _Buddhism_, chap. xviii;
Lippert, _Priesterthum_ (see references in the headings to
the chapters).

[384] So in some Christian bodies.

[385] The details are given at great length by Westermarck,
op. cit., chap. xxxvii, with references to authorities.

[386] It is by nature nonsacred, and so remains so long as
it has not been made sacred by the special ceremonies that
abound in savage communities. We have here the germ of the
dualistic conception of man's constitution--the antagonism
between spirit and body.

[387] Hollis, _The Nandi_, pp. 58, 92.

[388] Cf. the danger to a common man of eating a chief's
food; see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 321 f.

[389] Frazer, In _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
xv, 94, quoted by Westermarck.

[390] H. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, § 140.

[391] In Christianity in connection with the eucharistic
meal and other observances.

[392] The true principle is stated in Isa. lviii, 3 ff.

[393] Cf. article "Calendar" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_.

[394] For a series of dance seasons see Dixon, _The Northern
Maidu_, p. 283 ff.; cf. Basset, in Hastings, _Encyclopædia
of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 513.

[395] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 94 ff.

[396] Hollis, _The Masai_, Index, s.v. _Moon_.

[397] Rivers, _The Todas_, Index, s.v. _Moon_.

[398] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii,
835.

[399] 1 Sam. xx, 6 (clan festival); Isa. i, 13; Numb.
xxviii, 11.

[400] Hastings, op. cit., ii, 555.

[401] Lev. xxiii, 33; Ps. lxxxi, 4 [3]. On the Sabbath as
perhaps full-moon day, see below, § 608.

[402] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 449 ff.

[403] Buckley, in Saussaye's _Lehrbuch der
Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed., p. 83.

[404] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 677
ff.

[405] Lev. xxiii, 23 f.; Numb. xxix, 1 ff. The Hebrew text
of Ezek. xl, 1, makes the year begin on the tenth day of
some month unnamed; but the Hebrew is probably to be
corrected after the Greek. Cf. Nowack, _Hebräische
Archäologie_, ii, 158 f.

[406] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 278.

[407] Cf. A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898), p. 55.

[408] J. W. Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi"
(in _The American Anthropologist_, xi).

[409] Prescott, _Peru_, i, 104, 127.

[410] A Saracen cult is described in _Nili opera quædam_
(Paris, 1639), pp. 28, 117.

[411] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 100; Rivers, _The Todas_, p.
593 ff.; cf. Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xviii f.;
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 132 f.

[412] For some fasting observances in astral cults see
Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_,
ii, 312 f.

[413] As food is the most pressing need.

[414] Judg. ix, 27; Neh. viii, 10.

[415] A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898), Index,
s.vv.; Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, pp. 287 f.,
290, 292.

[416] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, pp. 95 ff., 157 ff., 268
ff., 114, 124 ff., 241 ff.; cf. article "Mars" in Roscher,
_Lexikon_, col. 2416 f.

[417] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 453 ff.

[418] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 78 f.

[419] A Babylonian festival of this sort (Sakea) is
mentioned by Athenæus (in _Deipnosophistæ_, xiv, 639) on the
authority of Berosus, and "Sakea" has been identified with
"zakmuk," the Babylonian New Year's Day (cf. the story in
Esth. vi); but the details of the festival and of the
Persian Sakæa (Strabo, xi, 8) are obscure.

[420] Lev. xxiii.

[421] see above, § 128.

[422] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 46 f.

[423] Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 177 ff.

[424] Cf. the ceremony of the pharmakos in the festival of
the Thargelia (Miss Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of
Greek Religion_, p. 95 ff.).

[425] Frazer, _Golden Bough_ 2d ed., ii, 337 ff.

[426] This period has been generally held to be calendary.
Its calendary reality is denied by Legge (in _Recueil des
travaux_, xxxi) and Foucart (in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_, article "Calendar [Egyptian]").

[427] A noteworthy instance of this persistence appears in
the history of the Bene-Israel, a body of Jews living in the
Bombay Presidency (article "Bene-Israel" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_); they preserve the
Jewish religious festivals, but under Indian names.

[428] See above, §§ 4, 7.

[429] The word "fetish" (from Portuguese _feitiço_,
'artificial', then 'idol, charm,'), devised originally as a
name of charms used by the natives of the West African
coast, is often employed as a general name for early
religious practices. Its proper use is in the sense of a
dead object, as a piece of clay or a twig, in which, it is
held, a spirit dwells. The fetish is often practically a
god, often a household god; the interesting thing about it
is that the spirit, generally a tutelary spirit, can enter
the object or depart at will, may be brought in by
appropriate ceremonies, and may be dismissed when it is no
longer considered useful.

