Chapter XI: Scientific and Ethical Elements in Religious Systems (4)

[1187] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 39 ff.

[1188] But see below, § 704.

[1189] Baethgen, _Beiträge zur semitischen
Religionsgeschichte_; Wellhausen, _Skissen_, iii, 25;
Nöldeke, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen
Gesellschaft_, 1886, 1888, and article "Arabs (Ancient)" in
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; Pinches,
article "Gad," and Driver, article "Meni," in Hastings,
_Dictionary of the Bible_; Cheyne, article "Fortune" in
_Encyclopædia Biblica_; Commentaries of Delitzsch, Duhm,
Marti, Skinner, and Box on Isa. lxv, 11.

[1190] Lane, _Arabic-English Lexicon_, s.v. The Old
Testament title "Rock" given to Yahweh (Deut. xxxii, 18,
"the Rock that begat thee") is figurative, but may go back
to a divine rock.

[1191] On the Hebrew place-name (Job i, 1) and perhaps
personal name (Gen. xxxvi, 28) U[s.] (Uz), which seems to be
formally identical with 'Au[d.], see W. R. Smith, _Kinship
and Marriage in Early Arabia_, 1st ed., p. 260 f., and his
_Religion of the Semites_, p. 43; Wellhausen, _Skissen_,
iii; Nöldeke, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen
Gesellschaft_, xl, 183 f.

[1192] _Maniya_, plural _manây[=a]_.

[1193] Isa. lxv, 11; III Rawlinson, 66.

[1194] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp.
420, 428 (the tablets of fate given to Kingu and snatched
from him by Marduk); R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian
Literature_, p. 304 f. (Marduk seizes the tablets of fate
from Zu); Ps. cxxxix, 16; Dan. vii, 10; Rev. v, 1, and other
passages.

[1195] As far as the forms are concerned, a concrete sense
for _man[=a]t_, _manu_, _meni_, seems possible; cf. Wright,
_Arabic Grammar_, 2d ed., i, § 231; Barth, _Semitische
Nominalbüdungen_, p. 163 ff.; Delitzsch, _Assyrian Grammar_,
p. 158 ff.

[1196] The etymologies in Gen. xxx, 11 ff. are popular. In
"Baal-Gad" (Josh. xi, 17) _Gad_ may be the name of a place;
cf. Stade, _Geschichte des Volkes Israel_, i, 271, note.

[1197] Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, chap. iii.
For a list of other Egyptian gods of abstractions, such as
eternity, life, Joy, see Wiedemann, "Religion of Egypt," in
Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_, v, 191.

[1198] Boissier, _La religion romaine_, i, 4 ff.; Wissowa,
_Religion der Römer_, p. 46 ff.; Usener, _Götternamen_, p.
364 ff. (cf. Farnell, in _Anthropological Essays presented
to E. B. Tylor_); Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, pp. 190 f.,
341; Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p. 169 ff.

[1199] Cf. above, § 679, note.

[1200] Not all of these had public cults.

[1201] See articles in Roscher's _Lexicon_ ("Eros," "Moira,"
and similar terms); on Phoibos, cf. L. Deubner, in
_Athenische Mittheilungen_, 1903.

[1202] Cicero, _De Natura Deorum_, ii, 25.

[1203] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 135 f.; Bloomfield,
_Religion of the Veda_, pp. 191, 243 ff.; Macdonell, _Vedic
Mythology_, p. 115 ff.

[1204] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 34 ff.; A.
V. Williams Jackson, _Iranische Religion_ (in Geiger and
Kuhn's _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, ii, 637).

[1205] The six are: Vohumanah (Good Thought or Good Mind),
Khshathra Vairya (Best or Wished-for Righteous Realm or
Law), Spenta Armaiti (Holy Harmony), Asha Vahista (Perfect
Righteousness or Piety), Haurvatat (Well-being), Ameretat
(Immortality).

[1206] On these and certain minor divinized conceptions of
time see Spiegel, op. cit., ii, 4-17. On the Hindu
personification of time see Bloomfield, _Religion of the
Veda_, p. 244 ff. In these and similar cases time,
containing all things, is conceived of as the producer of
all things, and the line between personification and
hypostatization is not always clearly defined. For the
influence of astrology on the deification of time, see
Cumont, _Les religions orientates parmi les peuples
romains_, chap. vii (on astrology and magic), p. 212 f.,
paragraph on new deities, and notes thereto. Hubert, "La
représentation du temps dans la religion et la magie" (in
_Mélanges de l'histoire des religions_), p. 190,
distinguishes between the notation of favorable and
unfavorable times (and the nonchronological character of
mythical histories) and the calendar, which counts moments
continuously.

[1207] On a supposed relation between the Amesha-spentas and
the Vedic Adityas see Roth, in _Zeitschrift der deutschen
morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, vi, 69 f.; Macdonell, _Vedic
Mythology_, p. 44; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p.
134 f. Cf. also L. H. Gray (on the derivation of the
Amshaspands from material gods), in _Archiv für
Religionswissenschaft_, vii (1904), 345.

[1208] Cf. J. B. Carter, _De Deorum Romanorum Cognominibus_.

[1209] Cf. Boissier, _La religion romaine_, i, 9.

[1210] Cf. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, v, 442 ff.

[1211] They survive in later times to some extent in the
form of patron and other local saints, Christian and Moslem.

[1212] Cf. Bloomfield's classification of deities (_Religion
of the Veda_, p. 96) partly according to the degree of
clearness with which characters belonging to physical nature
appear: "translucent" gods are those whose origin in nature
is obvious; "transparent" gods are half-personified nature
objects.

[1213] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 285 ff.

[1214] See above, § 328 ff.

[1215] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 561 ff., and _Northern Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 182; Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 348;
Roth, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi,
125; Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, p. 410 f.

[1216] Cf. Batchelor, _The Ainu_ (1901), p. 63 f.

[1217] Cf. Aston, _Shinto_, p. 35.

[1218] J. G. Müller, _Amerikanische Urreligionen_, p. 58,
and Index, s.v. _Sonnendienst_; Matthews, _Navaho Legends_,
p. 33; Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 65 (cf. his _American
Hero-Myths_, p. 230); Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the
Creeks_, p. 216 f.

[1219] Prescott, _Mexico_, i, 57 ff.; id., _Peru_, i, 92
ff.; E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_,
i, 463, 550 ff.; C. R. Markham, _The Incas of Peru_, pp. 63,
67, 104 ff.

[1220] _Records of the Past_, first series, ii, 129 ff.;
viii, 105 ff.

[1221] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 71.

[1222] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_, p. 65.

[1223] Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, pp. 30, 32, 29, cf. p.
23; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 86; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 40 ff.

[1224] _Yashi_, x, 67.

[1225] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 529 f.

[1226] § 710.

[1227] W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern
India_, i, 12 ff.; _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_,
xviii, 373 ff. (the Lurka Coles); Hopkins, _Religions of
India_ (Dravidians, Kolarians); and for a modern, more
civilized cult see Hopkins, op. cit., p. 480, note 3; Payne,
_History of the New World called America_, i, 546 ff.

[1228] Turner, _Samoa_, Index, s.v. _Moon_; Matthews,
_Navaho Legends_, pp. 86, 226.

