Chapter XI: Scientific and Ethical Elements in Religious Systems (3)

[705] See above, § 359. The wide prevalence of the theory in
ancient times is indicated by its adoption in the
Græco-Jewish _Wisdom of Solomon_ (of the first century
B.C.), chap. xiv, and by some Roman writers.

[706] § 262 ff.

[707] For example, in Australia, Fiji, New Guinea, and
India.

[708] Greece, Rome (Lupercalia), Egypt, and apparently in
Israel (Ex. xxxii, 6; Numb. xxv).

[709] In carnivals and many less elaborate customs.

[710] See above, § 34.

[711] It was observable in the lower animals, but in their
case was not regarded as religiously important. See below,
§ 419, for the connection of animals with phallic cults.

[712] § 158 ff.

[713] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii,
361.

[714] See Ratzel, _History of Mankind_; Waitz,
_Anthropologie der Naturvölker_; Müller, _Amerikanische
Urreligionen_; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_; Codrington, _The Melanesians_; W. Ellis,
_Polynesian Researches_; Hartland, article "Bantu" in
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; Callaway,
_Amazulus_; Featherman, _Races of Mankind_; Grünwedel,
"Lamaismus" in _Die orientalischen Religionen_ (I, iii, 1 of
_Die Kultur der Gegenwart_); Brinton, _Myths of the New
World_, p. 149; Matthews, Dorsey, Teit, Boas, Hill-Tout,
opp. cit. (on American Indians).

[715] § 34.

[716] A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_ and _E[´w]e_. Ellis does not say
that the cult exists in Ashanti, where we should expect it
to be found; its absence there is not accounted for. On
phallic worship in Congo see H. H. Johnston, in _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xiii.

[717] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 453, 470.

[718] Cf. Crooke, article "Bengal" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[719] Griffis, _Religions of Japan_; Aston, _Shinto_;
Buckley, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_, 2d
ed.; Florens, in _Die Kultur der Gegenwart_.

[720] Herodotus, ii, 48 f.

[721] _Isis and Osiris_, 51.

[722] An example of naïve popular festivities is given in
Herodotus, ii, 60.

[723] The Gilgamesh epic (Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia
and Assyria_, p. 477); Amos ii, 7; Deut. xxiii, 17 f.;
Herodotus, i, 199; Strabo, xvi, 1, 20; Epistle of Jeremy, 42
f.; Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, 6 ff. But Hos. ii, Ezek. xvi,
xxiii, Isa. lvii, 8, are descriptions of Hebrew addiction to
foreign idolatrous cults.

[724] Isa. lvii, 8: "Thou didst love their bed, the yad thou
sawest." The renderings in the English Revised Version are
not possible.

[725] Lucian, op. cit., 28, cf. 16.

[726] The Aramean Atargatis, properly Attar-Ate, is
substantially identical with Ashtart and Ishtar.

[727] Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, 15.

[728] J. P. Peters, _Nippur_, Index, s.v. _Phallic symbols_;
Bliss and Macalister, _Excavations in Palestine_, p. 136;
Macalister, _Bible Side-lights_, p. 72 f.

[729] These objects (Hebrew _masseba_) are denounced by the
prophets because they were connected with the Canaanite
non-Yahwistic worship. The same thing is true of the sacred
wooden post (the _ashera_) that stood by shrines; Deut. xvi,
21 f., etc.

[730] Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v. _Priapos._ Diodorus Siculus,
iv, 6, mentions also Ithyphallos and Tychon.

[731] Roscher, _Lexikon_.

[732] S. Seligmann, _Der böse Bück und Verwandtes_, ii, 191
ff.

[733] Diodorus Siculus, i, 88.

[734] Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v. _Indigitamenta_. _Muto_ is
'phallos.'

[735] So Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, iv, II, 34 al.

[736] S. Seligmann, _Der böse Blick und Verwandtes_, ii, 196
ff.

[737] Cf. Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 490, n. 4.

[738] On the yoni as amulet see Seligmann, _Der böse Blick
und Verwandtes_, ii, 203.

[739] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii,
491 f., and the references there to Gait's _Assam_ and other
works.

[740] III Rawlinson, pl. i, no. 12155, and IV Rawlinson,
col. 2, II. 25-28. The androgynous sense is maintained by
G. A. Barton, in _Journal Of the American Oriental Society_,
xxi, second half, p. 185 ff. Other renderings of the first
inscription are given by Thureau-Dangin in _Revue
d'Assyriologie_, iv, and Radau, _Early Babylonian History_,
p. 125.

[741] Text in Craig, _Assyrian and Babylonian Religious
Texts_, i, pl. vii, obv. 6, and by Meek, in _American
Journal of Semitic Languages_, xxvi; translation in
Jastrow's _Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens_, i, 544 f.,
and discussion by him in article "The 'Bearded' Venus" in
_Revue archéologique_, 1911, i.

[742] See for Lenormant's view _Gazette archéologique_, 1876
and 1879, and Jastrow's criticism in the article cited in
the preceding note.

[743] Lajard, _Recherches sur le culte de Vénus_. He is
followed by A. Jeremias, _The Old Testament in the Light of
the Ancient East_ (Eng. tr.), i, 123.

[744] _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, l, i, p. 13.

[745] 1 Sam. xii, 28; Deut. xxviii, 10. The angel in whom is
Yahweh's name (Ex. xxiii, 21) has the authority of the
deity.

[746] Cf. Dillmann, in _Monatsbericht der Akademie der
Wissenschaften_ (Berlin, 1881). The feminine form given to
Baal in Rom. xi, 3 f., may refer to the disparaging term
'shame' (Heb. _boshet_, for which the Greek would be
_aischun[=e]_) often substituted by the late editors of the
Old Testament for Baal. Saul's son Ishbaal ('man of Baal')
is called Ishbosheth, Jonathan's son Meribbaal is called
Mephibosheth, etc.

[747] Dillmann (loc. cit.) combines _sham[=e]_ with Ashtart,
as if the sense were 'the heavenly Ashtart of Baal'--an
impossible rendering; but he also interprets the phrase to
mean 'Ashtart the consort of the heavenly Baal.' Halévy,
_Mélanges_, p. 33; Ed. Meyer, in Roscher's _Lexikon_,
article "Astarte."

[748] _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, i, i, no. 195; i,
ii, no. 1, al. Tanit appears to be identical in character
and cult with Ashtart.

[749] See below, § 411 f.: cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, 2d ed., p. 478.

[750] A similar interpretation is given by Bæthgen in his
_Semitische Religionsgeschichte_, p. 267 f. His "monistic"
view, however, that various deities were regarded as
manifestations of the supreme deity is not tenable.

[751] Servius, Commentary on Vergil, _Æn._ ii, 632;
Macrobius, _Saturnalia_, iii, 8 on the same passage.

[752] There are manuscript variations in the text of
Servius, but these do not affect the sense derived from the
two authors, and need not be considered here.

[753] Cf. Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_ p. 428 ff.

