Chapter XI: Scientific and Ethical Elements in Religious Systems (5)

[1616] Frazer, _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii, 137; Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, i, 119 f.; Miss Fletcher, _Indian
Ceremonies_, p. 278 ff.

[1617] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 384
ff.

[1618] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 319; Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 593;
Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 100, and _The Masai_, p. 275 ff.

[1619] On the exaggerated range and importance ascribed by
some modern writers to early conceptions of the divinatory
function of heavenly bodies see above, §§ 826, 866 ff.

[1620] Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 163, 180.

[1621] Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 240 ff.; R. F. Harper, _Assyrian
and Babylonian Literature_, p. 451 ff.

[1622] Persius, vi, 18.

[1623] Cicero, _De Divinatione_, ii, 42 ff.

[1624] The largest planet was brought into connection with
the chief god of Babylon, Marduk; the bright star of morning
and evening with Ishtar; the red planet with Nergal, god of
war, and the others with Ninib and Nebo respectively. The
Romans changed these names into those of their corresponding
deities, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, Saturn, and Mercury.

[1625] Cumont, _Les religions orientales dans le paganisme
romain_, chap. vii, and Eng. tr., _The Oriental Religions in
Roman Paganism_; id., _Astrology and Religion among the
Greeks and Romans_; Bouché-Leclercq, _L'astrologie grecque_
and _Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité_.

[1626] Medieval belief in astral power is embodied in the
English word 'influence,' properly the inflow from the stars
(so in Milton's _L'Allegro_, 121 f., "ladies whose bright
eyes rain influence"). An astrologer was often attached to a
royal court or to the household of some great person, his
duty being to keep his patron informed as to the future.

[1627] _Odyssey_, xvii, 541 ff. The fear of a sneeze (which
must be followed by some form of 'God bless you!') belongs
in a different category; the danger is that a hurtful spirit
may enter the sneezer's body, or that his soul may depart.

[1628] Muir, _The Caliphate_, p. 112.

[1629] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii,
362; Ellis, _Tshi_, p. 202; id., _Yoruba_, p. 97; cf.
Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 324.

[1630] 1 Sam. xxiii, 2.

[1631] 1 Sam. xiv, 38-42 (see the Septuagint text).

[1632] Ezek. xxi, 21 [26].

[1633] _Moallakat of Imru'l-Kais_, ver. 22.

[1634] Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_, i, 195 ff.; iv, 153, 159; Augustine,
_Confessions_, iv, 5: de paginis poetae cujuspiam longe
allud canentis atque intendentis; if, says Augustine's
friend, an apposite verse so appears, it is not wonderful
that something bearing on one's affairs should issue from
the human soul by some higher instinct, though the soul does
not know what goes on within it.

[1635] Cf. Comparetti, _Virgilio nel medio evo_, i, 64 f.
(Eng. tr., p. 47 f.).

[1636] As the Masai (Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 324).

[1637] Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_; Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des
antiquités grecques et romaines_, s.v. _Haruspices_; Fowler,
_The Religious Experience of the Roman People_, Index, s.v.
_Haruspices_.

[1638] M. Jastrow, "The Liver in Antiquity" (_University of
Pennsylvania Medical Bulletin_, 1908) and _Religion
Babyloniens und Assyriens_.

[1639] _Primitive Culture_, i, 124.

[1640] See above, § 28. The skull is employed as a means of
divination (Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 91 ff.).

[1641] See above, § 24.

[1642] Cf. Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Oneiros," col. 904.

[1643] J. H. King, _The Supernatural_, i, 168 ff.; Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, i, 121 ff., 440 f.; Howitt, _Native
Tribes of South-East Australia_ p. 436; Mrs. K. Langloh
Parker, _The Euahlayi Tribe_, pp. 28, 83 f.

[1644] Dorsey, _The Skidi Pawnee_, Index, s.v. _Dreams_.

[1645] Ellis, _Tshi_, p. 90

[1646] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 468, and see p. 558.

[1647] Gen. xi f.

[1648] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 349
f.

[1649] Gen. xx, 3; xxviii, 12; xxxi, 11; xxxvii, 5.

[1650] Dan. ii, iv.

[1651] _Iliad_, ii, 1 ff. So Yahweh, by a lying spirit,
sends Ahab to his death (1 Kings, xxii, 19 ff.) and deceives
the prophet, who misleads the people (Ezek. xiv, 9). The
theory of these ancient writers was that a deity, like an
earthly king, had a right to use any means to gain his ends.

[1652] Cf. article "Oneiros" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1653] 1 Sam. xxviii, 6. The other means used, it is said,
were the urim (urim and thummim) and prophets. These all
failing, the king had recourse to necromancy.

[1654] See article "Asklepios" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1655] See the description in Pater's _Marius the
Epicurean_.

[1656] A god might send a dream to a seer for the benefit of
some other person. So Ishtar spoke to Assurbanipal through
the dream of a seer (George Smith, _History of
Assurbanipal_, p. 123 f.).

[1657] Jastrow, _Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens_; Dan.
ii, 2 ff.; Deut. xiii, 1; Gardner and Jevons, _Greek
Antiquities_, p. 258; Aust, _Religion der Römer_, Index,
s.v. _Traum_, _Traumdeutung_; Roscher, _Lexikon_, article
"Oneiros."

[1658] So it was in the case of magicians and prophets
generally; cf. Ezek. xxxix, 21; Isa. xiiii, 9.

[1659] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 404,
and German ed., ii, Index.

[1660] Dream-books exist at the present day. Those who
believe in the predictive power of dreams regard them as
messages from God or as products of telepathy.

[1661] The Nandi invoke a skull as divine witness (Hollis,
_The Nandi_, p. 76 f.).

[1662] Ellis, _Tshi_ chap. xviii.

[1663] Apparently because he is thus shown to be unsupported
by any evil spirit.

[1664] Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, p. 190 ff.

[1665] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 184.

[1666] Purchas, _Pilgrimage_, ed. Ravenstein, pp. 56 f., 59
f.

[1667] "Code of Hammurabi" (§§ 2, 132), by C. H. W. Johns,
in Hastings's _Dictionary of the Bible_, extra volume.

[1668] Numb. v.

[1669] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 275 ff.

[1670] She was rejected by the sacred water; cf. W. R.
Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 179; Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_, i, 140. Cf. Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 190 f.;
id., _Tshi_, pp. 198, 201.

[1671] Turner, _Samoa_, p. 184.

[1672] Similarly, a blessing once uttered remains effective
and cannot be recalled; so in the story of Isaac blessing
Jacob and Esau, Gen. xxvii.

[1673] Westermarck, "L'âr" in _Anthropological Essays
presented to Tylor_; cf. his _Origin and Development of the
Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Curses_.

[1674] Hence the opposition (now disappearing) to lines of
railway and telegraph, which were supposed to interfere with
the happy influences of rivers and hills and other natural
features.

[1675] De Groot, _Religious System of China_ and
_Development of Religion in China_; and his article "Die
Chinesen" in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_.
See above, § 747 ff.

[1676] Haddon, _Head-hunters_, pp. 42, 182 f.; on the
sacredness of the head see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed.,
i, 362 ff.; Frobenius, _Childhood of Man_, chap. xiii.

[1677] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 532.

[1678] So when Rebecca wished to obtain information about
her children, soon to be born, it is said simply that she
went to inquire of Yahweh (Gen. xxv, 22), as if there was,
as a matter of course, a shrine in the neighborhood.

[1679] Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_, ii, 250 ff.; iii.

[1680] Cumont, _Les religions orientales dans le paganisme
romain_, Eng. tr., _The Oriental Religions in Roman
Paganism_, pp. 105, 124 f., 168.

[1681] Cf. Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_,
p. 113 f.