[1229] See above, § 328 ff.; cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,
i, 290 f.

[1230] Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 88, 91.

[1231] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 356
ff., 457.

[1232] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, p. 5 (cf. J.
Edkins, _Religion in China_, p. 105 ff.).

[1233] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 204, 266, 526.

[1234] Judg. v, 20; Isa. xxiv, 21 ff.; Job xxxviii, 7; Enoch
xviii, 12; xxi, 1 (cf. Rev. ix, 1); cf. Neh. ix, 6. See
Baudissin, _Semitische Religionsgeschichte_, i, 118 ff.;
article "Astronomy and Astrology" in Hastings, _Dictionary
of the Bible_.

[1235] 2 Kings xxiii, 5.

[1236] The corrupt and obscure passage Amos v, 26, cannot be
cited as proving a cult of a deity Kaiwan (Masoretic text
Kiyyun, Eng. R.V. "shrine") identical with Assyrian kaiwan
or kaiman, the planet Saturn; there is no evidence that this
planet was worshiped in Assyria.

[1237] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i,
660.

[1238] Cf. W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early
Arabia_, chap. vi, note 8; Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_, loc. cit.

[1239] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 70 ff.

[1240] Cf. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, Index, s.vv.
_Stern_ and _Sternbilder_.

[1241] Cumont, _Les religions orientales parmi les peuples
romains_, chap. vii.

[1242] The Franciscan Fathers, _Ethnologic Dictionary of the
Navaho Language_, Index, s.v.; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,
i, 293 f.

[1243] This is the full development of what had doubtless
been felt vaguely from the beginning of religious history.

[1244] On Kronos and the Titans cf. article "Kronos" in
Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1245] Cælus (or Cælum) was sometimes called the son of
Æther and Dies (Cicero, _De Natura Deorum_, iii, 17, 24).

[1246] Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_ (and cf.
his _Geschichte des Altertums_, 2d ed.); Maspero, _Dawn of
Civilisation_; Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient
Egyptians_, and article "Religion of Egypt" in Hastings,
_Dictionary of the Bible_, vol. v; Erman, _Handbook of
Egyptian Religion_; Breasted, _History of Egypt_.

[1247] Breasted, op. cit., pp. 36, 46; id., _Ancient Records
of Egypt_, under the various kings.

[1248] So Ed. Meyer, in article "Horos" in Roscher's
_Lexikon_.

[1249] So Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_,
p. 26 f.

[1250] Cf. Steindorff, op. cit., p. 30 f.

[1251] _Records of the Past_, vi, 105 ff.; Steindorff, op.
cit., p. 107 ff.

[1252] See, for example, the hymn in _Records of the Past_,
viii, 105 ff.

[1253] He was, therefore, doubtless a god of fertility.

[1254] _Records of the Past_, ii, 129 ff. The names of other
deities also were combined with that of Ra.

[1255] Egyptian civilization, as appears from recent
explorations, began far back of Menes; cf. Ed. Meyer,
_Geschichte des Altertums_, 2d ed., vol. i, part ii, § 169.

[1256] Cf. Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 58; Frazer,
_Adonis Attis Osiris_, bk. iii, chap. v.

[1257] Plutarch, _Isis and Osiris_, 18; Frazer, loc. cit.;
Breasted, op. cit., p. 171 f.

[1258] His identification by some ancient theologians with
the sun (Frazer, op. cit., p. 351 f.) or with the moon
(Plutarch, op. cit., 41) is an illustration of the late
tendency to identify any great god with a heavenly body.

[1259] Such is the wording given by Proclus. The form in
Plutarch (_Isis and Osiris_, 9) is substantially the same:
"I am all that has been and that is and that shall be, and
my veil no mortal has lifted." See Roscher, _Lexikon_,
article "Nit," col. 436. Doubts have been cast on the
reality of the alleged inscription.

[1260] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 131.

[1261] So Ed. Meyer, in Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Isis,"
col. 360.

[1262] Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p.
107 ff.

[1263] See Drexler, in Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Isis,"
col. 424 ff.

[1264] Barth, _The Religions of India_ (Eng. tr.); Hopkins,
_Religions of India_; Hillebrandt, _Vedische Mythologie_;
Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, Bloomfield, _Religion of the
Veda_. See the bibliography in Hopkins, op. cit., p. 573 ff.

[1265] _Rig-Veda_, viii, 41, 1. 7; i, 23, 5 (_[r.]ta_,
'order').

[1266] _Rig-Veda_, x, 121.

[1267] Early imagination apparently connected the future
social life of gods and men not with the calm sky, but with
the upper region that was the scene of constant and awful
movements. But the ground of the choice of Indra as lord of
heaven rests in the obscurity of primeval times.

[1268] For economic reasons a rain-god must generally be
prominent and popular.

[1269] § 703.

[1270] The history of this distinction between Dyaus and
Varuna is lost in the obscurity of the beginnings.

[1271] This conception appears in germinal form in
_Rig-Veda_, v, 84, vi, 515, but is not there or elsewhere
developed.

[1272] Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, § 20.

[1273] Cf. Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_,
article "Bengal," p. 491 ff., and the references there given
to authorities.

[1274] One form of Çaktism is described (in Hastings, loc.
cit.) as being the general worship of the Mothers of the
universe represented as the wives of the gods.

[1275] _Rig-Veda_, x, 64, 92, 135, 21, 52, 14.

[1276] Ibid., x, 14; ix, 113. However, this title is given
to Varuna also (x, 14): Yama and Varuna are the two kings
whom the dead man sees when he reaches heaven.

[1277] Ibid., x, 10, 13, 14 (cf. Atharva-Veda, xviii, 13).

[1278] Hillebrandt, _Vedische Mythologie_, i, 394 ff., but
only for the Indo-Iranian period.

[1279] _Rig-Veda_, x, 64.

[1280] Cf. Müller, _Lectures on the Science of Language_,
second series, p. 534 f.; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii,
314; Bergaigne, _La religion védique_, ii, 94, note 3;
Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. xxii. Cf. the Egyptian
conception of Osiris (Maspero, _Dawn of Civilisation_, p.
195).

[1281] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 80; other examples are
given in W. Ellis's _Polynesian Researches_, i, chap. v, and
Tylor, op. cit., ii, 312 ff.

[1282] Ellis, loc. cit.; Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. 6.

[1283] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 128 ff.; Macdonell,
_Vedic Mythology_, § 77; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_,
Index, s.v. _Yama_; and see the references in these works to
other authors.

[1284] _Jewish Encyclopædia_, articles "Adam" and "Adam
Kadmon"; _Koran_, ii, 29 ff.; cf. 1 Cor. xv, 45 ff.

[1285] See above. §§ 67 ff., 82.

[1286] On the relation between the two "first ancestors,"
Yama and Manu, cf. Bloomfield, op. cit., p. 140 f.

[1287] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 379 ff.

[1288] Tiele-Gehrich, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_,
vol. ii, part i.

[1289] See above, § 703. Cf. articles by L. H. Mills in
_Journal of the American Oriental Society_, vols. xx and
xxi; L. H. Gray, in _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, vii
(1904), p. 345.

[1290] _Records of the Past_, vols. v, ix.

