Chapter XIV: Progress (3)

If with this intention we first of all review the interminable series of animals, consider the infinite variety of their forms, as they exhibit themselves always differently modified according to their element and manner of life, and also ponder the inimitable ingenuity of their structure and mechanism, which is carried out with equal perfection in every individual; and finally, if we take into consideration the incredible expenditure of strength, dexterity, prudence, and activity which every animal has ceaselessly to make through its whole life; if, approaching the matter more closely, we contemplate the untiring diligence of wretched little ants, the marvellous and ingenious industry of the bees, or observe how a single burying-beetle (_Necrophorus vespillo_) buries a mole of forty times its own size in two days in order to deposit its eggs in it and insure nourishment for the future brood (Gleditsch, _Physik. Bot. Oekon. Abhandl._, III, 220), at the same time calling to mind how the life of most insects is nothing but ceaseless labour to prepare food and an abode for the future brood which will arise from their eggs, and which then, after they have consumed the food and passed through the chrysalis state, enter upon life merely to begin again from the beginning the same labour; then also how, like this, the life of the birds is for the most part taken up with their distant and laborious migrations, then with the building of their nests and the collection of food for their brood, which itself has to play the same rôle the following year; and so all work constantly for the future, which afterwards makes bankrupt--then we cannot avoid looking round for the reward of all this skill and trouble, for the end which these animals have before their eyes, which strive so ceaselessly--in short, we are driven to ask: What is the result? What is attained by the animal existence which demands such infinite preparation? And there is nothing to point to but the satisfaction of hunger and the sexual instinct, or in any case a little momentary comfort, as it falls to the lot of each animal individual, now and then in the intervals of its endless need and struggle. Take, for example, the mole, that unwearied worker. To dig with all its might with its enormous shovel claws is the occupation of its whole life; constant night surrounds it; its embryo eyes only make it avoid the light. It alone is truly an _animal nocturnum_; not cats, owls, and bats, who see by night. But what, now, does it attain by this life, full of trouble and devoid of pleasure? Food and the begetting of its kind; thus only the means of carrying on and beginning anew the same doleful course in new individuals. In such examples it becomes clear that there is no proportion between the cares and troubles of life and the results or gain of it. The consciousness of the world of perception gives a certain appearance of objective worth of existence to the life of those animals which can see, although in their case this consciousness is entirely subjective and limited to the influence of motives upon them. But the _blind_ mole, with its perfect organization and ceaseless activity, limited to the alternation of insect larvae and hunger, makes the disproportion of the means to the end apparent.

Let us now add the consideration of the human race. The matter indeed becomes more complicated, and assumes a certain seriousness of aspect; but the fundamental character remains unaltered. Here also life presents itself by no means as a gift for enjoyment, but as a task, a drudgery to be performed; and in accordance with this we see, in great and small, universal need, ceaseless cares, constant pressure, endless strife, compulsory activity, with extreme exertion of all the powers of body and mind. Many millions, united into nations, strive for the common good, each individual on account of his own; but many thousands fall as a sacrifice for it. Now senseless delusions, now intriguing politics, incite them to wars with each other; then the sweat and the blood of the great multitude must flow, to carry out the ideas of individuals, or to expiate their faults. In peace industry and trade are active, inventions work miracles, seas are navigated, delicacies are collected from all ends of the world, the waves engulf thousands. All strive, some planning, others acting; the tumult is indescribable. But the ultimate aim of it all, what is it? To sustain ephemeral and tormented individuals through a short span of time in the most fortunate ease with endurable want and comparative freedom from pain, which, however, is at once attended with ennui; then the reproduction of this race and its striving. In this evident disproportion between the trouble and the reward, the will to live appears to us from this point of view, if taken objectively, as a fool, or subjectively, as a delusion, seized by which everything living works with the utmost exertion of its strength for something that is of no value. But when we consider it more closely, we shall find here also that it is rather a blind pressure, a tendency entirely without ground or motive.