[1682] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 126
ff.

[1683] 1 Sam. xiv, 36 ff.; xxiii, 2; xxx, 7 f.; Isa. lxv, 1;
Ezek. xxxiii, 30 ff.

[1684] 2 Kings, i, 2. The prophet Elijah, who was a zealous
Yahwist, was very angry with the king for applying to a
foreign deity; but evidently the Philistine shrine enjoyed a
greater reputation than any in Israel.

[1685] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index,
s.v. _Oracles_.

[1686] Cf. Aust, _Religion der Römer_, Index, s.v. _Orakel_;
see below, § 933 ff.

[1687] Friedländer, _Roman Life and Manners under the Early
Empire_ (Eng. tr.), p. 3, 129 ff.; Fowler, _Religious
Experience of the Roman People_, p. 339.

[1688] Cicero, _De Divinatione_, i, 34, 37 f.; Plutarch, _De
Pythiae Oraculis_ and _De Defectu Oraculorum_; Gardner and
Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, Index, s.v. _Oracles_;
Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_, Index, and Stengel and Oehmichen, _Die
greichischen Sakralaltertümer_, Index; _Encyclopædia
Britannica_, 11th ed., article "Oracle."

[1689] On the position of women in ancient religion cf.
Farnell's article in _Archiv für Relgionswissenschaft_,
1904.

[1690] Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, pp. 102, 105;
Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, iv, 187 ff.

[1691] See above, §§ 362, 366.

[1692] See article "Ancestor-worship" and articles on lower
tribes in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1693] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 511.

[1694] 1 Sam. xxviii; Isa. viii, 19.

[1695] Ezek. xxi, 26 [21] (King Nebuchadrezzar divines by
teraphim).

[1696] Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_, iii, 363 ff.; Daremberg and Saglio,
_Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines_, article
"Divination," p. 308.

[1697] 1 Cor. xv, 49; 2 Cor. v, 8; Cumont, _Astrology and
Religion among the Greeks and Romans_, lecture vi.

[1698] Cranz, _Greenland_, i, 192 ff.; Rink, _Danish
Greenland_, p. 142 f.

[1699] Brinton, _Cakchiquels_, p. 47.

[1700] Cf. Nöldeke, article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, i, 667, 671.

[1701] Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 56 ff.; id., _Tshi_, p. 124 ff.

[1702] P. R. Gurden, article "Ahoms" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1703] Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 249 ff.

[1704] A. Bertrand, _La religion des Gaulois_, pp. 257, 259,
263.

[1705] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 341.

[1706] On Hebrew divination see articles "Divination" in
Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_, and in the
_Encyclopædia Biblica_.

[1707] Deut. xiii, 1; xviii, 10.

[1708] The Hebrew text is doubtful, and its meaning is not
clear; cf. Gray, "The Book Of Isaiah," in _The International
Critical Commentary_.

[1709] Gen. xliv, 5.

[1710] Cf. Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_, ii, 1 ff., 62 ff.

[1711] _Timæus_, 72.

[1712] Xenophon, _Memorabilia_, i, 3, 4: [Greek: ta hypo tôn
theôn sêmainomena].

[1713] Originally diviners from the flight of birds, but the
area of their divinatory functions was gradually extended.
See Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 450 ff.; Fowler,
_Religious Experience of the Roman People_, lecture xiii.

[1714] Charged with the interpretation of the entrails of
sacrificed animals, and also of lightning and portents.

[1715] Wissowa, op. cit., p. 474.

[1716] Cf. above, § 895 f.

[1717] This story (connected with Thebes) appears to
represent some sort of protest against the Dionysiac cult
when it was first brought to Greece; cf. Roscher, _Lexikon_,
article "Pentheus."

[1718] Cf. above, § 927.

[1719] 1 Sam. xix, 24; cf. Mic. i, 8 ff.

[1720] Their "visions" sometimes show literary art (Ezek. xl
ff.; Zech. i-viii).

[1721] Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Sibylla."

[1722] That is, she was not to be tolerated as a rival of
the great oracular god.

[1723] Cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, pp. 239, 462 ff.

[1724] Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
l'antiquité_, ii, Index, s.v. _Cumes_.

[1725] Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 463; Fowler,
_Religious Experience of the Roman People_, p. 339.

[1726] Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, x, 27 (in connection
with Vergil's verses, _Eclogues_, iv, 13 f.); xxviii, 23
(the initial letters in _Sibylline Oracles_, viii, 268-309,
giving a title of Christ). So Eusebius, in his report of the
Oration of Constantine, xviii; cf. Lactantius, _Divinae
Institutiones_, lib. i, cap. vi.

[1727] _Oracula Sibyllina_, ed. Alexandre (Greek text, with
Latin tr.); ed. Friedlieb (Greek text, with German tr. and
additions by Volkmann); ed. Rzack (critical Greek text);
Terry, _The Sibylline Oracles_ (Eng. tr., blank verse).

[1728] On the attitude of early Greek philosophers
(Pythagoras, Democritus, Empedocles, Thales, Xenophanes)
toward divination, and the relation of the latter to the
idea of divine providence, see Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire de
la divination dans l'antiquité_, i, 29 ff.

[1729] See Chapter iii.

[1730] Cf. Barton, _Semitic Origins_, chap. i.

[1731] Cf. Breasted, _Religion and Thought in Ancient
Egypt_.

[1732] Fowler, _Religious Experience of the Roman People_,
chaps. i, xvi.

[1733] Bertrand, _La religion des Gaulois_; Rhys, _Celtic
Heathendom_; Usener, _Götternamen_; articles "Celts" and
"Aryan Religion" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_.

[1734] Cf. the sketch given above, Chapter vii; Tylor,
_Primitive Culture_; Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., passim.

[1735] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_, and _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_;
Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_;
Quatrefages, _The Pygmies_; Hyades and Deniker, _Mission
scientifique du cap Horn_; Seligmann, _The Melanesians of
British New Guinea_.

[1736] Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrika's_; article
"Bantu" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1737] Callaway, _The Amazulu_.

[1738] See above, § 837.

[1739] Rivers, _The Todas_.

[1740] Codrington, _The Melanesians_; W. Ellis, _Polynesian
Researches_; Williams and Calvert, _Fiji_; Turner, _Samoa_;
Krämer, _Die Samoa-Inseln_; Taylor, _New Zealand_; H. Ling
Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_.

[1741] Brinton, _The Lenâpé_; Matthews, _Navaho Legends_;
Dorsey, _Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee_; Teit, _Thompson
River Indians_; Boas, _The Kwakiutl_; Dixon, _The Northern
Maidu_ and _The Shasta_; _Journal of American Folklore_,
passim.

[1742] Van Gennep, _Tabou et totémisme à Madagascar_; A.B.
Ellis, _E[´w]e_, _Tshi_, _Yoruba_; Skeat, _Malay Magic_; Skeat
and Blagden, _Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula_; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_.

[1743] Aston, _Shinto_; Knox, _Development of Religion in
Japan_.

[1744] _The Kalevala_; Castrén, _Finnische Mythologie_.

[1745] Prescott, _Conquest of Mexico_ and _Conquest of
Peru_; Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History of America_;
Brinton, _American Hero-Myths_, Index; Lang, _Myth, Ritual,
and Religion_, Index, s.vv. _Mexican Divine Myths_ and
_Peruvian Myths_.

[1746] Ehrenreich, _Mythen und Legenden der
südamericanischen Urvölker_.

[1747] De Groot, _Religious System of China_.

[1748] The _Avesta_; Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_,
vol. ii, bk. iv, chaps. i, ii; De Harlez, _Avesta_,
Introduction, p. lxxxiv ff.; _The Shahnameh_.