[1291] Many lesser divine beings are mentioned by Spiegel
(in _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 66 ff.); the advance to
a real monotheistic cult was not achieved in Persia without
many generations of struggle.

[1292] Cf. the similar process in the Arabian treatment of
the jinn (W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed.,
p. 122 f.).

[1293] Cf. A. V. Williams Jackson, _Zoroaster_, and his
sketch in Geiger and Kuhn's _Grundriss der iranischen
Philologie_; D. Menant, _Zoroaster d'après la tradition
parsie_, in _Annales du Musée Guimet_, vol xxx.

[1294] De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_, chaps. i and
iii; pp. 62 ff., 112 f., 129 f.

[1295] With this conception we may compare the similar
principles in the Vedic and Mazdean systems.

[1296] The all-controlling order, as is remarked above, is
that of the universe, which furnishes the norm for human
life; but in the universe the grandest object is heaven.

[1297] Legge, in _Sacred Books of the East_, xxxix, xl; De
Groot, _Religious System of China_, and his smaller works,
_Religion of the Chinese_ and _Development of Religion in
China_.

[1298] W. E. Griffis, _Religions of Japan_; E. Buckley, in
Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed.; Aston,
_Shinto_; Knox, _Development of Religion in Japan_;
Longford, _The Story of Old Japan_, chap. ii.

[1299] Whether the worship of ancestors, now so important an
element of the national life, is native or borrowed is
uncertain.

[1300] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., p.
13 ff.

[1301] Compare Baethgen, _Beiträge sur semitischen
Religionsgeschichte_, p. 262 f.

[1302] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_; id.,
_Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and
Assyria_; Jeremias, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der
Religionsgeschichte_; Zimmern, article "Babylonians and
Assyrians" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_; Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, i, part ii,
2d book. In our survey of Babylonian deities the question of
Sumerian influence may be left out of the account.

[1303] Compare Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_,
p. 481; id., _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 23, 45, 121.

[1304] Ezek. viii, 16.

[1305] Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 82. The Babylonian and Assyrian
triads were loosely constructed, and had, apparently, no
significance for the local and royal cults. In this regard
they differed from the Egyptian triads and enneads, which
were highly elaborated and organised (Maspero, _Dawn of
Civilisation_, p. 104 ff.; Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p.
56.; Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p.
29).

[1306] Cf. article "Astarte" (by Ed. Meyer) in Roscher,
_Lexikon_.

[1307] For the cuneiform material see Delitzsch,
_Assyrisches Handwörterbuch_, and, for various etymologies
proposed for the name, Barton, _Semitic Origins_, p. 102
ff.; Haupt, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_,
xxviii, 112 ff.; Barton, ibid., xxxi, 355 ff. The frequent
expression _ilani u ishtarâti_, 'gods and goddesses,'
suggests that the original sense of _ishtar_ is simply 'a
deity'; it is not probable that a proper name would become a
common noun and have a plural; cf. the treatment of the
title _ilu_, 'a god.'

[1308] As the title _bel_, 'lord,' became the proper name of
a particular god, so the title _ishtar_, 'mistress,' 'lady,'
might become the proper name of a particular goddess; in
neither case is the detailed history of the process known to
us.

[1309] They were probably local "lords"; in Moab Ashtar was
combined with a deity called Kemosh, of whom nothing is
known except that he was a Moabite national god (cf. G. F.
Moore, article "Chemosh" in _Encyclopædia Biblica_). For a
different view of Ashtar and Athtar see Barton, _Semitic
Origins_, Index, s.vv. _Chemosh_, _Athtar_; he regards these
deities as transformations of the mother-goddess Ashtart.

[1310] Baethgen, _Beiträge zur semitischen
Religionsgeschichte_, p. 66 ff.; Jeremias, "Syrien und
Phönizien" (in Saussaye's _Lehrbuch der
Religionsgeschichte_).

[1311] Rawlinson, _History of Phoenicia_; Pietschmann,
_Geschichte der Phönizier_; Jeremias, op. cit.

[1312] Article "Esmun" in Roscher's _Lexikon_; article in
_Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet_. Of the vague group
known as the Kabiri (the 'great ones,' seven in number, with
Eshmun as eighth) we have little information; on the
diffusion of their cult in Grecian lands see Roscher, op.
cit., article "Megaloi Theoi."

[1313] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, pp. 21
ff., 45 ff.; W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early
Arabia_, chap. vi, note 8; chap. viii, note 2; article
"Dusares" in the _Anthropological Essays presented to F. W.
Putnam_.

[1314] Mordmann, _Himyarische Inschriften_; Mordmann and
Müller, _Sabäische Denkmäler_; Barton, _Semitic Origins_, p.
127 ff.

[1315] His original seat is uncertain; by some scholars he
is regarded as an old North Semitic deity, but the grounds
for this view are not convincing. The occurrences of the
name outside of the Hebrew region throw little or no light
on his origin. Cf. Delitzsch, _Paradies_; Baudissin,
_Studien sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte_; Barton,
_Semitic Origins_, chap. vii.

[1316] On his position in the seventh century cf. W. F.
Bade, in _Transactions of the American Philological
Association_, 1908.

[1317] For the Old Testament statements see C. G.
Montefiore, _Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by
the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews_ (Hibbert Lectures,
1892), Index, s.v. _Yahweh_.

[1318] He was thus supreme for the particular tribe, though
not universal; cf. article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1319] Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_; Gruppe,
_Griechische Mythologie_; articles on the various deities in
Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1320] Formally the names Dyaus, Zeus, and Ju (in Jupiter)
are identical; and to these may probably be added the
Teutonic Tiu (Tyr).

[1321] In early thought the sky (like the earth) is in
itself a powerful thing, a personality, and the god who is
later supposed to inhabit and control it is a definite
figure, like, for example, a tree-god.

[1322] From the ancient notices of Kronos it is hardly
possible to fix definitely the relation between him and
Zeus. It is probable that he represents an older cult that
was largely displaced by that of Zeus. The custom of human
sacrifice in his cult led to the identification of him with
the Phoenician (Carthaginian) Melek (Moloch), and his name
has been interpreted (from [Greek: krainô]) as meaning 'king'
(= melek); but this resemblance does not prove a Semitic
origin for him. Whether his rôle as king of the Age of Gold
was anything more than a late construction is not clear.

[1323] The etymology of his name is doubtful.

[1324] On his titles "earth-shaker" and "earth-upholder" cf.
Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_ p. 1139, note 2.

[1325] Possibly he was originally the ocean itself conceived
of as a living and powerful thing, as Zeus (and so Varuna
and Ahura Mazda) was originally the physical sky; Okeanos is
a great god (_Iliad_, xiv, 201; Hesiod, _Theogony_, 133).

[1326] By many writers he is considered to have been
originally a wind-god; but wind, though it might suggest
swiftness (and, with some forcing, thievishness), cannot
account for his other endowments.

[1327] Gen. xxx, 37 ff.; xxxi, 9; Wellhausen, _Reste
arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 196; Westermarck, _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_, ii, 17-19.

[1328] _Odyssey_, xv, 319 f. Lang lays too much stress on
this fact (_Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, 1st ed., ii, 257).

[1329] Gruppe (_Griechische Mythologie_, p. 1384) thinks (on
grounds not clear) that he was originally of Crete.