[754] Servius, "they call her"; Macrobius, "Aristophanes
calls her." But who this Aristophanes is, or where he so
calls her, we are not informed.

[755] So Jastrow, in the article cited above. Remarking on
the statement of Lydus (in _De Mensibus_, ii, 10) that the
Pamphylians formerly worshiped a bearded Venus, he calls
attention to the Carian priestess of Athene (Herodotus, i,
175; viii, 104), who, when misfortune was impending, had (or
grew) a great beard--a mark of power, but presumably not a
genuine growth. Exactly what this story means it is hard to
say.

[756] Pausanias, vii, 17; Amobius, v, 5.

[757] Roscher, _Lexikon_, articles "Agdistis," "Attis";
Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p.219 f.; H. Hepding,
_Attis_; cf. Pseudo-Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, 15 (Attis
assumes female form and dress).

[758] This practice seems to be an exaggerated form of the
savage custom of self-wounding in honor of the dead (to
obtain their favor), interpreted in developed cults as a
sacrifice to the deity or as a means of union with him.

[759] On the wide diffusion of cults of mother-goddesses see
below, §§ 729, 734, 762, etc.

[760] Cf. Pseudo-Lucian, _De Syria Dea_ 15; Ed. Meyer,
_Geschichte des Alteriums_, 2d ed., i, 649, 651; Lagrange,
_Études sur les religions sémitiques_, 2d ed., p. 241;
Hepding, _Attis_, p. 162.

[761] See above, § 411.

[762] In Theophrastus, _Characters_, article 16 (Roscher,
_Lexikon_, 8. v. _Hermaphroditos_).

[763] Roscher, article cited.

[764] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 447, 492.

[765] H. Ellis, _Psychology of Sex_, i, passim.

[766] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, chap. xliii.

[767] Cf. § 251 ff.

[768] Dulaure, _Des divinités génératrices_. Cf. Hartland,
_Primitive Paternity_, chap. ii.

[769] See below, Chap. XI.

[770] J. F. McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_; Frazer,
_Totemism and Exogamy_; A. Lang, _Social Origins_; A. E.
Crawley, in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B.
Tylor_; N. W. Thomas, ibid.

[771] Fraser (_Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 135), thinks it
possible that exogamy of totemic clans is always exogamy in
decay.

[772] L. H. Morgan (the discoverer of the system), _Ancient
Society_; W. H. R. Rivers in _Anthropological Essays
presented to E. B. Tylor_.

[773] For the supposition of promiscuity are Morgan (op.
cit., p. 54), Spencer and Gillen (_Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 100 ff.), and others; against are Westermarck
(_Human Marriage_, chap. iv), Crawley (_The Mystic Rose_, p.
479 ff.), and others.

[774] Cf. Morgan, op. cit., p. 27, and part ii, chap. i.

[775] Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p.
269 ff.

[776] Gen. xx, 12; the rule was later abrogated (Ezek. xxii,
11; Lev. xviii, 9).

[777] J. F. McLennan, _Studies in Ancient History_, first
series, p. 90 ff.; second series, chap. vii.

[778] L. H. Morgan, _Ancient Society_, p. 424 ff.; Frazer,
_Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 164 ff.

[779] Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, chaps. xiv-xvi;
Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 222. Cf. Darwin, _Variation
of Animals and Plants under Domestication_, ii, 103 f.

[780] J. J. Atkinson, _Primal Law_ (in volume with Lang's
_Social Origins_, p. 210 ff.).

[781] E. Durkheim, in _Année sociologique_, i, 1-70.

[782] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 75 ff.

[783] See references in § 426.

[784] H. Ellis, _Psychology of Sex_, i, 36 f.; Crawley, in
_Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_.

[785] See above, § 431.

[786] See above, § 429, and compare Howard, _History of
Matrimonial Institutions_, i, 121 ff.

[787] Details are given in Frazer's _Totemism and Exogamy_.

[788] Cf. below, § 442.

[789] On two supposed human totems, Laughing Boys and
Nursing Mothers, see Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 160,
253; ii, 520 f.

[790] § 436.

[791] So, apparently, among the Nandi (Hollis, _The Nandi_,
pp. 6, 61).

[792] As among the Australian Arunta (Spencer and Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 116, 125 ff.).

[793] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 136; iii, 321;
Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, p. 328 ff.

[794] Haddon and Rivers, _Expedition to Torres Straits_, v,
158 ff.; Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_,
pp. 51, 320.

[795] Fraser, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 200; iii, 40, 227,
267, 281, 322.

[796] Swanton, _Tlingit Myths_ (_Bulletin 39_, Bureau of
American Ethnology).

[797] See below, § 544 ff.

[798] For the details of totemic customs reference may be
made, once for all, to Frazer's encyclopedic _Totemism and
Exogamy_.

[799] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, pp. 415, 423, etc.

[800] Rivers, _Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute_, xxxix; _Man_, viii.

[801] Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 39.

[802] E. F. im Thurn, _Indians of Guiana_, p. 184.

[803] For the Mandingos of Senegambia see _Revue
d'ethnographie_, v, 81, cited in Frazer's _Totemism and
Exogamy_, ii, 544.

[804] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 95.

[805] Swanton, _Tlingit Myths_, and _Jesup North Pacific
Expedition_, v, 231; Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, pp. 323, 336 f.

[806] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
679; in the Louisiade group belief in direct descent is said
to exist (p. 743).

[807] Cf. the remarks of Boas in the Introduction to Teit's
_Thompson River Indians_.

[808] On the other hand, the Kurnai, who are not totemic,
refrain, apparently, from eating their sex-patrons.

[809] This report was made in 1841, before the natives had
come in contact with the whites.

[810] In the Banks Islands the restrictions of eating relate
to the patrons of individual persons; see _Journal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix, 165 f.

[811] Rivers, _The Todas_, Index, s.v. _Food, restriction
on_.

[812] Cf. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 239, note 169;
Franciscan Fathers, _Ethnologic Dictionary_ p. 507.

[813] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 77.

[814] Cf. A. M. Tozzer, _Comparative Study of the Mayas and
the Lacandones_ (of Yucatan), and the literature given in
articles "America, South" and "Brazil" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[815] J. W. Fewkes is of opinion that the great Snake dance
(an economic function) was formerly conducted by the Snake
clan (_Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American
Ethnology_, p. 304).

[816] The choice of the object is determined by local
conditions that are not known to us. Sometimes, probably,
the object is the one most important for the welfare of the
community; sometimes it may have come from accident. See
below, § 554 ff.

[817] The artificial objects that are regarded, in a few
cases, as totems are probably of late origin, the product of
reflection, and thus differing from the old totems, which
arise in an unreflective time. However, the artificial
totems are doubtless sometimes looked on as powerful; in
some cases they may be little more than badges.

[818] This is Frazer's definition (in his _Totemism_ p. 1),
supplemented by the words "not worshiped." Cf., on the whole
subject, Tylor, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxviii, 144; F. Boas, in _American Journal of
Psychology_, xxi; A. A. Goldenweiser, "Totemism," in
_Journal of American Folklore_, xxiii (1910).