[430] Algonkin _manito_ or _manitu_ (W. Jones, in _Journal
of American Folklore_, xviii, 190); Iroquois _orenda_;
Siouan _wakonda_; Chickasa _hullo_ (_Journal of American
Folklore_, xx, 57); cf. the Masai _n'gai_, 'the unknown,
incomprehensible' (Hinde, _The Last of the Masai_, p. 99),
connected with storms and the telegraph. Other names perhaps
exist.

[431] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, Index, s.v. _Mana_.

[432] W. Jones, op. cit.

[433] It has therefore been compared to the modern idea of
force as inherent in matter.

[434] The American _manitu_ is an appellation of a personal
supernatural being. The Siouan _wakonda_ is invoked in
prayer (Miss Fletcher, _The Tree in the Dakotan Group_).

[435] Judg. xiv, 19; 1 Sam. xix, 23; Ezek. xxxix, 29. Fury
also is said to be poured out. Cf. Mark v, 30, where power
([Greek: dynamis]) is said to go out of Jesus.

[436] Cf. the Greek _energeia_ and _entelecheia_.

[437] Cf. I. King, _The Development of Religion_, chap. vi.

[438] Examples in J. H. King, _The Supernatural_. Cf. T. S.
Knowlson, _Origins of Popular Superstitions_, etc.; T.
Keightley, _Fairy Mythology_.

[439] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, 3d ed., ii, 229 ff.:
article "Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_.

[440] This may have been simply the transference to them of
human custom, or it may also have been suggested by the
obvious social organization of such animals as bees, ants,
goats, deer, monkeys.

[441] Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 21, 26.

[442] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, p. 27.

[443] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, (new ed., see
p. 106) p. 128 f.

[444] A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, i, 117 ff.

[445] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, pp. 389, 401. Some Australians believed in an
original gradual transformation of animals and plants into
human beings.

[446] On the conception of animals as ancestors see below, §
449 f.

[447] A demon may be defined as a supernatural being with
whom, for various reasons, men have not formed friendly
relations. Cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new
ed., p. 119 ff., on the Arabian jinn; De Groot, _Religion of
the Chinese_, p. 13 ff., for the Chinese belief in demonic
animals. On the origin, names, and functions of demons and
on exorcismal ceremonies connected with them see below, § 690
ff., and above, § 138 ff.

[448] So the Eskimo, the Ainu, the Redmen, and modern Arabs
in Africa; many other instances are cited by Frazer in his
_Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 386 ff.

[449] Examples are found in many folk-stories of savages
everywhere.

[450] For other sacred animals see N. W. Thomas, article
"Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_.

[451] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 238.

[452] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 430 ff.; Thomas,
article "Animals" cited above; Shortland, _Traditions of New
Zealand_, iv; Marsden, _Sumatra_, p. 292; Schoolcraft,
_Indian Tribes_, i, 34; v, 652; Waitz, _Anthropologie_, iii,
190; Callaway, _Amazulus_, p. 196; A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi_,
p. 150; Mouhot, _Indo-China_, i, 252; J. Wasiljev,
_Heidnische Gebräuche der Wotyaks_, pp. 26, 78, etc.; G. de
la Vega, _Comentarios Reales_, bk. i, chap. ix, etc. (Peru);
Miss Kingsley, _Travels_, p. 492.

[453] Turner, op. cit., p. 242; Castrén, _Finnische
Mythologie_, pp. 106, 160, 189, etc.; Parkman, _Jesuits in
North America_ (1906), pp. 61 f., 66; Brinton, _Myths of the
New World_, pp. 3, 105, 127, 161, 175, 272; cf. Acosta,
_Historia de las Indias_, bk. v, chap. iv.

[454] So Zeus and bull, Artemis and bear, Aphrodite and
dove, and many other examples. In such cases it is generally
useless to try to discover a resemblance between the
character of the god and that of the associated animal.
There is simply, as a rule, a coalescence of cults, or an
absorption of the earlier cult in the later.

[455] The particular conditions that induced this cult in
Egypt escape us. See the works on Egyptian religion by
Maspero, Wiedemann, Erman, Steindorff, and others.