The law of motivation only extends to the particular actions, not to willing _as a whole and in general_. It depends upon this, that if we conceive of the human race and its action _as a whole and universally_, it does not present itself to us, as when we contemplate the particular actions, as a play of puppets who are pulled after the ordinary manner by threads outside them; but from this point of view, as puppets that are set in motion by internal clockwork. For if, as we have done above, one compares the ceaseless, serious, and laborious striving of men with what they gain by it, nay, even with what they ever can gain, the disproportion we have pointed out becomes apparent, for one recognizes that that which is to be gained, taken as the motive power, is entirely insufficient for the explanation of that movement and that ceaseless striving. What, then, is a short postponement of death, a slight easing of misery or deferment of pain, a momentary stilling of desire, compared with such an abundant and certain victory over them all as death? What could such advantages accomplish taken as actual moving causes of a human race, innumerable because constantly renewed, which unceasingly moves, strives, struggles, grieves, writhes, and performs the whole tragi-comedy of the history of the world, nay, what says more than all, _perseveres_ in such a mock-existence as long as each one possibly can? Clearly this is all inexplicable if we seek the moving causes outside the figures and conceive the human race as striving, in consequence of rational reflection, or something analogous to this (as moving threads), after those good things held out to it, the attainment of which would be a sufficient reward for its ceaseless cares and troubles. The matter being taken thus, everyone would rather have long ago said, "Le jeu ne vaut pas la chandelle," and have gone out. But, on the contrary, everyone guards and defends his life, like a precious pledge entrusted to him under heavy responsibility, under infinite cares and abundant misery, even under which life is tolerable. The wherefore and the why, the reward for this, certainly he does not see; but he has accepted the worth of that pledge without seeing it, upon trust and faith, and does not know what it consists in. Hence I have said that these puppets are not pulled from without, but each bears in itself the clockwork from which its movements result. This is _the will to live_, manifesting itself as an untiring machine, an irrational tendency, which has not its sufficient reason in the external world. It holds the individuals firmly upon the scene, and is the _primum mobile_ of their movements; while the external objects, the motives, only determine their direction in the particular case; otherwise the cause would not be at all suitable to the effect. For, as every manifestation of a force of nature has a cause, but the force of nature itself none, so every particular act of will has a motive, but the will in general has none: indeed at bottom these two are one and the same. The will, as that which is metaphysical, is everywhere the boundary-stone of every investigation, beyond which it cannot go. We often see a miserable figure, deformed and shrunk with age, want, and disease, implore our help from the bottom of his heart for the prolongation of an existence, the end of which would necessarily appear altogether desirable if it were an objective judgment that determined here. Thus instead of this it is the blind will, appearing as the tendency to life, the love of life, and the sense of life; it is the same which makes the plants grow. This sense of life may be compared to a rope which is stretched above the puppet show of the world of men, and on which the puppets hang by invisible threads, while apparently they are supported only by the ground beneath them (the objective value of life). But if the rope becomes weak the puppet sinks; if it breaks the puppet must fall, for the ground beneath it only seemed to support it: i.e., the weakening of that love of life shows itself as hypochondria, spleen, melancholy: its entire exhaustion as the inclination to suicide. And as with the persistence in life, so is it also with its action and movement. This is not something freely chosen; but while everyone would really gladly rest, want and ennui are the whips that keep the top spinning. Therefore everything is in continual strain and forced movement, and the course of the world goes on, to use an expression of Aristotle's (_De coelo_ ii. 13), [Greek: "ou physei, alla bia"] (_motu, non naturali sed molento_). Men are only apparently drawn from in front; really they are pushed from behind; it is not life that tempts them on, but necessity that drives them forward. The law of motivation is, like all causality, merely the form of the phenomenon.

In all these considerations, then, it becomes clear to us that the will to live is not a consequence of the knowledge of life, is in no way a _conclusio ex praemissis_, and in general is nothing secondary. Rather, it is that which is first and unconditioned, the premiss of all premisses, and just on that account that from which philosophy must _start_, for the will to live does not appear in consequence of the world, but the world in consequence of the will to live.

III. INVESTIGATIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Progress and Social Research

The problem of progress comes back finally to the problem of the ultimate good. If the world is getting better, measured by this ultimate standard, then there is progress. If it is growing worse, then there is retrogression. But in regard to the ultimate good there is no agreement. What is temporary gain may be ultimate loss. What is one man's evil may be, and often seems to be, another man's good. In the final analysis what seems evil may turn out to be good and what seems good may be an eventual evil. But this is a problem in philosophy which sociology is not bound to solve before it undertakes to describe society. It does not even need to discuss it. Sociology, just as any other natural science, accepts the current values of the community. The physician, like the social worker, assumes that health is a social value. With this as a datum his studies are directed to the discovery of the nature and causes of diseases, and to the invention of devices for curing them. There is just as much, and no more, reason for a sociologist to formulate a doctrine of social progress as there is for the physician to do so. Both are concerned with specific problems for which they are seeking specific remedies.

If there are social processes and predictable forms of change in society, then there are methods of human intervention in the processes of society, methods of controlling these processes in the interest of the ends of human life, methods of progress in other words. If there are no intelligible or describable social processes, then there may be progress, but there will be no sociology and no _methods of progress_. We can only hope and pray.