[1749] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, p. 155 ff.;
Steindorff, _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 106 ff.

[1750] Plutarch, _Isis and Osiris_; Steindorff, op. cit.,
Index, s.vv. _Isis_ and _Osiris_; Roscher, _Lexikon_,
articles "Isis," "Usire."

[1751] R. F. Harper, _Assyrian and Babylonian Literature_;
Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria_, Index, s.v. _Myths_.

[1752] Job xxvi, 12; Ps. lxxxix, 11 [10]; Isa. li, 9.

[1753] Deut. xxxii, 8 f.

[1754] Gen. iv, 17 ff.; v, vi, 4; Ezek. xxxii, 27 (revised
text).

[1755] Gen. iii, 14 ff. On the loss of immortality see
above, § 834.

[1756] On the ceremony of mourning for Tammuz (Ezek. viii,
14) see Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 574
ff.; Pseudo-Lucian, _De Syria Dea_. In Babylonia the
ceremony appears to have been an official lament for the
loss of vegetation (the women mourners being attached to the
temple); in Syria (Hierapolis) it took on orgiastic elements
(perhaps an importation from Asia Minor). The women of Ezek.
viii were attached, probably, to the service of the temple.

[1757] Barth, _Religions of India_; Hopkins, _Religions of
India_; Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_; Lang, _Myth, Ritual,
and Religion_, Index.

[1758] This is true of all mythical and legendary creations
of the thought of communities, but in an especial degree of
the Greek.

[1759] Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, Index, s.v.
_Myths_; he distinguishes between the earlier and the later
stories; R. M. Meyer, _Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte_,
chaps. iii, iv.

[1760] Folk-lore and legend mingle with the myths.

[1761] See R. M. Meyer, op. cit., p. 444 ff.

[1762] Even in great modern religions nominally monotheistic
a virtual polytheism continues to exist.

[1763] See above, § 683 ff.

[1764] This conception survives in the great polytheistic
cults, and may be recognized in the later religions of
redemption.

[1765] Compare the Brazilian Tapuyas (Botocudos); see
article "Brazil" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_.

[1766] For West Africa cf. A. B. Ellis, _Yoruba_, p. 87;
_Tshi_, chaps. iii-viii; _E[´w]e_, chaps. iii-v.

[1767] § 365 ff. On this attitude see the reports of the
religions of particular peoples and the summaries of such
reports in dictionaries and encyclopedias, and in such works
as Steinmetz, _Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwicklung
der Strafe_; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the
Moral Ideas_; also articles in the _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, the reports of the American
Bureau of Ethnology, and similar publications.

[1768] Theoph. Hahn, _Tsuni-Goam_, p. 38.

[1769] Hollis, _The Masai_, p. 264 f.

[1770] Skeat, _Malay Magic_, pp. 93 ff., 320 ff.

[1771] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, pp. 193 f., 200.

[1772] Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 135
ff.; W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, Index, s.v.
_Jinn_.

[1773] R. C. Temple, article "Andamans" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1774] For example, by Waitz, _Anthropologie_, iii, pp. 182
f., 330, 334 f.; Waitz expresses doubt (p. 345) as to the
correctness of certain accounts of the religious ideas of
the Oregon tribes.

[1775] Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the Creeks_, p. 215
f., Brinton, _The Lenâpé_, p. 67 f.; Dorsey, _The Skidi
Pawnee_, p. xviii f.; Dixon, _The Shasta_, p. 491 ff.

[1776] On methods of accounting for the existence of death
in the world see above, § 834.

[1777] Brébeuf's account is given in _Relation des Jésuites
dans la nouvelle France_, 1635, p. 34; 1636, p. 100; cf. the
edition of the _Relation_ by R. G. Thwaites, viii, 116 ff.;
x, 126 f. Brébeuf appears to have followed Sagard, _Canada_
(see Troas ed., p. 452 ff.). The story is discussed by
Brinton, in _Myths of the New World_, 3d ed., p. 79 ff., and
his criticism is adopted by Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, 3d
ed., ii, 322.

[1778] Brinton, op. cit., p. 77.

[1779] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 334 ff.; article
"Algonquins" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_, pp. 320, 323.

[1780] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, and his article in Hastings,
op. cit.

[1781] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 528 ff. The
influence of Brahmanism is possible here; but cf. Hopkins,
op. cit., p. 530, note 3.

[1782] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_, pp. 172, 202;
Breasted, _History of Egypt_, p. 571; Steindorff, _Religion
of the Ancient Egyptians_, p. 67 ff.

[1783] This myth may have trickled down to them (through the
Canaanites or in some other way) in subdued form--it
appears, perhaps, in the serpent of Gen. iii; but it seems
to have been adopted in full form at a later time,
apparently in or after the sixth century B.C.

[1784] Rohde, _Psyche_, Index, s.v. _Erinyen_; articles
"Ate," "Erinys," in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[1785] On the diverse elements in Loki's character, and on
his diabolification, see Saussaye, _Religion of the
Teutons_, p. 259 ff.; R. M. Meyer, _Altgermanische
Religionsgeschichte_, p. 335 ff. (Loki as fire-god developed
out of a fire-demon).

[1786] Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_,
article "Celts," p. 289. On the anthropinizing or the
distinctly euhemerizing treatment of these two personages
see Rhys, _Celtic Folklore_, Index, s.vv.

[1787] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, pp. 367, 377, 414.

[1788] See above, § 857.

[1789] It has been suggested that climatic conditions (sharp
contrasts of storm and calm, with consequent strain and
peace in life) led to this dual arrangement. But we do not
know that there were specially strong contrasts of weather
in the Iranian home, and there is no mention of such a
situation in the early documents, in which the complaint is
of inroads of predatory bands from the steppe.

[1790] See above, § 742 ff.

[1791] According to Diogenes Laertius, Proem, viii.

[1792] To designate the unfriendly supernatural Powers two
terms meaning 'divine beings' were available, 'asuras' and
'divas' (daevas); the Hindus chose the former, the Iranians
the latter. Cf. Darmesteter, _Ormazd et Ahriman_, p. 268
ff.; Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_, p. 156 ff.

[1793] Zech. iii; Job i, ii; 1 Chron. xxi, 1, contrasted
with 2 Sam. xxiv, 1; Enoch xl, 7; liii, 3, etc.; Secrets of
Enoch (Slavonic Enoch), xxix, 4, 5; xxxi, 3, 4. The word
Satan means 'adversary,' and, as legal adversary, 'accuser.'
The germ of the conception is to be sought in the apparatus
of spirits controlled by Yahweh, and sometimes employed by
him as agents to harm men (1 Kings xxii, 19-23). The idea of
an accusing spirit seems to have arisen from the necessity
of explaining the misfortunes of the nation (Zech. iii); it
was expanded under native and foreign influences.

[1794] 2 Cor. iv, 4.

[1795] _Koran_, vii, 10 ff.

[1796] So in the ceremonies of the pilgrimage to Mecca and
in common life. The "satans" have in part coalesced with the
jinn; see Lane's _Arabian Nights_, "Notes to the
Introduction," note 21.

[1797] Herzog-Hauck, _Real-Encyklopädie_, s.v. "Mani u.
Manichäismus."

[1798] On a lack of unity in the world see W. James, _A
Pluralistic Universe_.

[1799] § 643.

[1800] So the Zulu Unkulunkulu, the Fiji Ndengei, the
Virginia Ahone, and others.

[1801] Compare Lang's sketch of the gods of the lower races
in _Myth, Ritual, and Religion_, chap. xii f., and _Making
of Religion_, preface and chaps. xii-xiv.

[1802] Strachey, _Historie of Travaile into Virginia
Britannica_ (1612), p. 98 f. and chap. vii; Winslow,
_Relation_ (1624), printed in Young's _Chronicles of the
Pilgrim Fathers_, see chap. xxiii.