[819] For a preciser definition of totemism see below,
§ 520.

[820] The details are given in Frazer's _Totemism and
Exogamy_.

[821] Certain Arunta traditions appear to point to a time
when the totem was freely eaten. The bird-mates of the clans
may be regarded as secondary totems--perhaps a survival from
a time when a clan might have more than one totem.

[822] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central
Australia_, pp. 173, 318.

[823] The clan-names may formerly have been totemic, but
data for the decision of this point are lacking.

[824] So Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 173.

[825] Cf. H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, pp. 1,
121 ff.; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, pp. 41 f., 45, 350, 454
ff.; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, ii, 28 ff.; Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, i, 183
ff., 188 ff.

[826] C. G. Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New
Guinea_, chaps. xxxv, 1.

[827] Such a belief is said to exist in the Aru archipelago
(Papuan) west of New Guinea. There the family, and not the
clan, is the social unit; every family has its badge or
crest.

[828] Melanesia is here taken to include the Bismarck
Archipelago (New Britain, New Ireland, and adjacent islands)
and the islands lying to the eastward as far as the 180th
meridian of longitude, though in this area there is in some
places Polynesian influence.

[829] So Reverend George Brown, _Melanesians and
Polynesians_, p. 28.

[830] This usage is reported for Florida Island.

[831] On the question whether these gods are a development
out of totem animals see below, § 577.

[832] On the relation of this idea to Frazer's theory of
"conceptional totemism" see below, § 548.

[833] It might then seem that the deity was originally the
animal; see below, § 577.

[834] As to the significance of this fact cf. below, § 529
ff.

[835] W. H. Furness, 3d, _The Island of Stone-Money_.

[836] On the large theistic material of the Pelews see
Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, pp. 386, 428 ff., with
references to J. Kubary, "Die Religion der Pelauer" (in A.
Bastian's _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_).

[837] Cf. below, § 577.

[838] Exogamy is said to exist in the atoll Lua Niua, in the
Lord Howe group; the population is described as Polynesian
(Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 414 ff.); Dr.
Brown thinks it probable that exogamous classes formerly
existed in Samoa, to which place the Lua Niua people, he
holds, are ultimately to be traced.

[839] Certain septs (among the Telugus and others) are named
from inanimate (some times artificial) objects.

[840] The usages mentioned in article "Burma" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii, 24, do not
necessarily show totemism.

[841] The Iroquois stock occupied an immense territory,
partly in Canada, partly in the region now including the
states of New York, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Tennessee,
Georgia, Alabama, and the Carolinas.

[842] Cf. Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 24
ff.

[843] The Wyandots, who were allied to the Iroquois, dwelt
in the district north of Lake Ontario.

[844] The Algonkins formerly ranged over a large territory
extending along the Atlantic coast as far south as North
Carolina and reaching westward to the Mississippi.

[845] It was from the Ojibwas that our word 'totem' was
taken.

[846] A similar rôle, somewhat vague, is assigned to two
supernatural beings in Australia (Spencer and Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 388; cf. p. 246).

[847] Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 177 ff.
It was expiatory, and was accompanied by a moral
reconstruction of society, a new beginning, with old scores
wiped out. Cf. the Cherokee Green Corn dance (see article
"Cherokees" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_).

[848] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xviii. The Pawnee had a
fairly well-developed pantheon, and a civil government based
on rank (chiefs, warriors, priests, magicians). They lived
in endogamous villages; in every village there was a sacred
bundle, and all the people of the village were considered to
be descendants of the original owner of the bundle.

[849] Will and Spinden, _The Mandans_ (_Papers of the
Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology_,
Harvard University, vol. iii, 1906), p. 129 ff.

[850] J. W. Fewkes, _The Winter Solstice Ceremony at Walpi_
(reprint from _The American Anthropologist_, vol. xi, 1898),
with bibliography.

[851] Fewkes, _Journal of American Ethnology and
Archæology_, iv, and _Journal of American Folklore_, iv.

[852] The stocks or groups are, going from north to south:
the Déné or Athabascans (middle of Alaska and running east
and west); the Tlingit (Southern Alaska); the Haidas (Queen
Charlotte Islands and adjacent islands); the Tsimshians
(valleys of the Nass and Skeena rivers and adjacent
islands); the Kwakiutl (coast of British Columbia, from
Gardiner Channel to Cape Mudge, but not the west coast of
Vancouver Island); the Nootkas (west coast of Vancouver
Island); the Salish (eastern part of Vancouver Island, and
parts of British Columbia, Washington, Idaho, and Montana);
the Kootenay (near Kootenay Lake and adjoining parts of the
United States). See the authorities cited by Frazer in
_Totemism and Exogamy_.

[853] § 445 f.

[854] Cf. the divergent native accounts of the Melanesian
_buto_ (Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 31 ff.).

[855] In North America, in the Iroquois, Algonkin, Maskoki
(Creek), and Siouan stocks; in Central America and South
America; in Borneo and East Africa; and elsewhere.

[856] R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_ (Central
California), p. 223; id., _The Shasta_ (Northern California
and Oregon), p. 451; id., _The Chimariko Indians_ (west of
the Shasta, on Trinity River), p. 301; A. L. Kroeber,
article "California" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_.

[857] Article "Bantu" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_.

[858] Hollis, _The Masai_, Index, and _The Nandi_, p. 5 f.

[859] A hint of an earlier usage is given in a legend which
relates that totemic clans were ordained by a king to the
end that certain sorts of food might be taboo to certain
families, and thus animals might have a better chance to
multiply.

[860] See the volumes of A. B. Ellis on these countries
(chapters on "Gods" and on "Government").

[861] A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar_, p.
314.

[862] On this point see below, § 522 ff.

[863] For the details see W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage
in Early Arabia_ (includes the Hebrews); Joseph Jacobs, "Are
there Totem-clans in the Old Testament?" (in _Archæological
Review_, vol. iii); A. Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (on the Greek
_genos_), and _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, i, 266 ff.; ii,
226; S. Reinach, _Cultes, mythes et religions_ (Greek and
Celtic); Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 68 ff.,
etc.; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 84 f.; G. L. Gomme,
"Totemism in Britain" (in _Archæological Review_, vol. iii);
N. W. Thomas, "La survivance du culte totémique des animaux
et les rites agraires dans le pays de Galles" (in _Revue de
l'histoire des religions_, vol. xxxviii).

[864] Names are omitted that appear to belong only to
individuals or to places.

[865] G. B. Gray, _Hebrew Proper Names_, p. 86 ff.

[866] Strabo, _Geographica_, xiii, 588.

[867] Herodotus, ii, 37, 42; Diodorus Siculus, _Bibliotheke
Historike_, i, 70.

[868] Lev. xi; Deut. xiv.

[869] Stengel and Oehmichen, _Die griechischen
Sakralaltertümer_, p. 27.

[870] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 241 f.

[871] Cæsar, _De Bello Gallico_, v, 12.

[872] Herodotus, ii, 42.