It is not impossible to formulate a definition of progress which does not assume the perfectibility of mankind, which does not regard progress as a necessity, and which does not assume to say with finality what has happened or is likely to happen to humanity as a whole.[346]

Progress may be considered as the addition to the sum of accumulated experience, tradition, and technical devices organized for social efficiency. This is at once a definition of progress and of civilization, in which civilization is the sum of social efficiencies and progress consists of the units (additions) of which it is composed. Defined in these terms, progress turns out to be a relative, local, temporal, and secular phenomenon. It is possible, theoretically at least, to compare one community with another with respect to their relative efficiency and their relative progress in efficiency, just as we can compare one institution with another in respect to its efficiency and progress. It is even possible to measure the progress of humanity in so far as humanity can be said to be organized for social action.

This is in fact the point of view which sociologists have adopted as soon as progress ceased to be, for sociology, a matter of definition and became a matter of observation and research. Score cards for neighborhoods and for rural communities have already been devised.[347]

2. Indices of Progress

A few years ago, Walter F. Willcox, in an article "A Statistician's Idea of Progress," sought to define certain indices of social progress which would make it possible to measure progress statistically. "If progress be merely a subjective term," he admitted, "statistics can throw no light upon it because all such ends as happiness, or self-realization, or social service are incapable of statistical measurement." Statistics works with indices, characteristics which are accessible to measurement but are "correlated with some deeper immeasurable characteristic." Mr. Willcox took as his indices of progress:

1. Increase in population.
2. Length of life.
3. Uniformity in population.
4. Racial homogeneity.
5. Literacy.
6. Decrease of the divorce rate.

Certainly these indices, like uniformity, are mere temporary measures of progress, since diversity in the population is not per se an evil. It becomes so only when the diversities in the community are so great as to endanger its solidarity. Applying his indices to the United States, Mr. Willcox sums up the result as follows:

The net result is to indicate for the United States a rapid
increase of population and probable increase in length of life,
and increase in racial uniformity and perhaps in uniformity of
other sorts connected with immigration, and at the same time a
decrease in uniformity in the stability and social
serviceability of family life. Some of these indications look
towards progress, others look towards retrogression. As they
cannot be reduced to any common denominator, the statistical
method is unable to answer the question with which we
started.[348]

The securing of indices which will measure satisfactorily even such social values as are generally accepted is difficult. The problem of giving each index in the series a value or weight in proportion to the value of all the others is still more difficult. This statement, at any rate, illustrates the procedure and the method.

The whole subject of numerical indices for the measurement of civilization and progress has recently been discussed in a little volume by Alfredo Niceforo,[349] professor in the School of Criminal Law at Rome. He proposes as indices of progress:

1. The increase in wealth and in the consumption of goods, and the diminution of the mortality rate. These are evidences of material progress.

2. The diffusion of culture, and "when it becomes possible to measure it," the productivity of men of genius. This is the measure of intellectual superiority.

3. Moral progress he would measure in terms of crime.

4. There remains the social and political organization, which he would measure in terms of the increase and decrease of individual liberty.

In all these attempts to measure the progress of the community the indices have invariably shown progression in some direction, retrogression in others.

From the point of view of social research the problem of progress is mainly one of getting devices that will measure all the different factors of progress and of estimating the relative value of different factors in the progress of the community.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. THE DEFINITION OF PROGRESS

(1) Dewey, John. "Progress," _International Journal of Ethics_, XXVI (1916), 311-22.

(2) Bury, J. B. _The Idea of Progress_. An inquiry into its origin and growth. London, 1921.

(3) Bryce, James. "What is Progress?" _Atlantic Monthly_, C (1907), 145-56.

(4) Todd, A. J. _Theories of Social Progress_. A critical attempt to formulate the conditions of human advance. New York, 1918.

(5) Woods, E. B. "Progress as a Sociological Concept," _American Journal of Sociology_, XII (1906-7), 779-821.

(6) Cooley, Charles H. _The Social Process_. Chap, xxvii, "The Sphere of Pecuniary Valuation," pp. 309-28. New York, 1918.

(7) Mackenzie, J. S. "The Idea of Progress," _International Journal of Ethics_, IX (1899), 195-213.

(8) Bergson, H. _Creative Evolution_. New York, 1911.

(9) Frobenius, L. _Die Weltanschauung der Naturvölker_. Weimar, 1899.

(10) Inge, W. R. _The Idea of Progress_. The Romanes Lecture, 1920. Oxford, 1920.