[456] On the curious attitude of medieval Europe toward
animals as legally responsible beings see E. P. Evans, _The
Criminal Prosecution and Capital Punishment of Animals_.

[457] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, chap. x. Two superhuman creators are said to
have transformed themselves into lizards (ibid. p. 389 ff.).

[458] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, p. 35 ff.

[459] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, pp. 80, 223; Dixon, _The
Northern Maidu_, p. 263.

[460] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 269; cf. article
"Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia Of Religion and
Ethics_.

[461] See above, § 253, for the Egyptian cult.

[462] References to Stow's _Native Races of South Africa_
and Merensky's _Beiträge_ are given in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i, 522.

[463] Cushing, in _The Century Magazine_, 1883; Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, ii, 243 f.

[464] Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern
India_, ii, 213.

[465] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 527, 539; Crooke,
op. cit.; Fewkes, "The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi,"
p. 17 ff.

[466] For a fanciful connection between the sun-myth and the
spider see Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. xxiii.

[467] A somewhat vague Naga (snake) being of this sort is
noted (Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 539). The relation
between the Australian supernatural being Bunjil (or Punjil)
and the eagle-hawk is not clear. Cf. Howitt, _Native Tribes
of South-East Australia_, Index; Spencer and Gillen, _Native
Tribes of Central Australia_, Index.

[468] See below, § 635 f.

[469] A special form of man's relations with animals is
considered below under "Totemism."

[470] For example, in Sumatra, offerings are made to the
"soul of the rice"; there is fear of frightening the
rice-spirit, and ceremonies are performed in its honor; see
Wilken, _Het Animisme bij de Volken van den Indischen
Archipel_; Kruyt, _De Rijstmoeder van den Indischen
Archipel_, 389. It has been suggested that the prohibition
of yeast in the Hebrew mazzot (unleavened bread) festival
may have come originally from fear of frightening the spirit
of the grain. It may have been, however, merely the
retention of an old custom (if the grain was eaten
originally without yeast), which later (as sometimes
happened in the case of old customs) was made sacred by its
age, was adopted into the religious code, and so became
obligatory.

[471] This conception survives in the expressions "spirit of
wine," etc., and Cassio's "invisible spirit of wine" easily
passes into a "devil."

[472] This distinction is made in a somewhat formal way by
the Ainu, a very rude people (Batchelor, _The Ainu_, chap.
xxxiii).

[473] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 132
f.

[474] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, Index, s.vv. _totems_,
_ancestors_.

[475] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, pp. 112, 116. Many other plant totems are
mentioned by Frazer in his _Totemism and Exogamy_.

[476] Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 32, 39, 43, 72.

[477] This relation was not necessarily totemic--it may have
been of a general character, of which totemism is a special
form.

[478] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 179 ff.

[479] Cf. articles "Asylum" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_, and _Jewish Encyclopedia_.

[480] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., pp.
133, 195; Hopkins, in _Journal of the American Oriental
Society_, xxx (1910), 4, p. 352.

[481] Miss Godden, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxvi, 186 ff.

[482] W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern
India_, new ed., ii, 85 ff.; cf. Hopkins, "Mythological
Aspects of Trees, etc.," in _Journal of the American
Oriental Society_, September, 1910.

[483] _Rig-Veda_, ix al.; Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_,
v; Hillebrandt, _Vedische Mythologie_, i, 450; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 112 ff.

[484] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 114 ff.;
Tiele-Gehrich, _Geschichte der Religion im Alterium_, ii,
ii, p. 234 ff.

[485] Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_ and _Antike Wald- und
Feldkulte_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, Index, s.v.
_Corn-spirit_.

[486] Cf. below, § 751 ff.

[487] The connection between such posts and the
North-Semitic goddess Ashera is uncertain.

[488] Ward, _Seal-cylinders of Western Asia_.

[489] Cf. the suggestion of A. Réville (in his _Prolégomènes
de l'histoire des religions_) that images arose in part from
natural woods bearing a fancied resemblance to the human
form.

[490] Boas, _The Kwakiutl_; Swanton, "Seattle Totem Pole,"
in _Journal of American Folklore_ vol. xviii, no. 69 (April,
1905).

[491] See below, "Totemism," § 449 f.

[492] Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern
India_, ii, 115 ff.

[493] Pausanias, x, 31, 4; Roscher, _Lexikon_, article
"Meleagros."

[494] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 391 ff.