[873] Pausanias, i, 24, 4. On the death of the god cf.
Frazer, _The Dying God_.

[874] Herodotus, ii, 39 ff., W. R. Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, 2d ed., additional note G; the Roman Lupercalia.

[875] Diodorus Siculus, i, 86 (Egypt); cf. Pliny, _Historia
Naturalis_, x, 4 f.

[876] W. R. Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_,
chap. viii (Semites).

[877] See above, §§ 441 ff., 466, and below, § 526; Frazer,
_Totemism and Exogamy_, Index, s.vv. _Animals_ and _Totems_.

[878] See above, § 443 ff.

[879] So, also, in Northeastern Asia, in the Japan
archipelago (the Ainu), and in low African tribes.

[880] Where sexual license before marriage prevails, young
girls are allowed to go to these houses.

[881] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_.

[882] G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 60 ff.

[883] Mary Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 384, and
_Travels in West Africa_, p. 532 ff.; Ellis, _Yoruba_, p.
110.

[884] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, p. 164 ff.

[885] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, i, 495 ff.

[886] Frazer, loc. cit. Cf. A. Lang, _Secret of the Totem_,
p. 138.

[887] _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi, i, 32 ff., 43
ff.

[888] So worship was offered to the Roman _genius_ (Horace,
_Carm._ iii, 17; _Epist._ i, 7, 94).

[889] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_, p. 105; _Tshi_, p. 156;
_Yoruba_, chap. vii.

[890] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 78 f. So the [Greek: kourotrophos]
(Farnell, in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B.
Tylor_).

[891] W. H. Dall, _Alaska and its Resources_, p. 145, cited
by Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii, 442 f.

[892] The acquisition of a supernatural inspirer by a shaman
is analogous to this custom, but belongs in a somewhat
different category: see below, § 540.

[893] Miss Alice Fletcher, "Indian Ceremonies" (in _Report
of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnology_,
Harvard University, 1883).

[894] F. Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, p. 393 f.

[895] Cf. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii, 450 ff.

[896] This process is similar to the gradual reduction of
the European independent barons to the position of royal
officers.

[897] See below, § 633 f.

[898] As, for example, by the Marathas of the Bombay
Presidency (Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 276 ff.).

[899] Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), _Prehistoric Times_,
2d ed., p. 598, and 6th ed., p. 610; id., _Origin of
Civilisation_ (1902), p. 275 ff.; and his _Marriage,
Totemism, and Religion_.

[900] Herbert Spencer, _Fortnightly Review_, 1870, and
_Principles of Sociology_ i, § 171.

[901] This view is provisionally indorsed by E. B. Tylor, in
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxviii.

[902] One such case is mentioned in Codrington's
_Melanesians_, p. 33.

[903] Frazer, _Golden Bough_ (1890), ii, 332 ff. This theory
has since been abandoned by Frazer (_Totemism and Exogamy_,
iv, 54 f.).

[904] Frazer, _Fortnightly Review_, July and September,
1905, pp. 154-172 (reprinted in _Totemism and Exogamy_, i);
_Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 89 ff.; iv, 57 ff.

[905] Rivers, "Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia" (in
_Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix
[1909], 172); Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 59 ff.

[906] This is the theory adopted by Frazer in his latest
work on the subject.

[907] The widespread belief that birth may be independent of
the union of the sexes does not, of course, carry with it an
explanation of totemism.

[908] Lippert, _Die Religionen der europäischen
Culturvölker_, p. 12; G. A. Wilken, "Het Animisme bij de
Volken van den Indischen Archipel," in _De Indische Gids_,
1884 (cf. Tylor, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxviii, 1899); G. M. Theal, _Records of
South-eastern Africa_, vii, and _History and Ethnography of
South Africa_, i. 90.

[909] F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History Of
Religion_, 1st ed., p. 101.

[910] F. M. Müller, _Anthropological Religion_, p. 121 ff.;
Pikler and Somló, _Ursprung des Totemismu_, p. 7 ff.; A. K.
Keane, _Ethnology_, p. 10; cf. G. M. Theal, _History and
Ethnography Of South Africa_, i, 17.

[911] A. C. Haddon, in _Report of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science_, 1902.

[912] A. Lang, _The Secret of the Totem_, chap. vi.

[913] Lists are given in Frazer's _Totemism and Exogamy_.

[914] Lang, _The Secret of the Totem_, loc. cit.; Theal,
_History and Ethnography of South Africa_, i, 92.

[915] Cf. A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East
Australia_, p. 154.

[916] Frazer, in _Fortnightly Review_, 1899 (this theory was
afterwards abandoned by him); B. Spencer, in _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxviii (1899).

[917] Cf. Durkheim, in _Année sociologique_, v.

[918] Durkheim, in _Année sociologique_, v.

[919] See below, § 577.

[920] Frazer, in his _Totemism_ (this view is now given up
by him); F. B. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of
Religion_, Index; S. Reinach, _Cultes, mythes et religions_,
i, 86 ff.; Hahn, _Die Haustiere_, pp. 28 ff., 42, and his
_Demeter und Baubo_, p. 19 ff. (domestication of cattle and
use of milk as food connected with moon-cult). Cf. H. Ling
Roth, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xvi,
102 ff.

[921] The totem belongs not to a tribe (Jevons,
_Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 114 f.) but to
a clan.

[922] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 19.

[923] W. E. Roth, quoted in Frazer's _Totemism and Exogamy_,
i, 532.

[924] See above, § 529 ff.

[925] W. E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography_; Spencer
and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 226
ff.

[926] See below, § 635 ff.; cf. A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and
Religion_, ii, 197, etc.; S. Relnach, _Orpheus_ (Eng. tr.),
p. 81 ff.; Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 30 ff.

[927] Haddon, in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B.
Tyler_, 183 ff.

[928] Rivers, in _Man_, viii (1908).

[929] Cf. Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, iv, 31 ff. The
Bushman god Cagn, who has the form of a mantis, and the
Hindu monkey-god Hanuman seem to have no connection with
totemism.

[930] Cf. the remarks of Haddon, op. cit.

[931] So Zeus and other Greek gods.

[932] See below, § 1041 ff.

[933] See below, § 635.

[934] The moral perfection of the individual is an ideal
that has arisen out of social relations; it is demanded by
the deity because the moral standard of a deity is that of
his human society.

[935] In international relations this tendency appears in
the demand for arbitration.

[936] N. W. Thomas, article "Taboo" in _Encyclopædia
Britannica_, 11th ed.; Codrington, _The Melanesians_;
Thomson, _Story of New Zealand_; A. van Gennep, _Tabou et
totémisme à Madagascar_; Wallace, _Malay Archipelago_, p.
149 f.; J. G. Frazer, _Early History of the Kingship_;
Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (in _Anthropological
Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_).

[937] Cf. the Chickasa _hullo_, said to mean 'mysterious'
(Speck, in _Journal of American Folklore_, xx, 57).

[938] The danger from such objects is referred to a
supernatural presence, whose attitude toward human beings
may be doubtful; only, when the phenomenon observed is
thought to be nonnatural and is afflictive (as in the case
of death, for example), this attitude is judged to be
hostile.