(11) Balfour, Arthur J. _Arthur James Balfour, as Philosopher and Thinker_. A collection of the more important and interesting passages in his non-political writings, speeches, and addresses, 1879-1912. Selected and arranged by Wilfrid M. Short. "Progress," pp. 413-35. London and New York, 1912.

(12) Carpenter, Edward. _Civilization, Its Cause and Cure_. And other essays. New and enlarged ed. London and New York, 1917.

(13) Nordau, Max S. _The Interpretation of History_. Translated from the German by M. A. Hamilton. Chap viii, "The Question of Progress." New York, 1911.

(14) Sorel, Georges. _Les Illusions du progrès_. 2d ed. Paris, 1911.

(15) Allier, R. "Pessimisme et civilisation," _Revue Encyclopédique_, V (1895), 70-73.

(16) Simmel, Georg. "Moral Deficiencies as Determining Intellectual Functions," _International Journal of Ethics_, III (1893), 490-507.

(17) Delvaille, Jules. _Essai sur histoire de l'idée de progrès jusq'à la fin du 18ième siècle_. Paris, 1910.

(18) Sergi, G. "Qualche idea sul progresso umano," _Rivista italiana di sociologia_, XVII (1893), 1-8.

(19) Barth, Paul. "Die Frage des sittlichen Fortschritts der Menschheit," _Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie_, XXIII (1899), 75-116.

(20) Lankester, E. Ray. _Degeneration_. A chapter in Darwinism, and parthenogenesis. Humboldt Library of Science. New York. 18--.

(21) Lloyd, A.H. "The Case of Purpose against Fate in History," _American Journal of Sociology_, XVII (1911-12), 491-511.

(22) Case, Clarence M. "Religion and the Concept of Progress," _Journal of Religion_, I (1921), 160-73.

(23) Reclus, E. "The Progress of Mankind," _Contemporary Review_, LXX (1896), 761-83.

(24) Bushee, F. A. "Science and Social Progress," _Popular Science Monthly_, LXXIX (1911), 236-51.

(25) Jankelevitch, S. "Du Rôle des idées dans l'évolution des sociétés," _Revue philosophique_, LXVI (1908), 256-80.

II. HISTORY, THE PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY AND PROGRESS

(1) Condorcet, Marquis de. _History of the Progress of the Human Mind_. London, 1795.

(2) Comte, Auguste. _The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte_. (Translated from the French by Harriet Martineau) Book VI, chap, ii, vi. 2d ed. 2 vols. London, 1875-90.

(3) Caird, Edward. _The Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte_. 2d ed. Glasgow and New York, 1893.

(4) Buckle, Henry Thomas. _History of Civilization in England_. 2 vols. From 2d London ed. New York, 1903.

(5) Condorcet, Marie J.A.C. _Esquisse d'un tableau historique des progrès de l'esprit humain_. 2 vols in one. Paris, 1902.

(6) Harris, George. _Civilization Considered as a Science_. In relation to its essence, its elements, and its end. London, 1861.

(7) Lamprecht, Karl. _Alte und neue Richtungen in der Geschichtswissenschaft_. Berlin, 1896.

(8) ----. "Individualität, Idee und sozialpsychische Kraft in der Geschichte," _Jahrbücher für National-Ökonomie und Statistik_, XIII (1897), 880-900.

(9) Barth, Paul. _Philosophie der Geschichte als Sociologie_. Erster Teil, "Einleitung und kritische Übersicht." Leipzig, 1897.

(10) Rickert, Heinrich. _Die Grenzen der Naturwissenschaftlichen Begriffsbildung_. Leipzig, 1902.

(11) Simmel, Georg. _Die Problems der Geschichtsphilosophie_. Eine erkenntnistheoretische Studie. 2d ed. Leipzig, 1905.

(12) Mill, John Stuart. _A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive_. Being a connected view of the principles of evidence and the methods of scientific investigation. 8th ed. New York and London, 1900.

(13) Letelier, Valentin. _La Evoluçion de la historia_. 2d ed. 2 vols. Santiago de Chile, 1900.

(14) Teggart, Frederick J. _The Processes of History._ New Haven, 1918.

(15) Znaniecki, Florian. _Cultural Reality._ Chicago, 1919.

(16) Hibben, J. G. "The Philosophical Aspects of Evolution," _Philosophical Review_, XIX (1910), 113-36.

(17) Bagehot, Walter. _Physics and Politics._ Or thoughts on the application of the principles of "natural selection" and "inheritance" to political society. Chap. vi, "Verifiable Progress Politically Considered," pp. 205-24. New York, 1906.

(18) Crawley, A. E. "The Unconscious Reason in Social Evolution," _Sociological Review_, VI (1913), 236-41.