[1330] So Gruppe, op. cit.

[1331] _Homeric Hymn to Pan._

[1332] Servius on Vergil, _Eclogue_ ii, 31.

[1333] Roscher, in _Lexikon_, article "Pan," col. 1405, and
in _Festschrift für Joh. Overbeck_, p. 56 ff. On the
influence of the Egyptian cult of the goat-god of Mendes on
the conception of Pan see Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Pan,"
cols. 1373, 1382.

[1334] Mannhardt, _Antike Wald und Feldkulte_, p. 135 f.;
Roscher, op. cit., col. 1406; Farnell, _Cults of the Greek
States_, v, 431, and many others. To this etymology Gruppe
(op. cit., p. 1385) objects that such a name for a deity is
not probable for primitive savage times; he offers nothing
in its place.

[1335] Plutarch, _De Defectu Oraculorum_, 17; Reinach,
_Orpheus_ (Eng. tr.), p. 41.

[1336] Pindar, ed. W. Christ, _Fragments_, 95 ff.

[1337] _Theogony_, 922 f.

[1338] Euripides, _Bacchæ_, 131 f. (cf. Æschylus, _The Seven
against Thebes_, 541; Porphyry, _De Abstinentia_, § 13).

[1339] _Nili Opera_, p. 27; Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, 2d ed., p., 338 f.; Spencer, _Principles of
Sociology_, i, 288.

[1340] See above, § 384 ff.

[1341] _Iliad_, xiv, 325.

[1342] Perhaps the description of him in the _Iliad_ (loc.
cit.) as "a joy to mortals" refers to wine; cf. Hesiod,
_Theogony_, 941, where he is called the "bright joyous one."

[1343] As, for example, the Arabian clan god Dusares (Dhu
ash-Shara), carried by the Nabateans northward, was brought
into relation with the viticulture of that region. Cf.
above, § 764.

[1344] On this point cf. Miss J. Harrison, _Prolegomena to
the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 366.

[1345] See above, § 680 f.

[1346] _Iliad_, xv, 184 ff.; Hesiod, _Theogony_, 453 ff.

[1347] He is not always in mythological constructions
distinct from Zeus--in _Iliad_, ix, 457, it is Zeus
Katachthonios who is lord below.

[1348] Æschylus, _Prometheus Bound_, 806.

[1349] Cf. the development of Osiris (above, § 728).

[1350] Cf. Greek Horkos, and the oath by the Styx.

[1351] Cf. Miss Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
Religion_, chap. vi.

[1352] Cf. Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v.; Miss Harrison,
_Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, p. 271 ff.

[1353] Compare Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_, p.
320 ff.; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., ii, 176 ff.

[1354] Compare Miss Harrison, op. cit., p. 271 ff.

[1355] By her name she is identified with the hearth, as
similarly Zeus is identified with the sky. The hearth was
the center of the home, and had wide cultic significance.
The name Hestia embodies not the divinization of a concrete
object, but the recognition of the divine person presiding
over the object in question.

[1356] Roscher, _Lexikon_; Farnell, _Cults of the Greek
States_.

[1357] _Odyssey_, xx, 71.

[1358] The representation of her as the slayer of women with
her "kindly arrows" (_Odyssey_, xx, 67), that is, by an easy
death, is in keeping with the early idea that death was
caused by some supernatural Power; so Apollo slays (_Iliad_,
xxiv, 759).

[1359] Leto is a Titaness (Hesiod, _Theogony_, 404 ff.), an
old local goddess, naturally a patron of children, and so of
similar nature with Artemis, with whom she was often joined
in worship. Her connection with Apollo arose possibly from a
collocation of her cult with his in some place; in such
collocations the goddess would become, in mythological
constructions, the mother, sister, or wife of the god. This
relation once established, stories explaining it would
spring up as a matter of course. The fact that she was later
identified with the Asian Great Mother indicates that she
also had a universal character.

[1360] Hesiod, _Theogony_, 411 ff.

[1361] She was, perhaps, an underground deity, or the
product of the fusion of two deities, one of whom was
chthonic.

[1362] Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_; Roscher,
_Lexikon_.

[1363] Thus the Greeks endeavored to embody in divine
figures all sides of family life. The division of functions
between Hera, Hestia, and Athene is clear.

[1364] As, for example, 'fragile' and 'frail,' 'intension'
and 'intention,' 'providential' and 'prudential,' and many
other groups of this sort.

[1365] For the view that she was a native Ægean deity see
Farnell, _Greece and Babylon_, p. 97. Later Semitic
influences, in any case, must be assumed.

[1366] No satisfactory explanation of the name Aphrodite has
as yet been offered.

[1367] See above, § 762.

[1368] _Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite_; Euripides, _Medea_, 835
ff.; Lucretius. Ishtar also is the mother of all things, but
the idea is not developed by the Semites.

[1369] Compare the details given in J. Rosenbaum's
_Geschichte der Lustseuche im Alterume_.

[1370] Aust, _Religion der Römer_; Fowler, _Roman
Festivals_; id. _The Religious Experience of the Roman
People_; articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_; Mommsen, _History
of Rome_ (Eng. tr.), bk. i, chap. xii.

[1371] § 702 ff.

[1372] Hence a confusion of names that appears even to-day,
and in books otherwise careful, as, for example, in the Bohn
translations of Greek works, in which the Greek deities are
throughout called by Latin names.

[1373] So written in good manuscripts. The "piter" probably
denotes fatherly protection, though it may have meant
originally physical paternity. On this point cf. W. R.
Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, lecture ii, and the
various stories of the birth of Jupiter's children.

[1374] On the significance of the doublefaced Janus (Janus
Geminus) and of the ancient usage of opening the gates of
his temple in time of war and closing them in time of peace,
see article "Janus" in Roscher's _Lexikon_, col. 18 ff.

[1375] With his function as door-god compare the functions
of other Roman door-gods, of Vesta, and of Hindu and other
house-deities.

[1376] Varro, _De Lingua Latina_, v, 85; Cato, _De Agri
Cultura_, 141.

[1377] So Roscher and others.

[1378] Cf. Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 35.

[1379] The cult of Mars was widely diffused in Italy and,
later, elsewhere. His original seat is uncertain. He was,
perhaps, the tribal god of a conquering people.

[1380] Cf. also the Ancillarum Feriæ (July 7).

[1381] See above, § 217 ff.

[1382] Vergil, _Eclogues_, iv, 6. Cf. above, § 768, note
(Kronos).

[1383] Aust, _Religion der Römer_; Farnell, _Cults of the
Greek States_; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_; articles in
Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1384] She appears to have been a Greek deity adopted by the
Romans.

[1385] See above, § 43.

[1386] Compare the Greek Hestia and the Hindu house-goddess
(Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 374, 530).

[1387] On the Arician Diana see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d
ed., i, 230 f.

[1388] Or, better, from _dei[=a]_.

[1389] The prevailing view is that the grove is an opened
place into which light enters, and it is thus distinguished
from the dark and gloomy forest. The verbs _nitere_,
_nitescere_, _virere_, are used by Ovid and other writers to
describe this gleaming of leaves, plants, trees, groves, and
of the earth.

[1390] An early divine name expressive of intellectual power
is not probable.

[1391] On her origin cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p.
203 ff.