[495] Gen. iii; cf. Hopkins, in _Journal of the American
Oriental Society_, September, 1910. Whether the golden
apples of the Hesperides had the life-giving quality is
doubtful.

[496] This appears from a comparison of Gen. iii, 3 with ii,
17.

[497] Gen. iii, 5, 22.

[498] He is, perhaps, a diminished and conventionalized form
of the old chaos dragon.

[499] On the various names and characters of this cosmic
tree see Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 347 ff.

[500] _Rig-Veda_, x, 81, 4.

[501] 2 Sam. v, 24.

[502] Judg. ix, 37.

[503] See below, § 935 ff.

[504] This is the case with all spirits that social needs do
not force man to give names to.

[505] Rhys Davids, _Buddhist India_, p. 232.

[506] See above, § 252 f.

[507] Ex. iii, 2 ff.; Deut. xxxiii, 16; Acts vii, 30, 35.

[508] See _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, xxx,
353 f., for possible examples.

[509] A list of such titles is given by C. Boetticher in his
_Baumkultus der Hellenen und Römer_, chap. iv.

[510] Dionysos is a bull-god as well as a tree-god.

[511] _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 12.

[512] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 533.

[513] On the Soma cult see above, § 270.

[514] § 271.

[515] Lev. xvi.

[516] Gruppe, _Culte und Mythen_; Roscher, _Lexikon_. Cf.
the developed cults of Vishnu and Çiva.

[517] On Osiris and Isis see below, § 728 f.

[518] Some instances of worship are given in Frazer's
_Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 181, 189, 191. Frazer sometimes
uses the term 'tree worship' where all that is meant is
respect for trees as powerful things.

[519] See § 253 ff.

[520] See _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, 1881.

[521] So in Central Australia (Spencer and Gillen, _Native
Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 123 f., 137).

[522] The rock whence came the stones thrown by Deucalion
and Pyrrha (the origin of the human race) also gave birth to
Agdistis _mugitibus editis multis_, according to Arnobius,
_Adversus Nationes_, v, 5. Mithra's birth from a rock
(Roscher, _Lexikon_) is perhaps a bit of late poetical or
philosophical imagery.

[523] For various powers of stones, involving many human
interests, see indexes in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_,
Frazer's _Golden Bough_, and Hartland's _Primitive
Paternity_, s.v. _Stone_ or _Stones_.

[524] Festus, p. 2; see the remarks of Marquardt, _Römische
Staatsverwaltung_; Aust, _Religion der Römer_, p. 121; and
Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 232 f. On the relation between
the lapis and Juppiter Elicius, see Wissowa, _Religion und
Kultus der Römer_, p. 106; cf. Roscher, _Lexikon_, article
"Iuppiter," col. 606 ff.

[525] See above, § 97 ff.

[526] On processes of capturing a god in order to inclose
him in an object, or of transferring a god from one object
to another, see W. Crooke, "The Binding of a God," in
_Folklore_, viii.

[527] In pre-Islamic Arabia many gods were represented by
stones, the stone being generally identified with the deity;
so Al-Lât, Dhu ash-Shara (Dusares), and the deities
represented by the stones in the Meccan Kaaba.

[528] Livy, xxix, 10 f.

[529] 1 Sam. iv.

[530] Head, _Historia Numorum_, p. 661.

[531] Tacitus, _Hist._ ii, 3; it was conical in shape.

[532] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_ p. 230 ff.; cf. above, the
"lapis manalis," § 289.

[533] Herodian, v, 3, 10.

[534] Pausanias, vii, 22. Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,
ii, 160 ff.

[535] H. Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i, 335;
Saussaye, _Manual of the Science of Religion_ (Eng. tr.), p.
85 ff.

[536] Gen. xxviii, 18; cf. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_,
2d ed., p. 203 f.

[537] Hos. iii, 4.

[538] The reference in Jer. ii, 27, Hab. ii, 19 (stones as
parents and teachers), seems to be to the cult of foreign
deities, represented by images.

[539] On the interpretation of the masseba as a phallus or a
kteis see below, §§ 400, 406.

[540] And so in Assyrian and Arabic.

[541] There is no Greek etymology for _baitulos_, and if it
came from without, a Semitic origin is the most probable.

[542] Eusebius, _Praeparatio Evangelica_, i, 10, 18.

[543] _Hist. Nat._, bk. xxxvii, chap. 51.

[544] Cf. F. Lenormant, in _Revue de l'histoire des
religions_, iii, 31 ff.; Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_,
p. 775 f.