[1803] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii, 324, 339.

[1804] Callaway, _The Amazulu_, p. 1 ff.

[1805] Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_,
Index (cf. Spencer and Gülen, _Northern Tribes of Central
Australia_, p. 492); cf. Thomas, _Natives of Australia_,
chap. xiii, and article "Australia" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1806] Temple, article "Andamans" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia
of Religion and Ethics_.

[1807] Williams and Calvert, _Fiji_, chap. vii.

[1808] Batchelor, _The Ainu_, chap. xvii; Taylor, _New
Zealand_, chaps. v-vii; Rink, _Danish Greenland_, p. 204
ff.; Boas, _The Kwakiutl_, chap. vi.

[1809] The confusion incident to savage theogonic reflection
is illustrated by Zulu attempts to explain Unkulunkulu
(Callaway, loc. cit.).

[1810] Lang, in the works cited in the preceding paragraph,
is right in his contention that the clan god is not always
derived from a spirit; but the coloring he gives to the
character of this sort of god is not in accordance with
known facts.

[1811] See above, § 746 ff.

[1812] It is not probable that the recent abolition of the
office of emperor (supposing the present revolutionary
movement to maintain itself) will affect the essence of the
existing cult.

[1813] In place of the emperor some high official personage
will doubtless be deputed to conduct the national
sacrifices.

[1814] De Groot, _Religious System of China_, _Religion of
the Chinese_, and _Development of Religion in China_.

[1815] Prescott, _Conquest of Peru_; Spence, _Mythologies of
Ancient Mexico and Peru_.

[1816] An approach to such a system appears in the later
cult of Confucius.

[1817] See § 977.

[1818] So later, for example, in Plato, necessity appears as
something limiting the deity. See below, § 1001. Cf. Cicero,
_De Fato_.

[1819] Cf. the Chinese conception of the supreme order of
the world. Possibly this goes back to the general savage
conception of mana.

[1820] _Metaphysics_, ix, 8; xii, 6 f.

[1821] _Timæus_, 47 f.

[1822] Stobæus, _Elogæ_, ed. Wachsmuth, lib. i, cap. i, no.
12; Pearson, _Fragments of Zeno and Cleanthes_; Eng. tr. in
Arnold, _Roman Stoicism_, p. 85 ff. The quotation in Acts
xvii, 28, may be from Cleanthes or from Aratus. On the
Græco-Roman Stoicism and the relation between it and
Christianity see Arnold, op. cit.

[1823] Apuleius, _Metamorphoses_, bk. xi; Roscher,
_Lexikon_, article "Isis"; Cumont, _Mysteries of Mithra_;
id., _Astrology and Religion among the Greeks and Romans_,
Index, s.vv. _Isis and Serapis_ and _Mithra_.

[1824] _Metaphysics_, i, 5: "The one is god."

[1825] So in Goethe, Wordsworth, and other modern poets.

[1826] In certain regions, especially in Tibet and Japan,
Buddhism coalesces with popular nature-cults and shamanistic
systems, and loses its nontheistic character.

[1827] Cf. Satayana, "Lucretius," in his _Three
Philosophical Poets_.

[1828] The great exception is the resurrection of Jesus,
regarded in the New Testament and by the mass of orthodox
Christians as an historical fact, and one of infinite
significance for the salvation of the world.

[1829] An emotional element possessing moral force may exist
in any religion; cf. below, §§ 1167, 1192, 1199.

[1830] § 13 ff.

[1831] See above, Chapter iii.

[1832] See above, §§ 128, 131, 231 ff.

[1833] Cf. article "Charms and Amulets" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1834] Cf. Marett, _Threshold of Religion_, p. 77 ff.

[1835] Examples are found in J. H. King, _The Supernatural_,
Index, s.v.; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, Index, s.v.; L. T.
Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, Index, s.v.; and see the
references in these works.

[1836] See above, § 3.

[1837] Spencer, _Principles Of Sociology_, i, 280 ff.;
Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_,
ii, 550 al.

[1838] Dorsey, _Skidi Pawnee_, p. 341; article "Bantu" in
Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_, ii, 359;
Rivers, _The Todas_, p. 393; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, ii,
392; Westermarck, op. cit., ii, 518 al.

[1839] Tylor, op. cit., ii, 385, 395 al.; Gen. viii, 21.

[1840] Batchelor, _The Ainu_; Miss Fletcher, _Indian
Ceremonies_; Hollis, _The Nandi_, p. 12; Hopkins, _Religions
of India_, pp. 449 ff. 528; Saussaye, _Religion of the
Teutons_, pp. 373, 383; R. M. Meyer, _Altgermanische
Religionsgeschte_, pp. 416, 419 ff.; N. W. Thomas, article
"Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_. Cf., for the Hebrews, W. R. Smith, _Religion of the
Semites_, 2d ed., p. 217 ff.; for the Greeks, Gardner and
Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 245 f.; Miss Harrison,
_Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_, chap. x.

[1841] Batchelor, _The Ainu_.

[1842] A. C. Haddon, _Head-hunters_, p. 353 ff.

[1843] F. H. Cushing, "My Adventures in Zuñi" in _The
Century Magazine_ for May, 1883.

[1844] Cf. Hubert and Mauss, "Essai sur le sacrifice" in
_Année sociologique_, ii (1898).

[1845] A more socially refined conception appears in the
lectisternium, in which the gods sit at table with their
human friends. Cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 355
ff.; Fowler, _Religious Experience of the Roman People_,
Index, s.v.

[1846] § 23.

[1847] For the worshiper the blood had strengthening power.

[1848] 1 Kings, xvi, 34; article "Bridge" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1849] Cf. Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Human Sacrifice_.

[1850] Breasted, _History of Egypt_, pp. 325, 411, 478.

[1851] Pietschmann, _Phönizier_, p. 167; Tylor, _Primitive
Culture_, ii, 403; 2 Kings, iii, 27; Exod. xiii; i, 13;
Nöldeke, article "Arabs (Ancient)" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1852] 2 Kings, xvii, 31.

[1853] _Rig-Veda_, x, 18, 8; viii, 51, 2.

[1854] _Sánkhayan Srauta Sutra_, xvi, 10-14; Weber,
_Indische Streifen_, i, 65; Hopkins, _Religions of India_,
pp. 196, 198.

[1855] Hopkins, op. cit., p. 326 ff. Cf. also the practice
of the thugs, which has now been put a stop to by the
British Government.

[1856] De Groot, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der
Religionsgeschichte_, 2d ed., p. 77 f.

[1857] Saussaye, _Religion of the Teutons_, Index, s.v.

[1858] Williams, _Fiji_; Turner, _Samoa_; Codrington, _The
Melanesians_.

[1859] Waitz-Gerland, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_,
Index; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der amerikanischen
Urreligionen_, Index; Gatschet, _Migration Legend of the
Creeks_, p. 36.

[1860] Payne, _The New World, Called America_. In Mexico the
victim was surrounded with luxuries (including wives) and
treated as a god for one year and then sacrificed (Frazer,
_Golden Bough_, 1st ed., ii, 218 ff.; 2d ed., ii, 342 f.).

[1861] A. B. Ellis, _Tshi_, _E[´w]e_, and _Yoruba_.

[1862] For such substitutions in Greece see Gardner and
Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 243 f.

[1863] Ellis, _Yoruba_.

[1864] § 106 ff.

[1865] Alice Fletcher, _Indian Ceremonies_; _Journal of
American Folklore_, vol. iv (1891), no. 15, and vol. xvii
(1904), no. 64; _Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology_, vol
xiv, p. 701.