[1392] Varro, _De Re Rustica_, i, 1.

[1393] See above, § 803.

[1394] In favor of Ardea, twenty miles south of Rome, as her
original seat, cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 235.

[1395] Her identification with the Greek goddess was perhaps
furthered by a supposed relation between her name and the
noun _venustas_, 'grace, beauty,' the special quality of
Aphrodite. If that was the original sense of 'Venus,' it
could hardly have indicated an æsthetic perception of nature
(Wissowa, op. cit.); such a designation would be foreign to
early ways of naming deities. Whether the stem _van_ might
mean 'general excellence' (here agricultural) is uncertain;
on the Greek epithets 'Kallisto,' 'Kalliste,' and so forth,
cf. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, p. 1270 f. The name
'Venus,' if connected with the root of _venerari_, might
mean simply 'a revered object,' a deity; cf. Bona Dea and
Ceres (creator).

[1396] Roscher's _Lexikon_, s.v. "Fortuna," col. 1518;
Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 68. On licentious cults of
Venus cf. J. Rosenbaum, _Geschichte der Lustseuche im
Altertume_.

[1397] See above, § 671.

[1398] Articles in Roscher, _Lexikon_, and in _Orientalische
Studien Nöldeke gewidmet_.

[1399] Inscriptions of Rammannirari and Nebuchadrezzar (Birs
Nimrud); Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_,
Index, s.v.; id., _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice
in Babylonia and Assyria_, Index, s.v. _Adad_.

[1400] There is no separate god of Sheol in the Old
Testament. On Eve as such a deity see Lidzbarski,
_Ephmeris_, i, 26; cf. Cook, _North Semitic Inscriptions_,
135.

[1401] Gen. vi, 4, cf. Ezek. xxxii, 27; Philo of Byblos;
Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_.

[1402] Isa. lxiii, 16 ("God is our father, though Abraham
and Israel do not acknowledge us") is regarded by some
commentators as pointing to ancestor-worship. It seems,
however, to be nothing more than the complaint of persons
who were disowned by the community or by the leaders.

[1403] § 341 ff.

[1404] Jastrow, _Religions of Babylonia and Assyria_, p.
168: "a pantheon of demons."

[1405] Isa. xxxiv, 14.

[1406] Satan is one of the Elohim-beings, old gods
subordinated to Yahweh, and Azazel, if his name contains the
divine title _el_, must be put into this class.

[1407] Wisdom of Solomon, ii, 24.

[1408] Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
Religion_, chap. v. On Hindu demons see Hopkins, _Religions
of India_, Index, s.v. _Devils_.

[1409] §§ 698 ff., 398 ff.

[1410] See below, Chapter vii. Here, again, Mazdaism forms
an exception, resembling the Semitic scheme rather than the
Hindu.

[1411] A partial exception is found in the comparatively
late movement from the south of Arabia over into Africa
(Abessinia, Ethiopia).

[1412] On the characteristics of the various great religions
see Hegel, _Religionsphilosphe_; Santayana, _Reason in
Religion_ (vol. iii of _The Life of Reason_); E. Caird,
_Evolution of Religion_; R. B. Perry, _Approach to
Philosophy_; S. Johnson, _Oriental Religions_; J. F. Clarke,
_Ten Great Religions_; S. Reinach, _Orpheus_. See below,
Chapter ix.

[1413] But a certain substratum is usually assumed, no
attempt being made to account for its existence.

[1414] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, chaps. viii-x;
Jastrow, _Study of Religion_, Index, s.vv. _Myth_,
_Mythology_; Lang, _Custom and Myth_, and _Myth, Ritual, and
Religion_; articles "Mythologie" in _La Grande Encyclopédie_,
and "Mythology" in _Encyclopædia Britannica_, 11th ed.

[1415] Belief in miracles, which is found in some higher
religions, may here be left out of the account as belonging
in a separate category.

[1416] Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, chaps. ii-iv.

[1417] So with the theory of universal borrowing from one
center advocated by Stucken (_Astralmythen_), Winckler
(_Himmels- und Weltensbild der Babylonier als Grundlage der
Weltanschauung und Mythologle aller Völker_), Jeremias (_Das
Alte Testament im Lichte des Alten Orients_), Jensen (_Das
Gilgamesch Epos_), and others.

[1418] Cf. article "Cosmogony and Cosmology" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1419] § 225 ff.

[1420] _Çatapatha Brahmana_, xi, 1, 6, 1.

[1421] R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 335 f.

[1422] Spiegel (_Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 144)
ascribes to the Eranians the conception of creation out of
nothing. See also the Hawaiian representation of the origin
of all things from the primeval void, and the orderly
sequence of the various forms of life.

[1423] A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_ chap. vi ff.

[1424] See, for example, the two accounts of creation in the
Book of Genesis. In the earlier account (chap. ii) the
procedure of Yahweh is mechanical, and things do not turn
out as he intended; in the later account (chap. i) there is
no mention of a process--it is the divine word that calls
the world into being.

[1425] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 263.

[1426] See R. Andree, _Die Flutsagen_; article "Flood" in
Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_.

[1427] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 37; cf. Dorsey, _The
Skidi Pawnee_, p. 14 ff.

[1428] Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 57 f.; cf. Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, i, 335.

[1429] Callaway, _The Amazulu_, pp. 3, 4, 100, 138.

[1430] Gen. v; vi, 4; Herodotus, iii, 23; Roscher,
_Lexikon_, s.v. _Giganten_; cf. Tylor, op. cit., i, 385 ff.;
Brinton, _American Hero-Myths_, p. 88.

[1431] Brinton, _Religions of Primitive Peoples_, p. 126 f.;
Maspero, _Dawn_, p. 158; Gen. ii, iii; _Avesta, Vendidad_,
Fargard ii; Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, i, 463
ff.; Windischmann, _Zoroastrische Studien_, p. 19 ff.;
Hopkins, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_
(September, 1910), pp. 362, 366; article "Hesperiden" in
Roscher's _Lexikon_; commentaries of Kalisch, Dillmann,
Driver, Skinner, and others on Gen. ii, iii; _Jewish
Encyclopædia_, s.v. _Paradise_; Delitzsch, _Wo lag das
Paradies?_ On the character of the abode of the Babylonian
Parnapishtim see Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and
Assyria_, pp. 488, 496.

[1432] 2 Pet. iii, 7, contrast with the old destruction by
water; Hindu eschatology.

[1433] The Norse myth of "the twilight of the gods" has
perhaps been colored, in its latest form, by Christian
eschatology.

[1434] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 421; Spiegel,
_Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 161; H. Warren, _Buddhism
in Translations_, p. 315 ff.

[1435] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 63 ff.

[1436] Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, chap. i.

[1437] Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, chap. i.

[1438] Maspero, _Dawn_, p. 128 f.

[1439] _Aitareya Brahmana_, iv, 27.

[1440] Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 279; cf. Turner, _Samoa_, p.
198.

[1441] Gruppe, _Griechische Culte und Mythen_. Cf. the
birth-myth in Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 71.

[1442] So Heracles, Achilles, Æneas, and the heroes
mentioned in Gen. vi, 4.

[1443] Gen. ii, 7.

[1444] So in Polynesia, North America, China, ancient
Greece, and among the Hebrews.