[545] For Phoenician customs see Pietschmann, _Phönisier_,
p. 204 ff.

[546] Cf. Deut. x, 2; Ex. xxv, 16; 2 Chr. v, 10, where the
stone in the ark seems to have become two stone tables on
which the decalogue was written by the finger of Yahweh--an
example, if the view mentioned above be correct, of the
transformation of a thing originally divine in itself into
an accessory of a god.

[547] Cf. Hughes, _Dictionary of Islam_, s.v. _Kaaba_;
Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, pp. 99, 171.

[548] On the relation between the stone heaps and the Hermes
pillars cf. Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_, ii, 455, and
Roscher, _Lexikon_, i, 2, col. 2382. With Hermes as guide of
travelers cf. the Egyptian Khem (Min), of Coptos, as
protector of wanderers in the desert, and perhaps Eshmun in
the Sardinian trilingual inscription (see Roscher,
_Lexikon_, article "Esmun"; _Orientalische Studien Nöldeke
gewidmet_).

[549] See below, § 1080.

[550] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., pp.
202, 341; cf. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of
Religion_, chap. xi; article "Altar" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[551] Lev. xvi, 19.

[552] For some methods of such introduction see W. Crooke,
in _Folklore_, viii.

[553] Herodotus, ii, 44; he identifies Melkart with
Herakles.

[554] 1 Kings, vii, 15-22; Ezek. xl, 49.

[555] Perrot and Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art_, vol. iii; cf.
Pletschmann, _Phönizier_, p. 203 ff.; Rawlinson,
_Phoenicia_, p. 338.

[556] Cf. below, § 399 ff.

[557] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 487
ff.

[558] Strabo, iii, 5, 5.

[559] Those of Solomon's temple are described as being 27
feet in height, and without stairways. Cf. the structures
connected with the Hierapolis temple (Lucian, _De Syria
Dea_, 28).

[560] Desire for height appears also in the Egyptian pyramid
and the Babylonian ziggurat, but both these had means of
ascent to the higher levels. Cf. below, § 1085.

[561] Maspero, _Egyptian Archæology_, p. 100 ff.

[562] The movement from aniconic to anthropomorphic forms is
seen in the image of the Ephesian Artemis, the upper half
human, the lower half a pillar (Roscher, _Lexikon_, i, 1,
cols. 588, 595).

[563] Examples in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_, 2d ed., ii,
170 f.; cf. his _Early History of Mankind_, chap. vi.

[564] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 188, etc.

[565] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, index, s.v. _Mountains_;
article "Bengal" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 260; Hollis, _The
Nandi_, p. 48.

[566] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 358 ff., 537, and
_Journal of the American Oriental Society_, September, 1910.

[567] On a general relation between gods and local hills see
Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 444.

[568] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 541,
638; cf. Isa. xiv, 13. Many Babylonian temples, considered
as abodes of gods, were called "mountains."

[569] Hopkins, in _Journal of the American Oriental
Society_, loc. cit., where the mythical mountains of the
Mahabharata are described.

[570] _Iliad_ viii, 2 al.

[571] Bastian, "Vorstellungen von Wasser und Feuer," in
_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, i; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,
2d ed., ii, 209 ff., 274 ff.; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, lecture v.

[572] Polybius, vii, 9.

[573] Num. v.

[574] Job vii, 12.

[575] Herodotus, vi, 76.

[576] _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, x, 179; Bell,
_Maldive Islands_, p. 73.

[577] In Titus iii, 5, the reference seems to be to baptism.

[578] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, p. 10 f.; cf. the
German Lorelei.

[579] Frazer (in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B.
Tylor_) sees a river-god in the figure mentioned in Gen.
xxxii, 24.

[580] Cf. John v, 4 (in some MSS.).

[581] This is W. R. Smith's contention in _Religion of the
Semites_, lecture v. See his account of Semitic water-gods
in general.

[582] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 345 f. Cf. the Roman lapis
manalis; see above, § 136.

[583] A large number of examples are given by Frazer in his
_Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 81 f., al.

[584] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 17; Spencer and
Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 189 f.

[585] One signification (not a probable one) proposed for
the name Yahweh is, 'he who causes (rain) to fall.'

[586] Examples of such gods, in Africa, America, and Asia,
are given in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_, ii, 259 ff.

[587] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 99 ff.