[1866] Cf. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, Index, s.v.
_Sacrifice_, and Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the
Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Sacrifice_.

[1867] Cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, p. 338 f.

[1868] _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 455.

[1869] Lev. i-iv, viii, xvi, xxi; Numb. xix; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 197 ff.; Gardner and Jevons, _Greek
Antiquities_, Index, s.v. _Priests and Sacrifices_; Lippert,
_Geschichte des Priesterthums_.

[1870] Heb. x, 3.

[1871] _De Abstinentia_ ii, 24.

[1872] See below, § 1045 ff.

[1873] Gen. iv, 3, 4; Lev. ii, al.

[1874] _Primitive Culture_, ii, 375 ff.; cf. Spencer,
_Principles of Sociology_, i, 280 ff.

[1875] So often in ascetic practices.

[1876] So, for example, in the _Imitatio Christi_.

[1877] Euripides, _Iphigeneia in Aulis_, 1581 ff.
(Iphigeneia); Gen. xxii (Isaac); and similar procedures in
Hesiod, _Theogony_, 535 ff.; Ovid, _Fasti_, iii, 339 ff.;
_Aitareya Brahmana_, ii, 8; _Çatapatha Brahmana_, i, 2, 3,
5.

[1878] The expulsion of sin or evil in the person of a beast
or a human being is a totally different conception. See
above, § 143.

[1879] Isa. liii.

[1880] Isa. xl, 2.

[1881] Cf. §§ 128, 217 ff., 1023.

[1882] Other examples are given in Fowler, _Roman
Festivals_, pp. 81 (shepherd sacrifice), 96 (Feriæ Latinæ),
194 (at the temple of Hercules), and cf. his _Religious
Experience of the Roman People_, Index, s.v. _Meals,
Sacrificial_.

[1883] Foucart, _Des associations religieuses chez les
Grecs_. For the Isis ceremony cf. Apuleius, _Metamorphoses_,
xi, 24 f.

[1884] Cumont, _The Mysteries of Mithra_ (Eng. tr.), p. 160.
On the magical element in mysteries cf. De Jong, _Das antike
Mysterienwesen_, chap. vi.

[1885] See above, § 1024.

[1886] _Iliad_, i, 66 f.; _Odyssey_, x, 518 ff.; Gen. viii,
21.

[1887] So Wellhausen, _Prolegomena to the History of Israel_
(Eng. tr.), p. 62. In the Roman _sacra gentilicia_ it was
rather the divinized ancestors who were the guests--they
were entertained by the living.

[1888] In his article "Sacrifice" in _Encyclopædia
Brittanica_ (1886) and his _Religion of the Semites_ (new
ed., 1894).

[1889] The assumption that the victim is a totem is not
necessary to his argument, which rests on the sacredness
(that is, the divinity) of the victim--a fact universally
admitted.

[1890] Isa. lxv, lxvi.

[1891] Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central
Australia_; id., _Native Tribes of Northern Australia_.

[1892] On this point and on Smith's theory in general see
the exposition of the theory by Jevons, _Introduction to the
History of Religion_, chap. xii.

[1893] _The Dying God_ (part iii of 3d ed. of _The Golden
Bough_).

[1894] _Wald- und Feldkulte_, 2d ed., ii, 273 ff.

[1895] _L'année sociologique_, ii, 115 ff.

[1896] Frazer, _The Dying God_, chap. ii, § 2.

[1897] Cf. Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_ (part iv of 3d ed.
of _The Golden Bough_); 2d ed. of _The Golden Bough_, ii,
365 f.

[1898] Article "Dido" in Roscher's _Lexikon_; Saussaye,
_Religion of the Teutons_, p. 231.

[1899] For the view that Odin's self-sacrifice is merely an
imitation of the reception into the Odin-cult see Meyer,
_Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte_, p. 241.

[1900] _L'année sociologique_, ii.

[1901] _Yajur-Veda_, passim; _Çatapatha Brahmana_, i, 3, 6,
8; ii, 6, 2; Hopkins, _Religions of India_, p. 188 al.;
Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, pp. 31 ff., 215.

[1902] _Elements of the Science of Religion_ (Gifford
Lectures), ii, 144 ff.

[1903] Plato (_Laws_, iii, 716) says that a bad man gets no
benefit from sacrifice.

[1904] _Laws_, i, 631, 642.

[1905] Ps. xix, 7 ff.; cxix.

[1906] Ps. xl, 7; l, 8-15; li, 18 f., al.

[1907] Amos, v, 21 ff.; Isa. i, 11 ff.; Mic. vi, 6 ff.; Jer.
vii, 21 ff.

[1908] See Ellis, _E[´w]e_ (Dahomi), _Tshi_ (Ashanti),
_Yoruba_; Miss Kingsley, _Travels_; Codrington, _The
Melanesians_; Turner, _Samoa_; articles "Andeans," "Bantu,"
"Bengal," "Brazil," al., in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of
Religion and Ethics_.

[1909] Rivers, _The Todas_, chaps. vi, xi, xiii.

[1910] Cf. also Crooke's _Popular Religion and Folklore of
Northern India_, in which similar customs are mentioned.

[1911] Chapter iii.

[1912] Dixon, _The Northern Maidu_ and _The Shasta_. For
Korea see H. G. Underwood, _Religions of Eastern Asia_.

[1913] _L'année sociologique_, ii; see above, § 1049.

[1914] Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers. A single early detail is
mentioned in 1 Sam. ii, 13 ff. For the later Jewish
ceremonial see article "Sacrifice" in _Encyclopædia
Biblica_.

[1915] Mariette, _Abydos_; Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_
(Eng. tr.), p. 121 ff.; Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian
Religion_, pp. 46-49, 122, 179 f. (reports of Herodotus).

[1916] For Babylonia see Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and
Assyria_, Index, s.v. _Rituals_; for Mazdean, De Harles,
_Avesta_, Introduction, pp. clxvi, clxx.

[1917] _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, xx, 58
ff.; cf. De Groot, in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der
Religionsgeschichte_, p. 60 ff.

[1918] Foucart, _Associations religieuses chez les Grecs_;
Jevons, _Introduction to History of Religion_, chap. xxiii;
De Jong, _Das antike Mysterienwesen_, p. 18 ff.

[1919] Cumont, _Mysteries of Mithra_.

[1920] Apuleius, _Metamorphoses_, chap. xi.

[1921] 1 Cor. xi, 20 ff.; xiv (cf. Acts ii, 46); _Teaching
of the Twelve Apostles_, chap. ix f.

[1922] So, for instance, postures in prayer, such as
kneeling, bowing, standing.

[1923] The _Amarna Letters; Records of Ancient Egypt_, ed.
Breasted; cuneiform inscriptions. The Egyptian king,
however, was regarded as divine.

[1924] Gibbon, chaps. xiii (Diocletian), xl, year 532; cf.
descriptions in Scott's _Count Robert of Paris_.

[1925] Daniel, _Codex Liturgicus_; articles "Liturgie" and
"Messe" in Herzog-Hauck, _Real-Encyklopädie_; articles
"Liturgy" and "Liturgical Books" in Smith and Cheatham,
_Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_.

[1926] Cf. J. Lippert, _Allgemeine Geschichte des
Priesterthums_; Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the
Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Priests_.

[1927] On priestly taboos see Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d
ed., Index, s.v.; these are often of the same sort as royal
taboos. See above, § 595 ff. For Hebrew priestly taboos see
Ezek. xliv, Lev. xxi f.

[1928] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, i, 348, 381.

[1929] Not all these conditions were to be found in any one
community.

[1930] Westermarck, op. cit., ii, 406 ff.

[1931] Pausanias, ii, 33, 3.