[939] Purely economic and other social considerations are
sometimes combined with the mana conception.

[940] The physical unity produced by contact may be brought
about, according to savage philosophy, in other ways.

[941] Ploss-Bartels, _Das Weib_, i, 591; cf. E. S. Hartland,
_Primitive Paternity_; Avesta, _Vendidad_, xv, 8.

[942] Article "Birth" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion
and Ethics_.

[943] Ploss-Bartels, _Das Weib_, ii, 345 ff.

[944] Lev. xii. In the modern Parsi usage a woman after
giving birth is secluded forty days.

[945] On the relation between birth customs and systems of
relationship (patrilineal and matrilineal) see the
references in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_, ii, 636.

[946] Numb. xix, 11 ff. For the Mazdean rules see
Tiele-Gehrich, _Geschichte der Religion im Altertum_, ii,
340 ff.

[947] Sanitary purposes may have entered into such customs.

[948] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_,
chap. xxiii, p. 138, etc.; Turner, _Samoa_, p. 145 f.; Kidd,
_The Essential Kafir_, p. 253.

[949] Ellis, _The E[´w]e-speaking Peoples_, p. 160.

[950] Cicero, _De Legibus_, ii, 26 (Athens); _Roman_
_Digests_, xlvii, 12; _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, i,
13 (Phoenician); and so among many savage and
half-civilized peoples.

[951] Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, chap. iii.

[952] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
140.

[953] Ploss-Bartels, _Das Weib_, i, 296, 302, 374, 618.

[954] Frazer, article "Taboo" in _Encyclopædia Britannica_,
9th ed.

[955] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
466; Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 52 ff.

[956] G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 241; W. H.
Furness, 3d, _The Island of Stone-Money_, p. 38 f.

[957] Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, p. 399 ff.

[958] A physiological basis for this view seems to lie
outside the resources of savage observation, but prohibition
of intercourse just after childbirth may have a humanitarian
basis.

[959] G. Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, pp. 68, 80,
200; Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_, p.
292; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, additional note
C.

[960] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, ii, 406 ff.; Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, Index,
s.v. _Chastity_.

[961] See below, § 895 ff.; Westermarck, op. cit., i, 620
ff.

[962] Ezek. xliv, 19. The term "sanctify" of the English
Version means 'make ritually sacred,' not to be touched. Cf.
Shortland, _Southern Districts of New Zealand_, p. 293 f.;
Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 106 f.

[963] For Jewish rules see Lev. xxi. The onerous
restrictions on the Roman flamen dialis and his wife are
given in Frazer's _Golden Bough_ (see Index, s.v. _Flamen
dialis_) and the authorities cited by him.

[964] The prohibition of the products of the grapevine to
the Nazirite (Numb. vi, 3 f.) seems to have been originally
part of the attempt to follow the old pastoral life, in
contrast with the Canaanite agricultural life; later it
received a religious coloring. The prohibition might begin
at the moment of the child's conception (Judg. xiii, 4, 14).

[965] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 299 ff.

[966] Turner, _Samoa_.

[967] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.

[968] R. Taylor, _New Zealand_, chap. viii.

[969] Furness, _Home Life of the Borneo Head-hunters_, p.
160 ff.

[970] C. S. Hurgronje, _The Achehnese_, p. 262 ff.

[971] T. C. Hodson, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxxvi.

[972] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 215 ff.

[973] Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
Religion_, pp. 50, 96 ff.; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, p. 106
ff.

[974] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., iii, 76 f.

[975] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii;
Frazer, op. cit., iii, 80.

[976] T. C. Hodson, "The Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam"
(in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi).

[977] Lev. xxiii; Numb. xxviii f.

[978] Stengel and Oehmichen, _Griechische Sakralaltertümer_,
p. 170.

[979] Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 365 ff.

[980] Numb. xxviii, 26.

[981] The Thargelia; Harrison, op. cit., chap. iii.

[982] Mariner, _Tonga_, p. 483

[983] W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, iv, 388, etc.

[984] Cf. Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 448 ff.

[985] Cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, additional
note C.

[986] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 405 ff.

[987] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, i, 288, 354.

[988] For details see Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, bk.
iii, chap. viii f.

[989] Hollis, _The Nandi_ p. 95 f.

[990] Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_ (in _Non-Christian Religious
Systems_), p. 140 f. Thus, as the author remarks, uposatha
is a weekly festival; and there is an approach to a true
seven-day week.

[991] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.

[992] Details of the week are given in the article
"Calendar" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_, with references to authorities.

[993] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 79; Frazer, _Adonis Attis
Osiris_, pp. 370 ff., 375.

[994] See the noteworthy Yoruban rest day, the first day of
the five-day week (A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_).

[995] For the literature on the sabbath see Herzog-Hauck,
_Real-Encyklopädie_; Jastrow, in _American Journal of
Theology_ for 1898; Cheyne, _Encyclopædia Biblica_;
Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_; _Jewish Encyclopedia_;
F. Bohn, _Der Sabbat im Alten Testament_; Benzinger,
_Hebräische Archäologie_; Nowack, _Hebräsche Archäologie_;
C. H. Toy, "The Earliest Form of the Sabbath," in _Journal
of Biblical Literature_ for 1899 (in which, so far as
appears, the view that the Hebrew sabbath is a taboo day is
stated for the first time).

[996] Any taboo day might be the occasion of placative
ceremonies; but this is not a distinctive feature of the
day.

[997] T. G. Pinches, in _Proceedings of the Society of
Biblical Archæology_, xxvi, 51 ff.; Zimmern, in _Zeitschrift
der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, lviii, 199
ff., 458 ff.; J. Meinhold, _Sabbat und Woche im Alten
Testament_. There is no good reason to doubt that this
Babylonian term is formally identical with Hebrew _shabat_.

[998] 2 Kings iv, 23; Amos viii, 5; Isa. i, 13.

[999] Exod. xxiii, 6.

[1000] Deut. v, 12 ff.; Exod. xx, 8 ff.; the term 'holy'
here means set apart ritually, that is, taboo.

[1001] Ezek. xx, 12 f., 16, 20 f., 24; Isa. lviii, 13 f.;
cf. article "Sabbath" in _Jewish Encyclopedia_.

[1002] The Hebrew stem _shabat_ means 'to cease,' a
signification that accords well with the character of a
taboo day. But this sense has not been certainly found for
the Babylonian stem, and the original force of the term
_sabbath_ may be left undecided.

[1003] Exod. xxiii, 12.

[1004] Chabas, _Le calendrier des jours fastes et néfastes_;
Maspero, _Études égyptiennes_, i, 28 ff.; Wiedemann,
_Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, chap. x.

[1005] IV Rawlinson, plates, 32 f.; Jastrow, _Religion of
Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 373 ff.

[1006] Hesiod, _Works and Days_, 763 ff.