[1445] As, for example, the Hebrews (Deut. xxxii, 8 f.)

[1446] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 119 ff.; Taylor, _New Zealand_, chap. xiv and
p. 325; Turner, _Samoa_, p. 3 ff.; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte
der amerikanischen Urreligionen_, pp. 33 ff., 179 ff., § 61.

[1447] So the Hindu Manu (man), or Father Manu (_Rig-Veda_,
ii, 33, 13), is the progenitor of the human race. Cf. the
"first man," Yama. For the Old-Persian genealogical scheme
see Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, i, 473, 500 ff.

[1448] Deut. xxxii.

[1449] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 156 ff.; Réville,
_Native Religions of Mexico and Peru_, p. 64; Brinton,
_Myths of the New World_, p. 264, and _American Hero-Myths_,
pp. 186 f., 195 ff.; cf. R. B. Brehm, _Das Inka-Reich_, p.
24 ff.

[1450] Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 89.

[1451] Gen. iv, 16 ff.

[1452] Gen. vi, 1, 2, 4 (verse 3 is an interpolation).

[1453] Herodotus, v, 57 f.; Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v.
_Kadmos_.

[1454] _Rig-Veda_, i, 93, 6.

[1455] Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 49 ff.

[1456] In the story in Genesis (ii, 17; iii, 5, 22-24) there
is a trace of such jealousy; and it is by violation of the
command of the deity that man attains the knowledge of good
and evil.

[1457] L. Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. xxv (and cf.
chap. xxvi).

[1458] Chapter iii.

[1459] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 394 ff.

[1460] See above, § 153 ff.

[1461] Gen. xvii.

[1462] Ex. iv, 24-26; Josh. v, 2 ff.

[1463] W. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 40 ff.; J. W.
Fewkes, _The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi_.

[1464] Réville, _Native Religions of Mexico and Peru_
(Hibbert Lectures), pp. 94 f., 110 (cf. ib., p. 224 f., on
Peruvian dances). See above, § 109, note 6.

[1465] Gen. xxxii, 24 ff.

[1466] Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 38.

[1467] Fowler, op. cit., p. 99 ff.; for another view see
Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Maia II"; cf. Wissowa,
_Religion der Römer_, p. 185.

[1468] Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, 18, 9.

[1469] Judg. xi, 30 ff.

[1470] Plutarch, _Theseus_, 27.

[1471] F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of
Religion_, chap. xxiii f.; Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena
to the Study of Greek Religion_, chap. x; K. H. E. de Jong,
_Das antike Mysterienwesen_, pp. 14, 16, 18; Preller,
"Eleusinia" in Pauly's _Realencyclopädie_; Reitzenstein,
_Hellenistische Mysterienreligion_.

[1472] In Babylonia such rôles are ascribed to Ea and Marduk
(Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 137, 139,
276).

[1473] See above, § 844 f.; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, 2d ed., pp. 18, 173 ff., _Records of the Past_,
vi, 108.

[1474] The myths connected with Quetzalcoatl (see Brinton,
_American Hero-Myths_, and L. Spence, _Mythologies of
Ancient Mexico and Peru_) do not relate mostly to the
movements and deeds of the sun or the winds, but arose from
his character as local deity with universal powers. Social
and political events were woven into them. His contest with
Tezcatlipoca seems to reflect the struggle between two
tribes; his defeat signifies the victory of the conquering
tribe, and the expectation of his return (by which the
invading Spaniards, it is said, profited) was based on the
political hope of his people. Cf. similar expectations among
other peoples.

[1475] Gen. xxii.

[1476] B. Beer, _Leben Abraham's nach Auffassung der
jüdischen Sage_, p. 5 and note 34; p. 102, note 30.

[1477] Turner, _Samoa_, Index.

[1478] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, chap. xviii.

[1479] Pausanias, _Description of Greece_, passim.

[1480] Semitic and other examples are given in W. R. Smith's
_Religion of the Semites_, p. 173 ff.

[1481] On the complicated myth of Phaëthon see the article
in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1482] Isa. xxiv, 21; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 356 ff.

[1483] The Babylonians were the great astronomers and
astrologers of antiquity, but their eminence in this regard
belongs to their later period. After the fall of the later
Babylonian empire (B.C. 539) the term 'Chaldean' became a
synonym of 'astrologer' (so in the Book of Daniel, B.C.
165-164); cf. Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and
Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 259 f.

[1484] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, passim; Hartland,
_Primitive Paternity_, i, 149 f.; Grey, _Polynesian
Mythology_, p. 1 ff.; Hickson, _Northern Celebes_; Lane,
_Arabian Nights_, i, 30 ff.; Saussaye, _Religion of the
Teutons_, p. 216 f.; _Iliad_, xxiii, 198 ff.; Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, i, 360 ff.; Ratzel, _History of
Mankind_ (Eng. tr.), passim.

[1485] _Iliad_, xxiii, 200 f. For some wind-myths see
Roscher, _Lexikon_, articles "Boreaden," "Boreas,"
"Harpyia." Cf. the Maori myths given in R. Taylor's _New
Zealand_, chap. vi, and for Navaho winds see Matthews,
_Navaho Legends_, p. 226, note 75.

[1486] As in Goldziher's _Hebrew Mythology_ (Eng. tr.), a
view later abandoned by the author.

[1487] By Mannhardt, in _Mythologische Forschungen_, p. 224
ff.; Frazer, in _Golden Bough_, 2d ed. (see Index, s.v.
_Corn_); and others.

[1488] Cf. Frazer, op. cit., chap. iii, § 16 f.; Roscher,
_Lexikon_, articles "Kybele," "Attis," "Persephone,"
"Ceres"; and Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_.

[1489] See above, § 678.

[1490] Gen. i, 2 f.

[1491] Dan. ii, 22; Rev. xxi, 23.

[1492] This is true even in the case of abstract deities;
see above, §§ 696, 702 ff.

[1493] A myth is a purely imaginative explanation of
phenomena; a legend rests on facts, but the facts are
distorted. The two terms are often confused the one with the
other.

[1494] Some peculiar combinations appear in the figures of
Semiramis and the Kuretes and the Korybantes; see the
articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_ under these headings.

[1495] Cf. Gomme, _Folklore as an Historical Science_; Van
Gennep, _La formation des légendes_.

[1496] See the various folk-lore journals; W. W. Newell,
article "Folk-lore" in Johnson's _Universal Cyclopædia_; cf.
Gomme, op. cit., and § 881 below.

[1497] So in the cases of the Australian ancestors, the
Polynesian, Teutonic, Finnic, Slavic, Greek, Phrygian, and
other heroes and gods, the Hebrew patriarchs, and many other
such figures.

[1498] See above, § 859.

[1499] See above, § 649.

[1500] Such were the Greek rhapsodists (Müller and
Donaldson, _History of the Literature of Ancient Greece_, i,
33 ff.), and probably the Hebrew mashalists (Numb. xxi, 27,
Eng. tr., "they that speak in proverbs"). Such reciters are
found in India at the present day.

[1501] On the value of myths for religious instruction cf.
Schultz, _Old Testament Theology_, Eng. tr. (of 4th German
ed.), i, chap. ii.