(19) Froude, James A. "Essay on Progress," _Short Studies on Great Subjects._ 2d Ser. II, 245-79, 4 vols. New York, 1888-91.

(20) Morley, John. "Some Thoughts on Progress," _Educational Review_, XXIX (1905), 1-17.

III. EVOLUTION AND PROGRESS

(1) Spencer, Herbert. "Progress, Its Law and Cause," _Westminster Review_, LXVII (1857), 445-85. [Reprinted in Everyman's edition of his _Essays_, pp. 153-97. New York, 1866.]

(2) Federici, Romolo. _Les Lois du Progrès._ II, 32-35, 44, 127, 136, 146-47, 158 ff., 223, etc. 2 vols. Paris, 1888-91.

(3) Baldwin, James Mark. _Development and Evolution._ Including psychophysical evolution, evolution by orthoplasy, and the theory of genetic modes. New York, 1902.

(4) Adams, Brooks. _The Law of Civilization and Decay._ An essay on history. New York and London, 1903.

(5) Kidd, Benjamin. _Principles of Western Civilization._ London, 1902.

(6) ----. _Social Evolution._ New ed. New York and London, 1896.

(7) Müller-Lyer, F. _Phasen der Kultur und Richtungslinien des Fortschritts._ Soziologische Überblicke. München, 1908.

(8) McGee, W. J. "The Trend of Human Progress," _American Anthropologist_, N. S., I (1899), 401-47.

(9) Carver, Thomas N. _Sociology and Social Progress._ A handbook for students of sociology. Boston, 1905.

(10) Weber, L. _Le Rythme du progrès._ Étude sociologique. Paris, 1913.

(11) Baldwin, J. Mark. _Social and Ethical Interpretations in Mental Development._ Chap. xiv. "Social Progress," pp. 537-50. New York, 1906.

(12) Kropotkin, P. _Mutual Aid._ A factor of evolution. London, 1902.

(13) Wallace, Alfred R. _Social Environment and Moral Progress._ London and New York, 1913.

(14) Freeman, R. Austin. _Social Decay and Regeneration._ With an introduction by Havelock Ellis. Boston, 1921.

IV. EUGENICS AND PROGRESS

(1) Galton, Francis, and others. "Eugenics, Its Scope and Aims," _American Journal of Sociology_, X (1904-5), 1-25.

(2) Saleeby, Caleb W. _The Progress of Eugenics._ London, 1914.

(3) Ellis, Havelock. _The Problem of Race Regeneration._ New York, 1911.

(4) Pearson, Karl. _National Life from the Standpoint of Science._ 2d ed. London, 1905.

(5) Saleeby, Caleb W. _Methods of Race Regeneration._ New York, 1911.

(6) Davenport, C. B. _Heredity in Relation to Eugenics._ New York, 1911.

(7) Demoor, Massart, et Vandervelde. _L'Évolution régressive en biologie et en sociologie._ Paris, 1897.

(8) Thomson, J. Arthur. "Eugenics and War," _Eugenics Review_, VII (1915-16), 1-14.

(9) Southard, E. E. "Eugenics _vs._ Cacogenics," _Journal of Heredity_, V (1914), 408-14.

(10) Conn, Herbert W. _Social Heredity and Social Evolution._ The other side of eugenics. Cincinnati, 1914.

(11) Popenoe, Paul, and Johnson, R. H. _Applied Eugenics._ New York, 1918.

(12) Kelsey, Carl. "Influence of Heredity and Environment upon Race Improvement," _Annals of the American Academy_, XXXIV (1909) 3-8.

(13) Ward, L. F. "Eugenics, Euthenics and Eudemics," _American Journal of Sociology_, XVIII (1912-13), 737-54.

V. PROGRESS AND THE MORAL ORDER

(1) Harrison, Frederic. _Order and Progress._ London, 1875.

(2) Hobhouse, Leonard T. _Social Evolution and Political Theory._ Chaps, i, ii, vii, pp. 1-39; 149-65. New York, 1911.

(3) ----. _Morals in Evolution._ A study in comparative ethics. 2 vols. New York, 1906.

(4) Alexander, Samuel. _Moral Order and Progress._ An analysis of ethical conceptions. 2d ed. London, 1891.

(5) Chapin, F. S. "Moral Progress," _Popular Science Monthly_, LXXXVI (1915), 467-71.

(6) Keller, Albert G. _Societal Evolution._ New York, 1915.

(7) Dellepiane, A. "Le Progrès et sa formule. La lutte pour le progrès," _Revue Internationale de sociologie_, XX (1912), 1-30.