[1007] Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 365 ff.; Fowler,
_Roman Festivals_, Index. The Romans, with their
thoroughness where public religion was concerned, divided
all the days of the year into the three classes, _dies
festi_ (festive, for worship), _dies profesti_ (for ordinary
business), and _dies intercisi_ (mixed, partly for religion,
partly for ordinary affairs).

[1008] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, iii,
29 (Burma).

[1009] J. H. King, _The Supernatural_, Index, s.v. _Luck_.

[1010] Many examples are given in Westermarck's _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_, chap. xxxvii f.; cf. above,
§ 204 ff., on fasting.

[1011] Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p.
630 ff.

[1012] E. A. Gait, article "Caste" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1013] Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., i, 321.

[1014] Taboo thus helps the growth of civil law (especially
of penal codes) by its collection of offenses, though only
on condition of retiring from the field. Cf. Frazer,
_Psyche's Task_, p. 17 ff.

[1015] Lev. xiv, 48-53.

[1016] Lev. xii.

[1017] So in many popular festivals; see Spencer and Gillen,
_Native Tribes of Central Australia_; Hopkins, _Religions of
India_, p. 453 ff.; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of
the Moral Ideas_, chap. xlii.

[1018] Examples are given in Crawley's _Mystic Rose_, pp.
223, 480 ff., chap. x ff.

[1019] Tylor, _Early History of Mankind_, 3d ed., p. 129
ff.; Hubert and Mauss, in _Année sociologique_, vii; Frazer,
_Early History of the Kingship_, lecture ii, especially p.
52 ff. (he defines taboo as "negative magic," magic, that
is, employed to avoid malefic influences); cf. Crawley, _The
Mystic Rose_, chap. ix, for the transmission of sex
characteristics.

[1020] Cf. R. R. Marett, "Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" (reply
to Frazer), in _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B.
Tylor_.

[1021] Cf. Marett, op. cit.

[1022] R. Taylor, _New Zealand_, chap. viii; Alexander,
_Short History of the Hawaiian People_.

[1023] Shortland, _Maori Religion_.

[1024] Exod. xxiii, 10 f.

[1025] Livy, i, 31.

[1026] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 215 ff.; George
Brown, _Melanesians and Polynesians_, p. 273 ff.

[1027] Seligmann, _The Melanesians of British New Guinea_,
Index, s.v. _Taboo_.

[1028] H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British
North Borneo_, i, 98.

[1029] On _permontong_ see W. H. Furness, 3d, _Home Life of
the Borneo Head-hunters_, p. 160 ff.

[1030] Manu, v, 62.

[1031] Miss Alice Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_, p. 297 f.

[1032] Miss Mary Kingsley, _Travels_, Index.

[1033] T. C. Hodson, "Genna amongst the Tribes of Assam," in
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi (1906).

[1034] Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, Index.

[1035] Boas, in _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of
American Ethnology_, and _Bulletin XV_, American Museum of
Natural History.

[1036] Lev. xii-xv.

[1037] Deut. xiv; Lev. xi; Diogenes Laertius, _Pythagoras_,
xvii.

[1038] On _tabu_ (or _tapu_) see E. Tregear,
_Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary_; W. Ellis,
_Polynesian Researches_, iv, 385.

[1039] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 215.

[1040] A. van Gennep, _Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar_.

[1041] R. H. Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_, p. 211.

[1042] The taboo sense proper is not found in [Greek: agios
(agos), enagês], and Latin _sacer_ which rather mean what is
accursed, detestable on account of wrong committed.

[1043] Sacred books "defile the hands."

[1044] Cf. articles "Taboo" in _Encyclopædia Britannica_,
9th ed. (by Frazer) and 11th ed. (by Thomas).

[1045] The relation between totemism and man's attitude
toward beasts and plants is discussed above, §§ 524 ff., 564
ff.

[1046] A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 167.

[1047] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_,
chap. xxii.

[1048] On the question whether a germinal sense of moral
obligation is found in the lower animals see above, § 12.

[1049] Naturally, the origin of all the particular taboos
escapes us; it depends in most cases on unknown conditions.

[1050] 1 Cor. xi, 27-30.

[1051] On the social organization of law cf. Darwin,
_Descent of Man_, p. 108; article "Aryan Religion" in
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1052] See above, § 240 ff.

[1053] In a cannibal community, for example, the gods will
be cannibal; see A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, new
ed., i, 6, 263 f.

[1054] Rawlinson, _History of Ancient Egypt_, i, 414 f.; ff.,
85, 506; Breasted, _History of Egypt_, pp. 46, 575; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, pp. 368, 502; ibid., p. 538 f.

[1055] They sometimes coalesce in functions with ghosts and
spirits.

[1056] Teit, _Thompson River Indians_, p. 19 ff.

[1057] L. Farrand, "Traditions of the Chilcotin Indians" in
_Jesup North Pacific Expedition_ (vol. ii of _Memoirs of the
American Museum of Natural History_), i, 14 ff.; Farrand and
Kahnweiler, "Traditions of the Quinault Indians," ibid.,
iii, 111; Boas, _Indianische Sagen_, p. 194 ff.; C.
Hill-Tout, articles in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, vols. xxxiv, xxxv, xxxvii.

[1058] Boas, Introduction to Teit's _Thompson River
Indians_, p. 16, and "Reports on the Indians of British
Columbia" in _Reports of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science_, vols. lix, lx, lxi, lxiv, lxv. A
tricksy character is ascribed to Loki in some of the Norse
stories (Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, p. 263). Loki,
however, as he appears in the literature, is a highly
complex figure.

[1059] See Boas's Introduction in Teit's _Thompson River
Indians_.

[1060] R. B. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_, p. 263.

[1061] A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 264 f.; Lang, _Myth,
Ritual, and Religion_, 1st ed., ii, 4 f.

[1062] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 123 ff.

[1063] W. Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, pp. 69 ff., 73 ff.

[1064] See Brinton, _Myth of the New World_ and _American
Hero-Myths_; _Journal of American Folklore_, passim. On the
'Hiawatha' myth see Hale, _Iroquois Book of Rites_, p. 180
ff., and Beauchamp, in _Journal of American Folklore_,
October, 1891.

[1065] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 28, 167, and
Index, s.v. _Qat_.

[1066] He is called also the "Big Raven," belonging under
this title in the cycle of raven myths of the North Pacific
Ocean (both in Asia and in America); see Jochelson, in
_Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi, i, 17 f.

[1067] Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 98 f.; Callaway, _The
Amazulu_, p. 1 ff.; cf. the Japanese mythical emperor Jimmu
(Knox, _Development of Religion in Japan_, pp. 46, 63).

[1068] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index,
s.v.; Gen. iv; articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_, s.vv.;
Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, Index, s.vv.

[1069] It is noteworthy that among the numerous ætiological
myths there seems to be no attempt to account for the origin
of language. Language was thought of as so simple and
natural a thing that no explanation of its beginnings was
necessary. Adam, in Gen. ii, is able, as a matter of course,
to give names to the animals. In early myths beasts have the
power of speech. In a Nandi folk-story (Hollis, _The Nandi_,
p. 113) what excites the wonder of the thunder and the
elephant is not man's capacity of speech, but the fact that
he can turn over when asleep without first getting up.