[588] So in the _Secrets of Enoch_ (ed. R. H. Charles),
chaps. iv-vi, the treasuries of rain and dew in the lowest
heaven are guarded by angels.

[589] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index,
s.vv.

[590] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 37; Dorsey, _The Skidi
Pawnee_, p. 8; Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 56 f.; R.
Taylor, _New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, p. 130; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 168, n. 1; Roscher, _Lexikon_,
article "Prometheus." Accounts of the original production or
the theft of fire are found in savage mythology the world
over; see Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chaps. xxv-xxvii;
Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p. 379;
Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 277 ff.; O. T. Mason,
_Origins of Invention_, chap. iii.

[591] So among the Todas (Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 437) and
the Nandi (Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 85).

[592] On an identification of Agni with fire see Bloomfield,
_Religion of the Veda_, p. 158 ff.

[593] See Chap. VI.

[594] Shahrastani (12th century), _Kitab al-Milal
wa'l-Nihal_, a sketch of religions and philosophical sects,
Moslem and other (Germ. tr. by Haarbrücker, p. 298 f.).

[595] Hopkins observes (_Religions of India_, p. 105) that
originally fire (Agni), in distinction from sun and
lightning, is the fire of sacrifice. Cf. Bloomfield,
_Religion of the Veda_, p. 157.

[596] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 437; cf. the ceremony
described on page 290 f.

[597] A. M. Tozzer, _Comparative Study of the Mayas and the
Lacandones_, p. 133.

[598] Prescott, _Peru_, i, 106 f.

[599] Plutarch, _Aristides_, 20.

[600] The Hebrew expression, rendered in the English version
"cause to pass through fire," means simply 'devote by fire.'

[601] Ex. xix, 18; Ezek. i, 4; Ps. xviii, 9 [604];
_Rig-Veda_, iii, 26, 7 (Indra).

[602] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 437. In Gen. i, 3, light
appears before the creation of the heavenly bodies.

[603] So in Carinthia, the Tyrol, and neighboring districts
(Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart_, p.
86).

[604] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xix.

[605] See below, § 662, etc.

[606] Ps. xviii, 11 [10]; civ, 3 f.

[607] _Iliad_, xxiii, 194 ff.

[608] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, chap. xviii; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 595.

[609] W. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, pp. 80, 223.

[610] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 55; Taylor, _New
Zealand_, p. 119; Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 279; cf. Turner,
_Samoa_, p. 283.

[611] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 55 (the present sun
is the daughter of a man sun).

[612] See examples in Tylor's _Primitive Culture_, i, 290
ff.

[613] On the position of the sun and moon in the later cults
see below, Chap. VI.

[614] Teit, op. cit., p. 54.

[615] See the elaborate Pawnee history of gods (Dorsey, _The
Skidi Pawnee_).

[616] See Chap. VI f.

[617] On the genesial (urano-chthonic) conception of the
world in Polynesia see Tautain, in _Anthropologie_, vii
(1896).

[618] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 113.

[619] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 363; ii, 262.

[620] Ps. xxix, 3; xviii, 14, 15 [13, 14].

[621] _Iliad_, viii, 76 f.; xxi, 198, etc. The thunderbolt
of Zeus is said in Hesiod, _Theogonia_, 140 f., to be forged
by the Cyclops.

[622] Bastian, _Beiträge_; H. Spencer, _Principles of
Sociology_ and _Principles of Ethics_; Grant Allen,
_Evolution of the Idea of God_; Waitz-Gerland,
_Anthropologie der Naturvölker_; Lippert, _Allgemeine
Geschichte des Priesterthums_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_;
Codrington, _The Melanesians_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_;
Wilken, _Handleiding voor de Vergelykende Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indië_; Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur
ersten Entwicklung der Strafe_; Westermarck, _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_, Index, s.vv. _Kings_,
_Man-gods_; Religions of Egypt (Maspero, Meyer, Wiedemann,
Breasted, Steindorff), Babylonia (Jastrow), India (Barth,
Hopkins), China (De Groot), Greece (Gruppe), Rome (Auer),
etc.

[623] _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 139 ff.

[624] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 448.

[625] Monier-Williams, _Religious Life and Thought in
India_, p. 259. See the cases mentioned by Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 522 n.

[626] For the documents see Breasted, _Ancient Records of
Egypt_.

[627] Rawlinson, _Egypt_, ii, 40 f., 84; Ed. Meyer,
_Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_, p. 252.