(8) Burgess, Ernest W. _The Function of Socialization in Social Evolution._ Chicago, 1916.

(9) Ellwood, C. A. "The Educational Theory of Social Progress," _Scientific Monthly_, V (1917), 439-50.

(10) Bosanquet, Helen. "The Psychology of Social Progress," _International Journal of Ethics_, VII (1896-97), 265-81.

(11) Perry, Ralph Barton. _The Moral Economy_. Chap, iv, "The Moral Test of Progress," pp. 123-70. New York, 1909.

(12) Patten, S. N. "Theories of Progress," _American Economic Review_, II (1912), 61-68.

(13) Alexander, H. B. "The Belief in God and Immortality as Factors in Race Progress." _Hibbert Journal_, IX (1910-11), 169-87.

VI. UTOPIAS

(1) Plato. _The Republic of Plato_. Translated into English by Benjamin Jowett. 2 vols. Oxford, 1908.

(2) More, Thomas. _The "Utopia" of Sir Thomas More_. Ralph Robinson's translation, with Roper's "Life of More" and some of his letters. London, 1910.

(3) _Ideal Commonwealths_. Comprising More's "Utopia," Bacon's "New Atlantis," Campanella's "City of the Sun," and Harrington's "Oceana," with introductions by Henry Morley. Rev. ed. New York, 1901.

(4) Kaufmann, Moritz. _Utopias, or Schemes of Social Improvement_. From Sir Thomas More to Karl Marx. London, 1879.

(5) Bacon, Francis. _New Atlantis_. Oxford, 1915.

(6) Campanella, Tommaso. _La città di sole e aforasmi politici_. Lanciana, Carabba, 19--.

(7) Andreä, Johann V. _Christianopolis_. An ideal state of the seventeenth century. Translated from the Latin by T. E. Held. New York, 1916.

(8) Harrington, James. _The Oceana of James Harrington_. London, 1700.

(9) Mandeville, Bernard de. _Fable of the Bees_. Or private vices, public benefits. Edinburgh, 1772. [First published in 1714.]

(10) Cabet, Étienne. _Voyage en Icarie_. 5th ed. Paris, 1848.

(11) Butler, Samuel. _Erewhon: or over the Range_. New York, 1917. [First published in 1872.]

(12) ----. _Erewhon Revisited Twenty Years Later_. New York, 1901.

(13) Lytton, Edward Bulwer. _The Coming Race_. London, 1871.

(14) Bellamy, Edward. _Looking Backward, 2000-1887_. Boston, 1898.

(15) Morris, William. _News from Nowhere_. Or an epoch of rest, being some chapters from a utopian romance. New York, 1910. [First published in 1891.]

(16) Hertzka, Theodor. _Freeland_. A social anticipation. New York, 1891.

(17) Wells, H. G. _A Modern Utopia_. New York, 1905.

(18) ----. _New Worlds for Old_. New York, 1908.

VII. PROGRESS AND SOCIAL WELFARE

(1) Crozier, John B. _Civilization and Progress_. 3d ed., pp. 366-440. London and New York, 1892.

(2) Obolensky, L. E. ["Self-Consciousness of Classes in Social Progress"] _Voprosy filosofii i psichologuïi_, VII (1896), 521-51. [Short review in _Revue philosophique_, XLIV (1897), 106.]

(3) Mallock, William H. _Aristocracy and Evolution_. A study of the rights, the origin, and the social functions of the wealthier classes. London, 1898.

(4) Tenney, E. P. _Contrasts in Social Progress_. New York, 1907.

(5) Hall, Arthur C. _Crime in Its Relations to Social Progress_. New York, 1902.

(6) Hughes, Charles E. _Conditions of Progress in a Democratic Government_. New Haven, 1910.

(7) Parmelee, Maurice. _Poverty and Social Progress_. Chaps. vi-vii. New York, 1916.

(8) George, Henry. _Progress and Poverty_. Book X, chap. iii. New York, 1899.

(9) Nasmyth, George. _Social Progress and the Darwinian Theory_. New York, 1916.

(10) Harris, George. _Inequality and Progress_. New York, 1897.

(11) Irving, L. "The Drama as a Factor in Social Progress," _Fortnightly Review_, CII (1914), 268-74.

(12) Salt, Henry S. _Animal Rights Considered in Relation to Social Progress_. New York, 1894.

(13) Delabarre, Frank A. "Civilisation and Its Effects on Morbidity and Mortality," _Journal of Sociologic Medicine_, XIX (1918), 220-23.