[1502] Geffcken, article "Allegory" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1503] _Phædrus_, 229; _Cratylus_, 406 f.; _Republic_ 378.

[1504] Cf. Müller and Donaldson, _History of the Literature
of Ancient Greece_, chap. xxvi.

[1505] 1 Cor. ix, 9 f.; x, 1-4; Gal. iv, 24 ff.; Heb. vii,
2; Origen, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and commentators
generally up to the sixteenth century and later.

[1506] _Origine de tous les cultes ou religion universelle_
(1794).

[1507] _Science of Language_, 2d series; cf. his Hibbert and
Gifford lectures.

[1508] It is elaborated in G. W. Cox's _Mythology of the
Aryan Nations_.

[1509] Op. cit. § 864. Cf. article "Panbabylonianism" in
_Harvard Theological Review_ for January, 1910.

[1510] _Astralmythen der Hebräer, Babylonier und Aegypter_
(1896-1907).

[1511] So in folk-tales the same motif appears in a hundred
different settings; but this is not necessarily a sign of
borrowing.

[1512] Op. cit., p. 190.

[1513] See above, § 826, note.

[1514] No well-defined Arabian myths are known.

[1515] Most of the Old Testament mythical material has been
worked over by Hebrew monotheistic editors.

[1516] P. Jensen, _Das Gilgamesch Epos in der
Weltliteratur_.

[1517] Cf. article "Panbabylonianism" cited in § 866, note.

[1518] As, for example, those of New Zealand, Babylonia, and
Greece.

[1519] Cf. Keightley, _Fairy Mythology_, 2d ed., p. 14 f.

[1520] Bacon, _Wisdom of the Ancients_; in Biblical
exposition many recent writers.

[1521] See above, § 864 ff.; cf. Jastrow, _Study of
Religion_, p. 28 ff.

[1522] _Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker_
(1810-1812).

[1523] _Antisymbolik_ (1824-1826).

[1524] Buttmann, Welcker, Lobeck, and others.

[1525] _Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie_
(1825).

[1526] See above, § 865.

[1527] See above, § 359. Cf. Grant Allen, _The Evolution of
the Idea of God_.

[1528] Darwin and Spencer (evolution), Bastian (ethnology),
and others.

[1529] In his _Early History of Mankind_ and _Primitive
Culture_. Cf. C. de Brosses (_Du culte des dieux fétiches_,
1760), who expressed a similar view.

[1530] A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_ and _Myth, Ritual, and
Religion_, and other works; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d and
3d edd.; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_; and others.

[1531] Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_ and _Mythologische
Forschungen_.

[1532] See the bibliography at the end of this book.

[1533] Beginnings for such a survey have been made in the
Teutonic, American, and some other areas.

[1534] Confucianism, if it can be called a religion, is an
exception.

[1535] See the bibliographies in Johnson's _Universal
Cyclopædia_, article "Fairy-lore," and _La Grande
Encyclopédie_, article "Fée"; Maury, _Croyances et légendes
du moyen âge_, new ed.; Hartland, _The Science of
Fairy-tales_.

[1536] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, Index, s.v. _Magic_;
Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., Index, do.; id., _Early
History of the Kingship_, Index, do.; Hobhouse, _Morals in
Evolution_, Index, do.; Westermarck, _Origin and Development
of the Moral Ideas_, Index, do.; S. Reinach, _Orpheus_,
Index, do.; Hubert and Mauss, in _Année sociologique_, vii;
Marett, _Threshold of Religion_; articles "Magie" in _La
Grande Encyclopédie_ and "Magic" in _Encyclopædia
Britannica_, 11th ed.; article "Magia" in Daremberg and
Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_.

[1537] Examples are cited in the works mentioned above.

[1538] On the view that many quasi-magical acts are
spontaneous reactions of the man to his environment see I.
King, _Development of Religion_, chap. vii. According to
this view the thought suggests the act. The warrior,
thinking of his enemy, instinctively makes the motion of
hurling something at him (as a modern man shakes his fist at
an absent foe), and such an act, a part of the excitation to
combat, is believed to be efficacious.

[1539] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, s.v. _The Evil Eye_.

[1540] On mana see above, § 231 ff. Though the theory of
mana was necessarily vague, the thing itself was quite
definite.

[1541] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 85.

[1542] _Isis and Osiris_, 73.

[1543] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 154 ff.

[1544] § 6 f.

[1545] Cf. Lord Avebury, _Marriage, Totemism, and Religion_,
p. 135.

[1546] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.

[1547] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 263.

[1548] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 36.

[1549] Cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, lecture
iii.

[1550] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 53 f.

[1551] 1 Cor. x, 20 f.

[1552] Certain ceremonies of the higher religions produce
effects that must be regarded as magical.

[1553] Lubbock, _Origin of Civilization_, p. 188. Similar
logic appears in the story of the origin of Goodwin Sands,
told by Bishop Latimer (in a sermon preached before Edward
VI). An old man, being asked what he thought was the cause
of the Sands, replied that he had lived near there, man and
boy, fourscore years, and before the neighboring steeple was
built there was no Sands, and therefore his opinion was that
the steeple was the cause of the Sands.

[1554] So among the old Hebrews, according to 1 Sam. xxviii,
9. For Rome cf. Fowler, _Religious Experience of the Roman
People_, lecture iii.

[1555] Cf. above, § 889.

[1556] In some cases the priest is a magician (Grey,
_Polynesian Mythology_, p. 114 ff.)--he acts as the
mouthpiece of a god, and in sympathy with the god. Cf.
Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_,
ii, 658. On a connection between the magician and the poet
see Goldziher, in _Proceedings of the Tenth International
Congress of Orientalists_.

[1557] Cf. above, § 889.

[1558] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 267 f.; id., _The
Shasta_, 471 ff.

[1559] Ellis, _Tshi_, p. 120.

[1560] Dixon, _The Shasta_, loc. cit.; Miss Fletcher,
_Indian Ceremonies_, p. 280.

[1561] M. Kingsley, _Studies_, p. 136.

[1562] Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 278.

[1563] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 267
f.

[1564] 1 Sam. xxviii.

[1565] Apuleius, _Metamorphoses_, bk. ii f.

[1566] Sura cxiii.

[1567] Women, however, are sometimes shamans in such tribes,
as in the California Shasta (while in the neighboring Maidu
they are commonly men). See Dixon, _The Shasta_, p. 471;
_The Northern Maidu_, p. 267 f.

[1568] Tiele, _Elements of the Science of Religion_, ii,
140; cf. Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, iii, 564 f.,
587 f.; Jackson, in Geiger and Kuhn's _Grundriss der
iranischen Philologie_, ii, 630, 671, 692.

[1569] Sophocles, _OEdipus Tyrannus_, 387; Euripides,
_Orestes_, 1498. Hence the term 'magic' as the designation
of a certain form of procedure.

[1570] So in the _Thousand and One Nights_, passim.

[1571] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 113 ff.; Castrén,
_Finnische Mythologie_, pp. 186 ff., 229; Skeat, _Malay
Magic_, p. 162; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 263; Crooke,
_Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, ii, 283
ff. For modern usages see Wuttke, _Der deutsche
Volksaberglaube der Gegenwart_, 2d ed., pp. 131, 241.