[1932] For a possible case see Wilkinson, _The Ancient
Egyptians_, 1st ed., i, 317.

[1933] Ellis, _E[´w]e_, p. 141; Ward, _History, Literature
and Religion of the Hindoos_, ii, 134; Jastrow, _Religion of
Babylonia and Assyria_, p. 660; Hos. iv, 14; Deut. xxiii, 17
f. (prohibition); Gen. xxxviii, 14 ff.

[1934] Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian Religion_, pp. 72, 221,
is disposed to reject the statement of Strabo (xvii, i, 46)
that there was libertinage at Thebes. Cf. Wilkinson, _The
Ancient Egyptians_, Index, s.v. _Priestesses_.

[1935] C. H. W. Johns, article "Code of Hammurabi" in
Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_, extra volume; D. G.
Lyon, "The Consecrated Women of the Hammurabi Code" in
_Studies in the History of Religions presented to C. H.
Toy_.

[1936] Strabo, p. 378.

[1937] Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Aphrodite," col. 401.
Cf. the practice mentioned in 1 Sam. ii, 22.

[1938] Curtiss, _Primitive Semitic Religion To-day_.

[1939] See, for example, 1 Sam. ii, 22.

[1940] For a description of their privileges and power in
Ashanti see Ellis, _Tshi_, p. 121 ff.

[1941] License in festivals and mystical or symbolic
marriages are excluded as not being official consecration of
a class of persons.

[1942] Examples are given in Westermarck, _Origin and
Development of the Moral Ideas_, ii, 443 ff.; Frazer,
_Adonis Attis Osiris_, chap. iv; Seligmann, _Der böse Blick
und Verwandies_, ii, 190 ff.; and see above, § 384 ff.

[1943] Inscription of Tralles; see Ramsay, _Cities and
Bishoprics of Phrygia_, i, 94 ff.; Farnell, _Cults of the
Greek States_, ii, 636.

[1944] Herodotus, i, 199. The correctness of Herodotus's
statement has been doubted; but, though the procedure is
singular, it is not wholly out of keeping with known
Babylonian customs. It must be remembered, however, that
Herodotus wrote long after the fall of the Babylonian
empire, when foreign influence was possible. See also
_Epistle of Jeremias_, v, 43.

[1945] Pseudo-Lucian, _De Syria Dea_, chap. vi.

[1946] Homosexual practices do not belong here (Westermarck,
op. cit., chap. xliii). The intercourse of priests with
sacred and other women is likewise excluded.

[1947] Deut. xxiii, 18 [17] f., "sodomite."

[1948] 1 Kings, xiv, 24 (tenth century), where the
_kedeshim_ seem to be described as a Canaanite institution.
Cf. Deut. xxii, 3.

[1949] _Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum_, part i, i, 86, B
10.

[1950] With allusion, perhaps, to the dog's faithfulness to
his master. In the _Amarna Letters_ a Canaanite governor
calls himself the "dog" (_kalbu_) of his Egyptian overlord.
Cf. W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 292,
n. 2. For examples of the sanctity of the dog see article
"Animals" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and
Ethics_, p. 512.

[1951] Cf. Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p. 71 f., and the
curious story told in Josephus, _Antiquities_, xviii, 3.

[1952] The Lydian method by which girls earned their dowries
(Herodotus, i, 93) is economic, and had, apparently, no
connection with religion.

[1953] See above, § 180. Cf. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics
of Phrygia_, 1, 94 ff.

[1954] Westermarck, _History of Human Marriage_, chap. iii
ff.

[1955] At Byblos the prostitution of the woman was required
only in case she refused to offer her hair to the goddess.
This offering was probably originally a substitute for the
offering of her virginity, but there is no evidence that the
latter was of the nature of a sacrifice.

[1956] Farnell, in _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, vii,
88 (see above, §§ 182, 594, and cf. Crawley, _Mystic Rose_,
p. 322). Farnell does not mention this suggestion in his
_Greece and Babylon_, p. 269 ff.

[1957] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral
Ideas_, ii, 446; cf. Frazer, _Golden Bough_, 2d ed., Index,
s.vv. _Stranger_, _Strangers_.

[1958] Cumont, _Les religions orientales dans le paganisme
romain_ (Eng. tr., _Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism_,
p. 247 f.); cf. Hartland, in _Anthropological Essays
presented to Tylor_, p. 201 f.

[1959] On this cult see Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_ and _Antike
Wald- und Feldkulte_.

[1960] Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, ii, 284;
Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p. 33 ff.

[1961] Cf. Hartland, op. cit., p. 199.

[1962] Hartland, _Primitive Paternity_, chap. ii.

[1963] Frazer, _Adonis Attis Osiris_, p. 50 ff.

[1964] Cf. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_.

[1965] Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_; Erman, _Handbook of
Egyptian Religion_, Index, s.v.; Breasted, _History of
Egypt_, Index, s.v.

[1966] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, Index,
s.v.

[1967] Barth, _Religions of India_, Index, s.v.; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, Index, s.v.

[1968] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, vol. III, bk.
vi.

[1969] O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, Index, s.v.
_Priester_; Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, Index,
s.v.; Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, passim.

[1970] This remark applies to the oracles as well as to the
ordinary temple-service.

[1971] Cf. Wissowa, _Religion der Römer_, Index, s.v.
_Pontifex_, _Pontifices_; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_, s.v.
_Pontifices_; Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte_,
2d ed. (Roman religion).

[1972] On the other hand, the Romans have given us such
fundamental terms as 'religion,' 'superstition,' 'cult,'
'piety,' 'devotion,' all theocratic and individual.

[1973] De Groot, _Religious System of China_; Legge,
_Religion of China_; Doolittle, _Social Life of the
Chinese_.

[1974] Some high official will, doubtless, now take the
emperor's place.

[1975] This seems to remain true notwithstanding the present
movement in China toward the adoption of Western methods of
education. De Groot's estimate of Chinese religion (in op.
cit.) is less favorable.

[1976] Garcilasso de la Vega, _Royal Commentaries of the
Yncas_, ed. C. R. Markham, part i, bk. ii, chap. ix;
Prescott, _Peru_, vol. 1, chap. iii; Payne, _New World,
called America_, Index; A. Réville, _Native Religions of
Mexico and Peru_, Index.

[1977] Sahagun, _Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva
España_, Eng. tr. by Markham; Payne, op. cit.; Réville, op.
cit.

[1978] In the political and social disorders in Judea in the
seventh and sixth centuries B.C. the priesthood was,
probably, influential in maintaining and transmitting the
purer worship of Yahweh, and thus establishing a
starting-point for the later development.

[1979] Cf. Breasted, _Religion and Thought in Ancient
Egypt_, lecture x.

[1980] So Ezekiel's altar (probably a copy of that in the
Jerusalem temple-court), over 16 feet high, with a base 27
feet square (Ezek. xliii, 13 ff.). The Olympian altar was 22
feet high and 125 feet in circumference. Cf. W. R. Smith,
_Religion of the Semites_, 3d ed., pp. 202, 341, 377 ff. On
the general subject see article "Altar" in Hastings,
_Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[1981] So in Australia (Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes
of Central Australia_, Index, and _Native Tribes of Northern
Australia_, Index), Samoa (Turner), Canaan (Genesis, Judges,
passim), Greece (Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p.
173), etc.

[1982] Gardner and Jevons, op. cit., Index, s.v. [Greek:
temenos], _Temple_; Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen
Heidentumes_, Index; W. R. Smith, op. cit., Index, s.v.
_Temples_. There is perhaps a hint of such a place in Ex.
iii, 5.

[1983] K. F. Hermann, _Gottesdienstliche Alterthümer der
Griechen_, § 18; Jevons, _Introduction to the History of
Religion_, 1st ed., p. 137.