[628] When in a compound name the name of a god stands
first, the determinative may refer simply to the god; it is
evidence for the man only when it stands immediately before
the nondivine element of the royal name. The inscriptions
are given in Schrader, _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_, III,
i; Thureau-Dangin, _Sumerisch-Akkadische Königsinschriften_.
In the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 2000 B.C.) the king in one
place (col. 5, ll. 4, 5) calls himself "the Shamash of
Babylon," but this is of course a figure of speech; the code
is given him by Shamash, the god of justice, and he assumes
to be no less just than the god whom he here represents.

[629] For a different view see S. H. Langdon, article
"Babylonian Eschatology" in _Essays in Modern Theology and
Related Subjects_ (the C. A. Briggs memorial volume).

[630] Cf. the Chinese and Japanese views mentioned above.
Among the Mongols there seems to be no trace of such a cult
(Buckley, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_,
2d ed.), but a similar one is found in Tibet in Lamaism.

[631] Ex. xxii, 28 [27]. Cursing the deity (that is, the
national or the local god) is mentioned several times in the
Old Testament. Eli's sons committed this offense (1 Sam.
iii, 13, corrected text), and Job feared that his sons might
have been guilty of it (Job i, 5, where the old Jewish
scribes, _causa reverentiae_, have changed "curse" into
"bless,"--so also in i, 11; ii, 5, 9).

[632] _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p. 15 ff.

[633] 2 Sam. xiv, 17.

[634] Isa. ix, 6 [5].

[635] Ps. lviii, 1 [2]; lxxxii, 1, 6. This last passage,
however, is understood in John x, 34 f., to refer to Jewish
men. The Hebrew text of Ps. xiv, 7 [6], is corrupt.

[636] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_. This is the
philosophical form of the dogma. The root of the conception
is to be found, doubtless, in the old (savage) view that the
chief of the tribe has quasi-divine attributes.

[637] Knox, _Religion in Japan_, p. 64.

[638] In _Alexander_, 28. In the case of Alexander the
influence of Egypt is apparent, and it may be suspected that
this influence affected the later Greek and Roman custom.

[639] Appian, _De Rebus Syriacis_, lxv.

[640] Acts xii, 22.

[641] Boissier, _La religion romaine_ (1878), i, 131 ff.

[642] Suetonius, _Caligula_, xxii.

[643] On the demand for a universal religion in the Roman
Empire, and the preparation in the earlier cults for the
worship of the emperors, see J. Iverach's article "Cæsarism"
in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_;
Boissier, op. cit., bk. i, chap. ii.

[644] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, bk. iv, chap.
iii.

[645] See the story of the power and fall of a great muni in
Lassen's _Anthologia Sanscritica_.

[646] So, many Christian and Moslem saints have been
wonder-workers without being divinized.

[647] Monier-Williams, _Brahmanism and Hinduism_, p. 510 f.

[648] _Fortnightly Review_, 1872.

[649] Stair, _Samoa_, p. 221; article "Bengal" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_ (Brahmans often become
evil spirits).

[650] _The Todas_, pp. 193, 203, 446.

[651] _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 88 ff.

[652] Breasted, _Records of Ancient Egypt_.

[653] § 357.

[654] Here, as in the case of the divinization of living men
(§ 347 n., above), outside suggestion is probable.

[655] Cf. article "Cæsarism" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_.

[656] Boissier, _La religion romaine_, i, 182. An
illustration of religious ideas in the third century is
afforded by the enrollment of Caracalla among the heroes, a
divinizing decree of the Senate having been extorted by the
turbulent and mercenary soldiery (Dio Cassius, ed.
Boissevain [Eng. tr. by H. B. Foster], lxxix, 9).

[657] A. Müller, _Islam_, i, 494; W. Muir, _The Caliphate_,
p. 553 ff.

[658] In Isa. lxiii, 16, 'Abraham' appears to be a synonym
of 'Israel,' and the reference then is to the nonrecognition
of certain Jews by the national leaders.

[659] The narratives of the Pentateuch; Herodotus, v, 66;
Pausanias, i, 5, 1.

[660] Article "Romulus" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[661] See below, § 652.

[662] Herodotus, v, 66 al.

[663] Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, pp. 163, 170,
206.