[1070] For female deities the title "grandmother" occurs
(Batchelor, _The Ainu_ [1901], p. 578). The devil's
grandmother figures in Teutonic folk-stories; see _Journal
of American Folklore_, xiii, 278 ff.; Frazer, _Golden
Bough_, 1st ed., i, 336.

[1071] Attempts to prove a primitive monotheism usually fail
to take this distinction into account.

[1072] Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p.
488 ff.

[1073] Boas, Introduction to Teit's _Thompson River
Indians_, p. 7.

[1074] Callaway, _The Amazulu_, p. 1 ff.

[1075] Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_, p. 101 ff.

[1076] A. B. Ellis, _Tshi_, chaps. v-vii; _E[´w]e_, chap. v;
_Yoruba_, chap. iii. Cf. C. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_
(South Nigeria), p. 282 ff.

[1077] W. Crooke, _The Popular Religion and Folklore of
Northern India_ (1907), chap. ii.

[1078] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 537 f.

[1079] Rivers, _The Todas_, chap. xix.

[1080] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 35 ff.

[1081] Jochelson, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi,
i, 36-43.

[1082] Aston, _Shinto_, Index, s.v. _Kami_; Knox, _Religion
in Japan_, p. 27 ff.

[1083] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 255; cf. ii, 337.

[1084] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, p. xix; Matthews, _Navaho
Legends_, p. 34 f.

[1085] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 532.

[1086] Spence, in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_, ii, 835.

[1087] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_ (Dahomi), p. 104.

[1088] On the ascription of divinity to men in great
civilized religious systems see above, § 351 ff.

[1089] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 120 ff.; Ed.
Meyer, _Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_, p. 31 ff.;
Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 109;
Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 21 f., 39.

[1090] Cf. W. von Baudissin, _Studien zur semitischen
Religionsgeschichte_, i, 28 f.

[1091] R. Smend, _Alttestamentliche Religionsgeschichte_, p.
33 f. In regard to the original home of Yahweh and the
diffusion of his cult among other peoples than the Hebrews
exact information is lacking.

[1092] Pietschmann, _Phönizier_, pp. 170 f., 182 ff.

[1093] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i,
664.

[1094] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index,
s.vv.; articles in Roscher's _Lexikon_; "Eshmun" in
_Orientalische Studien Nöldeke gewidmet_.

[1095] See, for example, Pausanias, i, 37, 3 (Zeus
Meilichios); ii, 19, 3 (Apollo Lykios); iii, 13, 2 (Kore
Soteira--Persephone, the protectress); v, 25, 6 f.
(Heracles); viii, 12, 1 (Zeus Charmon).

[1096] Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, p. 15 ff.; Bloomfield,
_Religion of the Veda_, p. 90.

[1097] Sir C. R. Markham, _The Incas of Peru_, p. 104.

[1098] L. Spence, _The Mythologies of Ancient Mexico and
Peru_, p. 24 f.

[1099] See above, § 647.

[1100] Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Heros," col. 2473 ff.

[1101] _Works and Days_, 155 ff.

[1102] He appears to be usually beneficent; but, like all
the dead, he might sometimes be maleficent.

[1103] But these origins, going far back into prehistoric
times, are obscure.

[1104] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 132.

[1105] Tregear, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xix, 97 ff.; Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p.
164.

[1106] Alexander, _Short History of the Hawaiian People_.

[1107] E. H. Gomes, _Southern Departments of Borneo_.

[1108] Skeat, _Malay Magic_, chap. iv; Skeat and Blagden,
_Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_, ii, 245 ff.

[1109] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 529 f.; Crooke,
_Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India_, i, chap.
ii.

[1110] Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 264. The related Nandi
worship the sun (Asista) mainly, but have also a thunder-god
(Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 40 f.).

[1111] Hollis, op. cit., p. 279.

[1112] With them, as everywhere else, there is occasional
discrimination in the functions of magicians, different men
healing or inflicting different sicknesses; cf. article
"Bantu" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1113] A. B. Ellis, _E[´w]e_, chap. v; _Tshi_, chap. v;
_Yoruba_, p. 45.

[1114] Jochelson, in _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vi,
i, 33 ff., 27 ff.

[1115] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, chap. li.

[1116] Herodotus, iv, 94.

[1117] Demetrius Klementz, article "Buriats" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1118] Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 65 ff.; Dorsey, _The Skidi
Pawnee_, p. xviii ff. On gods of air and winds see J. H.
Keane, in article "Air and Gods of the Air" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1119] Hastings, op. cit., i, 382 ff., and ii, 837.

[1120] Brinton, _American Hero-Myths_, chap. iv; A. M.
Tozzer, _Comparative Study of the Mayas and the Lacandones_
(of Yucatan), pp. 80, 93 ff.; H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races
of the Pacific States of North America_, ii, chap. xx ff.

[1121] J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen
Urreligionen_, p. 577 ff.; Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and
Religion_, chap. xiv; L. Spence, _Mythologies of Ancient
Mexico and Peru_; E. Seler, _Gesammelte Abhandlungen_. For
earlier authorities see Winsor, _Narrative and Critical
History Of America_, vol. i, chaps. iii, iv.

[1122] J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen
Urreligionen_, p. 313 ff.; Prescott, _Peru_, i, 91 ff.; C.
R. Markham, _The Incas of Peru_, chap. viii; and see
preceding note.

[1123] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, ii, 81, note 2; p.
82, notes 1 and 2.

[1124] Usener, _Götternamen_ p. 122 ff.; L. R. Farnell, "The
Place of the 'Sonder-Götter' in Greek Polytheism" (in
_Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_).

[1125] Farnell, op. cit.; cf. T. R. Glover, _Conflict of
Religions in the Early Roman Empire_, p. 12.

[1126] Roscher, _Lexikon_, s.v.

[1127] Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, vii, 22; cf. bks. vi,
vii, passim.

[1128] Cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, pp. 15, 145 ff.

[1129] Judg. viii, 33.

[1130] The name occurs only once, in 2 Kings, i, 2. It is
incorrectly adopted in the English Version of the New
Testament.

[1131] Found only in the Synoptic Gospels, Mk. iii, 22;
Matt. x, 25; xii, 24, 27; Luke xi, 15, 18, 19.

[1132] Isa. lxiii, 15.

[1133] On these Semitic titles see articles "Baal" and
"Baalzebub" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_; article "Beelzebul" in Cheyne, _Encyclopædia
Biblica_; various articles in Brown, Driver, Briggs, _Hebrew
and English Lexicons_.

[1134] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, chap. x; Furness, _Home life
of the Borneo Head-hunters_, p. 64 f.; Hopkins, _Religions
of India_, p. 530, note 2; De Groot, _Religion of the
Chinese_, p. 129 f.

[1135] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 18 f.; Nassau, _Fetichism in West
Africa_, pp. 67, 163 ff.