[1572] A magician, as a man of special social prominence and
of extraordinary power over the forces of the world,
becomes, in some cases, the political head of his community
(as a priest sometimes has a like position). Where the
divinization of men is practiced, the magician may be
recognized as a god. But no general rule can be laid down.
The office of king had its own political development, and a
god was the natural product of the reflection of a
community. The elevation of the magician to high political
or ecclesiastical position was dependent on peculiar
circumstances and may be called sporadic. Cf. Frazer, _Early
History of the Kingship_, p. 107 ff. and lecture v.

[1573] Cf. Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., Index, s.v.
_Kings_.

[1574] See Lord Avebury, _Marriage, Totemism, and Religion_,
chap. iv.

[1575] The plant or animal may be a totem, but its magical
power is not derived from its totemic character. Magical
potency may dwell in nontotemic objects; in magical
ceremonies connected with totems (as in Australia) it is the
ceremony rather than the totem that is efficacious. Cf.
Marett, _Threshold of Religion_, p. 22 f.

[1576] Cf. Marett, "From spell to prayer," in his _Threshold
of Religion_, p. 33 ff.

[1577] Cf. J. H. King, _The Supernatural_, Index, s.v.
_Charm_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 148; article
"Charms and Amulets" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_.

[1578] Eng. tr. by Bloomfield, in _Sacred Books of the
East_.

[1579] L. W. King, _Babylonian Magic and Sorcery_.

[1580] _Records of the Past_, first series, vols. ii, vi;
Griffith, article "Egyptian Literature" in _Library of the
World's Best Literature_; Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_,
p. 212 ff.; Breasted, _History of Egypt_, Index, s.v.
_Magic_.

[1581] Cf. Macdonald, _Religious Attitude and Life in
Islam_, Index, s.v. _Magic_.

[1582] Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités
grecques et romaines_, article "Magia"; cf. articles
"Medeia" and "Kirke" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1583] Apuleius, _Metamorphoses_; Gibbon, _Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire_, ii, 535 ff.; Friedländer, _Roman Life
and Manners under the Early Empire_ (Eng. tr.), i, 260 f.;
Fowler, _The Religious Experience of the Roman People_, p.
57 ff.; cf. Cumont, _Astrology and Religion among the Greeks
and Romans_, Index, s.v. _Magic_.

[1584] 1 Sam. xxviii; Isa. viii, 19.

[1585] In the later Judaism Solomon is the great master of
magic; see the story of the Queen of Sheba in the Second
Esther Targum; Baring-Gould, _Legends of Old Testament
Characters_. For the Arabian legends of Solomon (borrowed
from the Jews) see _Koran_, sura xxxviii; _History of
Bilkis, Queen of Sheba_, compiled from various Arabic
sources, in Socin's _Arabic Grammar_ (Eng. tr., 1885).

[1586] Lecky, _History of the Rise and Influence of the
Spirit of Rationalism in Europe_; Westermarck, _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_, Index, s.vv. _Magic_ and
_Witches_.

[1587] These Powers, including mana, may all be called
"divine" as distinguished from the purely "human."

[1588] A superhuman phenomenon, if produced by a deity, is
called a "miracle," and is held to be beneficent; if
produced by a nontheistic process, it is called "magical,"
and is looked at doubtfully.

[1589] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, ii, 696; Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, Index,
s.v. _Magic and Morals_.

[1590] Ultimately, in early religious theory, all objects
are divine or abodes or incarnations of divine beings and
capable of independent action; sometimes, doubtless, the
recognition of the natural character of a thing (as of
courage and other qualities in animals) coalesces with the
belief in its guiding power.

[1591] Cf. article "Magia" in Daremberg and Saglio,
_Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_, p. 1496.

[1592] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 254.

[1593] Cf. article "Bantu" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_, p. 358.

[1594] 1 Sam. x, 5; xix, 24.

[1595] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 513 f. The envoy not
only failed to procure cedar for the sacred barge of Amon
but was ordered by the prince to leave the city; the youth
intervened successfully (ca. 1100 B.C.).

[1596] So Teiresias (_Odyssey_, x, 492 ff.; _OEdipus
Tyrannus_, 92) and Samuel (1 Sam. ix).

[1597] Mic. i, 8; cf. 2 Kings iii, 15 (music as a
preliminary condition of inspiration).

[1598] As among the Hebrews, the Greeks, and other ancient
peoples.

[1599] Formerly, says Cicero (_De Divinatione_, i, 16),
almost nothing of moment, or even in private affairs, was
undertaken without an augury.

[1600] For a tabulation of omens and other signs and of
forms of divinatory procedure see article "Divination" in
_La Grande Encyclopédie_.

[1601] Cicero, _De Divinatione_, i, 1-4; Diodorus Siculus,
i, 70, 81; Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 216 ff.;
Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 113 ff.
(cf. Gen. xliv, 5, 15, which may point to an Egyptian custom
of divination by cup); Jastrow, _Religion Babyloniens und
Assyriens_, and _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria_; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp.
256, 328; De Groot, _Religious System of China_, i, 103 ff.;
iii, chap. xii; Buckley, in Saussaye's _Lehrbuch der
Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed. (China); articles "Divination"
in _Encyclopædia Biblica_, Hastings's _Dictionary of the
Bible_, and _Jewish Encyclopedia_; Bouché-Leclercq,
_Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité_; articles
"Divinatio" and "Haruspices" in Daremberg and Saglio,
_Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_; Gardner
and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, chap. vii; Stengel and
Oehmichen, _Die griechischen Sakralaltertümer_; Wissowa,
_Religion der Römer_, p. 450 ff.; Fowler, _Religious
Experience of the Roman People_, lecture xiii; Wellhausen,
_Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, pp. 126 ff., 148 ff.;
article "Celts" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_; Hastings, op. cit., ii, 54 ff.; Saussaye, _Religion
of the Teutons_, Index, s.v. _Divination_.

[1602] Turner, _Samoa_, Index, s.v. _Omens_.

[1603] These animals were originally themselves divine, and
therefore, by their own knowledge, capable of indicating the
course of events; cf. § 905, note.

[1604] Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 323 f.; id., _The Nandi_, p.
79.

[1605] Ellis, _Tshi_, p. 203.

[1606] Conolly, _Journey to the North of India_, 2d ed.,
1838, ii, 137 ff.

[1607] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 78, etc. For South
Africa cf. Callaway, _The Amasulu_, Index, s.vv. _Omens_,
_Divination_, _Diviners_; Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_,
Index, s.v. _Divining_; article "Bantu" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, p. 362.

[1608] 2 Sam. v, 24.

[1609] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ (Eng.
and Ger. edd.), in which references to the original
documents are given.

[1610] [Greek: ornis, oiônos]. _Iliad_, ii, 859; xii, 237;
xxiv, 219; Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 826; cf.
Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_, i, 127 ff.

[1611] _Birds_, 715 ff.

[1612] _Iliad_, xii, 243.

[1613] In Borneo, which has an elaborate scheme of omens
from birds, prayer is sometimes addressed to them. Furness,
_Home life of the Borneo Head-hunters_, Index, s.v. _Omen_;
Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 344.

[1614] The sacrificial animal was regarded as divine, and
its movements had the significance of divine counsels.

[1615] Terence, _Phormio_, IV, iv, 25 ff.