[664] The Ojibwa god Manabozho (described in Schoolcraft's
_Algic Researches_) by some inadvertence got the name
'Hiawatha,' and so appears in Longfellow's poem. The real
Hiawatha was a distinguished Iroquois statesman (supposed to
be of the fifteenth century), the founder of the Iroquois
League, honored as a patriot, but never worshiped as a god.
See H. Hale, _Iroquois Book of Rites_, Index, s.v.
_Hiawatha_; Beauchamp, in _Journal of American Folklore_,
October, 1891.

[665] F. Pfister, _Der Reliquienkult im Altertum_.

[666] Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, i; Grant Allen,
_Evolution of the Idea of God_. See below, § 631 ff.

[667] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Dead_; Grant Allen, op. cit.; article
"Ancestor-worship" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_.

[668] Cf. above, Chap. II.

[669] Steinmetz (_Ethnologische Studien zur ersten
Entwicklung der Strafe_, p. 280 ff.) has attempted a
collection and interpretation of the usages of nearly two
hundred tribes, but his reckoning is not satisfactory--his
enumeration is not complete, and the facts are not
sufficiently well certified. He concludes that cases of fear
are twice as numerous as those of love.

[670] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, chap. xiv.

[671] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes Of Central
Australia_, pp. 516 f., 520 f.

[672] Cf. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 271 f.

[673] The conception of such meals as physical and spiritual
communion with the dead was a later development.

[674] The buffoonery that was sometimes practiced at Roman
funerals seems to have come from the natural love of fun,
here particularly, also, through the reaction from the
oppressive solemnity of the occasion.

[675] Howitt and Fison, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 246 ff.

[676] Taylor, _New Zealand_, pp. 104, 108.

[677] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 194, 253 f.;
Powell, _Wanderings_, p. 170.

[678] Ellis, _Madagascar_, i, 23, 423.

[679] Callaway, _The Amazulu_, pp. 145, 151.

[680] A. B. Ellis, _The E[´w]e_, p. 102 f.

[681] Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten
Entwicklung der Strafe_. A. L. Kroeber (in _Journal of
American Folklore_, 1904) gives an account of a
'ghost-dance' in Northwest California, the object of which
was said to be that the dead might return, though the
details are obscure.

[682] Some such custom seems to be referred to in Deut.
xxvi, 14.

[683] Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas_.

[684] Mariner, _Tonga_, p. 149.

[685] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 162 f.;
Goldziher, in _Revue de l'histoire des religions_, x. So the
Egyptian fellahin to-day.

[686] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 219 f.; Bonney, in
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii, 122 ff.;
Haddon, _Head-hunters_, pp. 91 f., 183; G. Allen, _Evolution
of the Idea of God_, chap. iii.

[687] Sir G. S. Robertson, _The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush_,
pp. 645 ff., 615 ff., 414 f.

[688] Breasted, _Egypt_, p. 421, etc.

[689] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 604
f.

[690] Deut. xxvi, 14; Hos. ix, 4; Ezek. xxiv, 17 (revised
text); Isa. viii, 19; 1 Sam. xxviii, 13.

[691] _Rig-Veda_, x, 15; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p.
143 f.

[692] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 91 ff.

[693] _Odyssey_, xi, 74 ff.; cf. xxiv, 63 ff.

[694] _Odyssey_, x, 519 ff.; xi, 25 ff.

[695] Stengel and Oehmichen, _Die griechischen
Sakralaltertümer_, p. 99 f.

[696] Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 158 ff.;
Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, Index, s.v. _Heros_;
Deneken, article "Heros" in Roscher, _Lexikon_. Lists of
heroes are given by F. Pfister, in _Der Reliquienkult im
Altertum_.

[697] Thucydides, v, 11; Pausanias, i, 32. For other
examples, and for the details of the cult, see Stengel and
Oehmichen, _Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer_, p. 96 ff.

[698] Similar functions are performed by saints in some
Buddhist, Christian, and Moslem communities.

[699] Pauly-Wissowa, _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft_; Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to
the Study of Greek Religion_, chap. ii, and the references
in these works. On the _Keres_ as ghosts see Crusius, in
Roscher's _Lexikon_, s.v. _Keren_, and Harrison, op. cit.,
chap. v.

[700] Ovid, _Fasti_, v, 439 ff., _manes exite paterni_; cf.
the Greek proverbial expression [Greek: thyraze kares]
(Suidas, s.v. [Greek: thyraze]).

[701] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chap. iii.

[702] Aston, _Shinto_; Knox, _Religion in Japan_, p. 66 f.

[703] 1 Sam. xxviii.

[704] Cf. also the Teutonic valkyrs and nornas.