[1984] Cf. article "Architecture" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia
of Religion and Ethics_.

[1985] Ps. xiii, 3 [2]; lxxxiv, 3 [2].

[1986] So in Egypt, Palestine, Greece, and probably in
Babylonia and Assyria.

[1987] In Herod's temple: the Court of the Gentiles, the
Court of Women, the Court of Israel (Nowack, _Lehrbuch der
hebräischen Archäologie_, ii, 76 ff.).

[1988] Pauly-Wissowa, _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft_; article "Asylum" in _Jewish
Encyclopedia_. The right of asylum goes back to very early
forms of society in all parts of the world; many examples
are cited by Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the
Moral Ideas_, Index, s.v. _Asylums_.

[1989] Cf. above, § 121.

[1990] Jastrow, _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, chap.
xxvi.

[1991] On the supposed difference of symbolism between Greek
and Gothic temples (churches) see Ruskin, _Seven Lamps of
Architecture_.

[1992] §§ 15, 120, note 3.

[1993] For details see Erman, _Handbook of Egyptian
Religion_, p. 45 f.; Jastrow, op. cit., p. 658 ff.; articles
"Ritual" and "Sacrifice" in _Encyclopædia Biblica_;
Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 213 f.; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 124; _L'Année sociologique_, ii.

[1994] § 1199.

[1995] Some hymns to Tammuz are lamentations for dying
vegetation and petitions for its resuscitation.

[1996] 1 Chron. xvi; commentaries on the Psalms; works on
Hebrew archæology (Nowack, Benzinger); articles in Biblical
dictionaries and encyclopedias.

[1997] _Revue des études grecques_, 1894. On savage songs
and music see above, § 106.

[1998] Pauly-Wissowa, _Real-Encyclopädie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft_; Fowler, _Roman Festivals_.

[1999] Passover with the departure from Egypt; Sukkot
(Tabernacles) with the march through the wilderness; later,
Weeks (Pentecost) with the revelation of the law at Sinai.

[2000] Book of Esther.

[2001] 1 Macc. v, 47 ff.

[2002] 1 Macc. vii, 49.

[2003] H. H. Wilson, _Religious Sects of the Hindus_;
Monier-Williams, _Hinduism_, Index.

[2004] Gardner and Jevons, _Greek Antiquities_, p. 289.

[2005] They sometimes degenerate into coarseness or
immorality.

[2006] Christmas, New Year's Day, May Day, Midsummer, All
Souls, and others.

[2007] The protest in Prov. xxvi, 2, against this whole
conception shows that it existed among the Jews down to a
late time.

[2008] Totemic poles, with carved figures of animals, are
found in Northwest America (Boas, _The Kwakiutl_; Swanton,
in _Journal of American Folklore_, xviii, 108 ff.) and in
South Nigeria (Partridge, _Cross River Natives_, p. 219);
but these figures are rather tribal or clan symbols than
idols.

[2009] The situation in Egypt was exceptional; after the
idolatrous stage had been reached the old worship of the
living animal survived.

[2010] Aniconic representations of deities in civilized
communities (like the stone representing the Ephesian great
goddess) are survivals from the old cult of natural objects.

[2011] Teraphim, 1 Sam. xix, 13 al.

[2012] In the literature they are guardians of sacred places
(Gen. iii, 24) and throne-bearers of the deity (Ezek. i, 26;
Ps. xviii, 11 [10]).

[2013] The numerous images mentioned in the Old Testament as
worshiped by the Israelites appear to have been borrowed
from neighboring peoples. The origin of the bull figures
worshiped at Bethel and Dan is obscure, but they appear to
represent the amalgamation of an old bull-cult with the cult
of Yahweh.

[2014] Possibly the civilization of China was in earliest
times identical with or similar to that Central Asiatic
civilization out of which Mazdaism seems to have sprung. Cf.
R. Pumpelly, in _Explorations in Turkestan_ (expedition of
1904), i, pp. xxiv, 7, chap. iv f.

[2015] The same feeling appears in the treatment of images
of saints by some European peasants.

[2016] For Egyptian forms see Rawlinson, _History of Ancient
Egypt_, vol. i; Maspero, _Dawn of Civilization_; for
Semitic, Ohnefalsch-Richter, _Kypros, the Bible, and Homer_;
for Indian, Lefmann, "Geschichte des alten Indiens" in
Oncken's _Allgemeine Geschichte_.

[2017] Even the Hindu women's linga-cult is said to be
sometimes morally innocent.

[2018] A church is here taken to be a voluntary religious
body that holds out to its members the hope of redemption
and salvation through association with a divine person or a
cosmic power.

[2019] § 530 f.

[2020] W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, vol. i, chap. ix.

[2021] H. Webster, _Primitive Secret Societies_, chap. vii.

[2022] For a large definition of the term see S. Reinach,
_Orpheus_ (Eng. tr.), p.v.

[2023] For a possible influence see below, § 1101.

[2024] See the histories of philosophy of Ueberweg,
Windelband, Meyer, Zeller.

[2025] See the reference in the _Republic_ (ii, 364 f.) to
the mendicant prophets with their formulas for expiation of
sin and salvation from future punishment, and Demosthenes's
derisive description of Æschines as mystagogue (_De Corona_,
313).

[2026] It is not clear that the peculiar cults described in
Isa. lxv, 3-5; lxvi, 3 f., are of Semitic origin. Their
history, however, is obscure--they are not referred to
elsewhere in Jewish literature. In part they are, like the
cults mentioned in Ezek. viii, 10, the adoption of the
sacred animals of neighboring peoples; Isa. lxv, 5 seems to
point to a close voluntary association with a ceremony of
initiation, but nothing proves that the association was of
Semitic origin. For a different view see W. R. Smith,
_Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p. 357 ff.

[2027] _The Mysteries of Mithra_ (Eng. tr.), p. 29.

[2028] 1 Cor. ii, 7; Mk. iv, 11 al.

[2029] Barth, _Religions of India_, p. 76 ff.; Hopkins,
_Religions of India_, p. 216 ff.; cf. Bloomfield, _Religion
of the Veda_, p. 282 ff.

[2030] "Die Chinesen," in Saussaye, _Lehrbuch der
Religionsgeschichte_; R. K. Douglas, _Confucianism and
Taouism_; De Groot, _Religion of the Chinese_; cf. H. G.
Underwood, _Religions of Eastern Asia_.

[2031] Stobæus, _Eclogues_, i, 30.

[2032] Porphyry, _Vita Plotini_, cap. 3.

[2033] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, chap. xii f.; Rhys
Davids, _Buddhism_; Barth, _Religions of India_; Oldenberg,
_Buddha_.

[2034] The problem of life is stated to be how to get rid of
desire, which is the source of all suffering; the Buddhist
answer is that desire is eliminated by moral living, for
which knowledge is necessary. So the Socratic school based
virtue and happiness on knowledge. Cf. also the Biblical
book of Proverbs.

[2035] It does not follow that every founder of a religion
will establish a church; other things than the person of the
founder, such as the nature of his teaching and the
character of his social milieu, enter into the problem.

[2036] On current proposed reforms of Buddhism in Japan see
Underwood, _Religions of Eastern Asia_, p. 222 ff.

[2037] The two last of these functions ceased on the
destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (70 A.D.), the first
remained.

[2038] Proselytes arose mostly from the general liberal
tendency of the times (from about the second century B.C.
and on), sometimes from lower impulses, sometimes they were
made by force. See articles in Cheyne, _Encyclopædia
Biblica_; Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_; and _Jewish
Encyclopedia_.

[2039] They were virtually identified with the Jewish
people. On the early form of voluntary devotion to a foreign
deity see W. R. Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, 2d ed., p.
75 ff.