(14) Knopf, S. A. "The Effects of Civilisation on the Morbidity and Mortality of Tuberculosis," _Journal of Sociologic Medicine_, XX (1919), 5-15.

(15) Giddings, Franklin H. "The Ethics of Social Progress," in the collection _Philanthropy and Social Progress_. Seven essays ... delivered before the School of Applied Ethics at Plymouth, Mass., during the session of 1892. With introduction by Professor Henry C. Adams. New York and Boston, 1893.

(16) Morgan, Alexander. _Education and Social Progress_. Chaps. vi, ix-xxi. London and New York, 1916.

(17) Butterfield, K. L. _Chapters in Rural Progress._ Chicago, 1908.

(18) Robertson, John M. _The Economics of Progress._ New York, 1918.

(19) Willcox, Walter F. "A Statistician's Idea of Progress," _International Journal of Ethics_, XXIII (1913), 275-98.

(20) Zueblin, Charles. _American Municipal Progress._ Rev. ed. New York, 1916.

(21) Niceforo, Alfredo. _Les Indices numérique de la civilisation et du progrès_. Paris, 1921.

(22) Todd, A. J. _Theories of Social Progress._ Chap, vii, "The Criteria of Progress," pp. 113-53. New York, 1918.

TOPICS FOR WRITTEN THEMES

1. The History of the Concept of Progress

2. Popular Notions of Progress

3. The Natural History of Progress: Evolution of Physical and Mental Traits, Economic Progress, Moral Development, Intellectual Development, Social Evolution

4. Stages of Progress: Determined by Type of Control over Nature, Type of Social Organization, Type of Communication, etc.

5. Score Cards and Scales for Grading Communities and Neighborhoods

6. Progress as Wish-Fulfilment: an Analysis of Utopias

7. Criteria or Indices of Progress: Physical, Mental, Intellectual, Economic, Moral, Social, etc.

8. Progress as an Incident of the Cosmic Process

9. Providence versus Progress

10. Happiness as the Goal of Progress

11. Progress as Social Change

12. Progress as Social Evolution

13. Progress as Social Control

14. Progress and the Science of Eugenics

15. Progress and Socialization

16. Control through Eugenics, Education, and Legislation

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What do you understand by progress?

2. How do you explain the fact that the notion of progress originated?

3. What is the relation of change to progress?

4. What is Spencer's law of evolution? Is it an adequate generalization? What is its value?

5. Why do we speak of "stages of progress"?

6. To what extent has progress been a result (a) of eugenics, (b) of tradition?

7. What do you understand by progress as (a) a historical process, and (b) increase in the content of civilization?

8. What is the relation of progress to happiness?

9. "We have confused rapidity of change with progress." Explain.

10. "Progress is not automatic." Elaborate your position with reference to this statement.

11. What is the relation of prevision to progress?

12. Do you believe that mankind can control and determine progress?

13. "Our expectations of limitless progress cannot depend upon the deliberate action of national governments." Contrast this statement of Balfour with the statement of Dewey.

14. "A community founded on argument would dissolve into its constituent elements." Discuss this statement.

15. What is Galton's conception of progress?

16. What would you say to the possibility or the impossibility of the suggestion of eugenics becoming a religious dogma as suggested by Galton?

17. What is the relation, as conceived by the eugenists, as between germ plasm and culture?

18. Is progress dependent upon change in human nature?

19. How are certain persistent traits of human nature related to progress?

20. What is meant by the statement that progress is in the mores?

21. What are the different types of progress analyzed by Bryce? Has advance in each of them been uniform in the last one thousand years?

22. Does war make for or against progress?

23. What is the relation of freedom to progress?

24. What place has the myth in progress?

25. To what extent is progress as a process of realizing values a matter of temperament, of optimism, and of pessimism?

FOOTNOTES:

[322] Robert Flint, _The Philosophy of History in Europe_, I, 29-30. (London, 1874.)

[323] W. R. Inge, _Outspoken Essays_, i, "Our Present Discontents," p. 2. (London, 1919.)

[324] Charles Booth, _Labour and Life of the People_, I, 154-55, 598. 2d ed. (London, 1889.)

[325] Charles Cooley, _The Social Process_, p. 284. (New York, 1918.)

[326] Charles Zueblin, _American Municipal Progress_, pp. xi-xii. New and rev. ed. (New York, 1916.)

[327] R. Austin Freeman, _Social Decay and Regeneration_. With an introduction by Havelock Ellis. Pp. 16-17. (Boston, 1921.)

[328] J. B. Bury, _The Idea of Progress._ An inquiry into its origin and growth, p. 1. (London, 1921.)