[1136] On "manitu" see _Handbook of American Indians_, s.v.
(and cf. article "Wakonda"); W. Jones, in _Journal of
American Folklore_, xviii, 183 ff. On "nagual" see Bancroft,
_Native Races of the Pacific States of North America_, iii,
458; Brinton, in _Journal of American Folklore_, viii, 249.

[1137] _Journal of American Folklore_, viii, 115.

[1138] Cf. M. H. Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 132 f.

[1139] Roscher, _Lexikon_, i, 2, col. 1616.

[1140] Cf. article "Daimon" in Roscher, op. cit.

[1141] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 91 ff.;
Dan. x, 20; xi, 1; xii, 1; Matt. xviii, 10.

[1142] Examples are given above, § 255 f.

[1143] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, chap. x.

[1144] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 150 f., 158 f.,
168 f.; Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 7, 52.

[1145] Here again a distinction must be made between animals
simply sacred and those that are specifically totemic.

[1146] Codrington, _The Melanesians_, pp. 248 f., 253 ff.

[1147] Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, chaps. xii f.

[1148] So the Samoan Tangaloa (Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,
3d ed., ii, 344 f.).

[1149] St. John, _The Far East_, i, 180.

[1150] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 528 ff.

[1151] A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_, pp. 38 ff., 56 ff.; cf. M. H.
Kingsley, _West African Studies_, p. 117 ff.

[1152] Lang, _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, preface to new
edition.

[1153] Matthews, _Navaho Legends_, p. 34.

[1154] Article "Brazil" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_.

[1155] G. Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 1 ff.; Taylor,
_New Zealand_, chap. vi; cf., for Polynesia, W. Ellis,
_Polynesian Researches_, chap. xiii. The abstract ideas
reported by Taylor are remarkable: from conception came
increase, from this came swelling, then, in order, thought,
remembrance, desire; or, from nothing came increase and so
forth; or, the word brought forth night, the night ending in
death. The significance of this scheme (supposing it to be
correctly stated) has not been explained. The rôle assigned
to "desire" in the Rig-Veda creation-hymn (x, 129) is the
product of learned reflection (cf. Schopenhauer's "blind
will"), and sounds strange in the mouth of New Zealand
savages.

[1156] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 308 ff.

[1157] Williams and Calvert, _Fiji_, p. 193 f.

[1158] Grey, _Polynesian Mythology_, p. 15; Castrén,
_Finnische Mythologie_, p. 1.

[1159] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ (English
and German editions), Index, s.vv. _Allatu, Nergal_; id.,
_Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in Babylonia and
Assyria_, p. 368 ff.; Wiedemann, _Religion of the Ancient
Egyptians_, p. 217; Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_,
p. 94 ff.; Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, pp. 171 ff., 169
ff.; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 144 f.; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 128 ff.; Spiegel, _Eranische
Alterthianskunde_, ii, 163 (but the old Persian god of the
Underworld, if there was one, was absorbed, in
Zoroastrianism, by Ahura Mazda); Jackson, in Geiger and
Kuhn's _Grundriss der iranischen Philologie_, ii, 652, § 52;
Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, ii, 513 ff.; iii,
chap. v; Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 187 ff.; Aust,
_Religion der Römer_, p. 52; Rohde, _Psyche_, 3d ed. i, 205,
ff.; articles on Hades, Plutos, Hermes, Dionysos, Nergal,
and related deities, in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1160] Cf. Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and
Practice in Babylonia and Assyria_, pp. 356 f., 372 f.; F.
Schwally, _Das Leben nach dem Tode_, p. 65 ff.; R. H.
Charles, _Eschatology_, p. 18 f. For the Arabs see
Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, iii, 22 ff., 42
ff.; Nöldeke, article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_; for the
Phoenicians, Pietschmann, _Phönizier_, p. 191 f.

[1161] Ps. cxxxix.

[1162] See article "Celts" in Hastings, op. cit.; Saussaye,
_Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed.; Usener,
_Götternamen_; article "Aryan Religion" in Hastings, op.
cit., p. 38 f. and passim.

[1163] Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 264. The neighboring Nandi,
according to Hollis (_The Nandi_, p. 41), have a similar
pair.

[1164] A. C. Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_ (_Bulletin of the
American Museum Of Natural History_, xviii, iii), p. 263.
For other such conceptions see Tylor's discussion in
_Primitive Culture_, ii, 320 ff.

[1165] Brinton, _Myths of the New World_, p. 63; H. Hale,
_Iroquois Book of Rites_, p. 74.

[1166] A possible exception is the Khond myth of the
struggle between the sun-god (Boora Pennu), the giver of all
good things, and the earth-goddess (Tari), the author of
evil things (Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 529 f.;
Macpherson, _India_, p. 84); but the origin of this myth is
uncertain.

[1167] 1 Kings xxii, 19-23.

[1168] Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_, p. 71
f.; Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, pp. 172, 177.

[1169] R. Taylor, _New Zealand_, pp. 114 ff., 132; Jean A.
Owen, _The Story of Hawaii_, p. 70 f.

[1170] Mills, in _Journal of the American Oriental Society_,
xx, 31 ff.; Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 123 ff.

[1171] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, ii, 21 ff., 121
ff.

[1172] Zech. iii, 1-3; Job i, ii.

[1173] 1 Chr. xxi, 1.

[1174] 2 Cor. iv, 4.

[1175] The Greek _daimon_, properly simply a deity, received
its opprobrious sense when Jews and Christians identified
foreign deities with the enemies of the supreme God.

[1176] Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 318 ff.

[1177] Great gods also send suffering, but only when they
are angered by men's acts, as by disrespect to a priest
(Apollo, in _Iliad_, i) or to a sacred thing (Yahweh, 1 Sam.
vi, 19; 2 Sam. vi, 7). In the high spiritual religions
suffering is treated as educative, or is accepted as
involving some good purpose unknown to men.

[1178] W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p.
126 f.

[1179] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 260
ff.; O. Weber, _Dämonenbeschwörung bei den Babyloniern und
Assyriern_ (in _Der Alte Orient_, 1906).

[1180] The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (ed. R. H. Charles),
chaps. liii, vi-x; the Slavonic Enoch, or Secrets of Enoch
(ed. R. H. Charles), chap. xxxi. For the later Jewish view
(in Talmud and Midrash) see _Jewish Encyclopedia_, article
"Satan."

[1181] The "demons" of 1 Cor. x, 20 (King James version,
"devils") are foreign deities.

[1182] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 416, 492 ff.

[1183] Herzog-Hauck, _Real-Encyklopädie_, articles
"Ophiten," "Kainiten."

[1184] J. Menant, _Les Yésidis_ (in _Annales du Musée
Guimet_); Isya Joseph, _Yesidi Texts_ (reprinted from
_American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures_, xxv
(1909), no. 2 f.). Cf. the idea of restoration in Col. i,
20.

[1185] So the Christian Satan.

[1186] When, in the reports of travelers and other
observers, demons are said to be placated, examination shows
that these beings are gods who happen to be mischievous. Of
this character, for example, appear to be the "demons"
mentioned in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_, ii, 122.