[2040] § 1115.

[2041] On attempts to discover forms of Christianity before
Jesus see W. R. Smith, _Der vorchristliche Jesus_, and _Ecce
Deus_; M. Friedländer, _Synagoge und Kirche_.

[2042] The two passages in the Gospels (Matt. xvi, 18;
xviii, 17) in which the word "church" occurs appear clearly,
on exegetical grounds, to be scribal insertions of the later
period.

[2043] "Elder" and "apostle" are Jewish titles, and the
reading of the Scriptures, prayer, and exhortation formed
part of the synagogal service; see Schürer, _The Jewish
People in the Time of Jesus Christ_ (Eng. tr.), II, ii, 52
ff., and article "Apostle" in _Jewish Encyclopedia_. Other
offices arose in the church out of the peculiar conditions;
the eucharistic meal appears to have been developed under
non-Jewish influence.

[2044] So far has the idea of the civil character of the
Church been carried that in some places the keeper of a
licensed brothel has been required to be a member of the
State Church.

[2045] Harnack, _Dogmengeschichte_; articles in
Herzog-Hauck, _Real-Encyklopädie_, and _Jewish
Encyclopedia_; Mansel, _The Gnostic Heresies_.

[2046] Cumont, _Textes et monuments_ and _The Mysteries of
Mithra_.

[2047] _Metamorphoses_, chap. xi.

[2048] Cf. article "Isis" in Roscher's _Lexikon_.

[2049] Cf. A. G. Leonard, _Islam, her Moral and Spiritual
Value_.

[2050] A. Müller, _Islam_, ii, 614 ff.; Coppée, _Conquest of
Spain_; Dozy, _Histoire des musulmans en Espagne_; Stanley
Lane-Poole, _Story of the Moors in Spain_.

[2051] Of these fraternities the largest and most powerful
is the Senussi of North Africa, a splendidly organized body
with a central administration clothed with absolute
authority; see Depont and Coppolani, _Les confréries
religieuses musulmanes_.

[2052] S. de Sacy, _Exposé de la religion des Druses_; J.
Wortabet, _Researches into the Religions of Syria_; C. H.
Churchill, _Ten Years' Residence in Mt. Lebanon_.

[2053] Cf. Dr. Thomas Arnold's ideal, the identification of
Church and State (A. P. Stanley, _Life and Correspondence of
Thomas Arnold_).

[2054] Payne, _History of the New World called America_;
Markham, _Rites and Laws of the Incas_; Prescott, _Conquest
of Peru_, bk. i, chap. iii.

[2055] On India's fertility in the production of religions
cf. Bloomfield, _Religion of the Veda_, p. 2 ff.

[2056] This organization was first called the "Brahma-Samaj"
(the Church of Brahma), later the "Adi-Samaj" (the First
Church).

[2057] The Brahma-Samaj.

[2058] There are other theistic bodies in India. The
Arya-Samaj (Aryan Church) derives its doctrines (monotheism
and other) from the Veda (necessarily by a forced
interpretation); it is a sort of protest against foreign
(Christian) influence. See articles "Arya Samaj" and "Brahma
Samaj" in Hastings, _Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics_.

[2059] Gobineau, _Les religions et les philosophies dans
l'Asie centrale_; R. G. Browne, _The Episode of the Bab_ and
_The New History of the Bab_; article "Bab, Babis" in
Hastings, op. cit.; article "Bahaism" in the _Nouveau
Larousse, Supplément_; _Some Answered Questions_, translated
by Laura C. Burney (exposition of the doctrine by the son of
the Bahaist founder).

[2060] Babism is fairly well represented in Persia at the
present day; see R. G. Browne.

[2061] Cf. articles in Herzog-Hauck, _Real-Encyklopädie_;
McClintock and Strong, _Biblical Cyclopædia_; _New
Schaff-Herzog Encyclopædia of Religious Knowledge_.

[2062] On the community founded by Pythagoras see the
histories of philosophy; it appears to have embodied a
suggestion of monastic life, but its origin is uncertain.

[2063] The Hebrew Nazirite vow, for example, was merely a
consecration of a part of the body to the deity with the
observance of old nomadic customs of food and dwellings.

[2064] Hopkins, _Religions of India_, Index, s.v. _Monks_.

[2065] Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_, chap. vi.

[2066] Cf. H. Weingarten, _Ursprung des Mönchthums_, cited
with approval by Meyer, _Geschichte des Alten Aegyptens_, p.
401; cf. Lehmann-Haupt, in Roscher's _Lexikon_, article
"Sarapis," col. 362 ff.

[2067] Cf. Hopkins, _Religions of India_, chap. xix; J.
Estlin Carpenter, "Buddhist and Christian Parallels" in
_Studies in the History of Religions presented to C. H.
Toy_.

[2068] Against this view see Breastad, _History of Egypt_,
p. 578 ff.

[2069] _De Vita Contemplativa_; see the edition of F. C.
Conybeare. The work is probably to be considered genuine.

[2070] Philo, _Quod omnis probus liber_; Pliny, _Historia
Naturalis_, v, 17; Josephus, _Antiquities_, xviii, 1, and
_War_, ii, 8; Schürer, _The Jewish People in the Time of
Jesus Christ_ (Eng. tr.), II, ii, 188 ff. (and the
bibliography there given); articles in Cheyne, _Encyclopædia
Biblica_, and Hastings, _Dictionary of the Bible_.

[2071] From the geographical and historical conditions a
Pythagorean origin (perhaps indirect) seems the more
probable.

[2072] The earliest appearance of an Essene is in the latter
part of the second century B.C. (Josephus, _Antiquities_,
xiii, 11, § 2).

[2073] Roscher, _Lexikon_, article "Sarapis," col. 362 f.

[2074] See references given above in § 1121, note.

[2075] Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_; R. S. Copleston, _Buddhism_.

[2076] Ezekiel, early in the sixth century, and Haggai and
Zechariah in the latter part of the century, show no
consciousness of the existence of authoritative writings.

[2077] Cf. G. F. Moore, "The Definition of the Jewish Canon
and the Repudiation of Christian Scriptures" in _Essays in
Modern Theology and Related Subjects ... Testimonial to C.
A. Briggs_.

[2078] G. Wildeboer, _Het Onstaan van den Kanon des Ouden
Verbonds_; H. E. Ryle, _Canon of the Old Testament_;
articles "Canon" in _Encyclopædia Biblica_, "Bible Canon" in
_Jewish Encyclopedia_, "Kanon des Alten Testaments" in
Herzog-Hauck, _Real-Encyklopädie_.

[2079] See the _Longer Catechism of Philaret_, 1839.

[2080] T. Zahn, _Gesichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons_, E.
C. Moore, _The New Testament in the Christian Church_;
article "Canon" in _Encyclopædia Biblica_.

[2081] _Historia Naturalis_, xxx, chap. i, § 2.

[2082] The question whether any of this material went back
to Zoroaster must here be left undecided.

[2083] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, iii, 778 ff.

[2084] Nöldeke, _Sketches from Eastern History_ (Eng. tr.),
p. 25 ff.

[2085] A creed usually contains also an affirmation of the
authority of the book on which it is based. Some religious
bodies do not regard any book as absolutely authoritative,
and their creeds are merely expressions of their independent
religious beliefs.

[2086] So among the Egyptians, Hebrews, Hindus, Greeks,
Romans, and others.

[2087] Cf. Sabatier, _Authority in Religion_ (Eng. tr.), and
the bibliography therein given.

[2088] The contention that a given religion must triumph
because it is divine and its triumph is divinely predicted
introduces a discussion that cannot be gone into here, where
the object is to consider existing facts.