[329] W. R. Inge, _The Idea of Progress_, p. 9. The Romanes Lecture, 1920. (Oxford, 1920.)

[330] Author of _The Passing of a Great Race, or the Racial Basis of European History_. (New York, 1916.)

[331] See Stoddard Lothrop, _The Rising Tide of Color against White World-Supremacy_ (New York, 1920); and William McDougall, _Is America Safe for Democracy?_ (New York, 1921.)

[332] Thomas H. Huxley, _Evolution and Ethics and Other Lectures_, Lecture ii, pp. 46-116. (New York, 1894.)

[333] Adapted from F. S. Marvin, _Progress and History_, pp. 8-10. (Oxford University Press, 1916.

[334] Adapted from Herbert Spencer, _Essays_, I, 8-10. (D. Appleton & Co., 1899.)

[335] Adapted from Auguste Comte, _Positive Philosophy_, II, 124. (Trübner & Co., 1875.)

[336] Adapted from Leonard T. Hobhouse, _Social Evolution and Political Theory_, pp. 29-39. (The Columbia University Press, 1911.)

[337] From Lester F. Ward, _Dynamic Sociology_, II, 174-77. (D. Appleton & Co., 1893.)

[338] Adapted from John Dewey, "Progress," in the _International Journal of Ethics_, XXVI (1916), 312-18.

[339] From _The Mind of Arthur James Balfour_, by Wilfrid M. Short, pp. 293-97. (Copyright 1918, George H. Doran Company, publishers.)

[340] From Francis Galton, "Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims," in the _American Journal of Sociology_, X (1904-5), 1-6.

[341] Adapted from G. Santayana, _Winds of Doctrine_, pp. 6-8. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913.)

[342] Adapted from W. G. Sumner, "The Mores of the Present and the Future," in the _Yale Review_, XVIII (1909-10), 235-36. (Quoted by special permission of the _Yale Review_.)

[343] Adapted from James Bryce, "War and Human Progress," in _International Conciliation_, CVIII (November, 1916), 13-27.

[344] From Henri Bergson, _Creative Evolution_, translated by Arthur Mitchell, pp. 253-71. (Henry Holt & Co., 1913.)

[345] From Arthur Schopenhauer, _The World as Will and Idea_, III, 107-18. (Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 1909.)

[346] Scientific optimism was no doubt rampant before Darwin. For example, Herschel says: "Man's progress towards a higher state need never fear a check, but must continue till the very last existence of history." But Herbert Spencer asserts the perfectibility of man with an assurance which makes us gasp. "Progress is not an accident, but a necessity. What we call evil and immorality must disappear. It is certain that man must become perfect." "The ultimate development of the ideal man is certain--as certain as any conclusion in which we place the most implicit faith; for instance, that all men will die." "Always towards perfection is the mighty movement--towards a complete development and a more unmixed good."--W. R. Inge, _The Idea of Progress_, p. 9. (Oxford, 1920.)

[347] "Scale for Grading Neighborhood Conditions," _Publications of the Whittier State School, Research Bulletin, No. 5_, Whittier, Cal., May, 1917. "Guide to the Grading of Neighborhoods," _Publications of the Whittier State School, Research Bulletin, No. 8_, Whittier, Cal., April, 1918. Dwight Sanderson, "Scale for Grading Social Conditions in Rural Communities," _New York State Agricultural College Bulletin_ [in press], Ithaca, N.Y., 1921.

[348] "A Statistician's Idea of Progress," _International Journal of Ethics_, XVIII (1913), 296.

[349] _Les indices numériques de la civilisation et du progrès_. (Paris, 1921.)

INDEX OF NAMES

[Page numbers in italics refer to selections or short extracts.]

Abbott, Edith, 223, 569.

Abbott, Grace, 780.

Abraham, Karl, 857.

Abrahams, I., 943.

Abrikossof, N. A., 649.

Achelis, T., 937.

Adams, Brewster, 643, 656.

Adams, Brooks, 950, 1006.

Adams, Charles C., 218, 554.

Adams, Charles F., _760_.

Adams, Franklin P., _834_.

Adams, Henry, _5_, 14, _15_, 563.

Addams, Jane, 329, 331, 335.

Addison, Joseph, 66.

Adler, Alfred, 144, 150, 497, 501, 638, 645, 646.

Adler, H. M., 936.

Alexander, H. B., 1008.

Alexander, Samuel, 1007.

Alexander the Great, 987.

Alfred [_pseud._], _see_ Kydd, Samuel.

Alher, R., 1004.

Ambrosio, M. A. d', 566.

Ames, Edward S., 426.

Amiel, H., 151.

Ammon, Dr. O., 535.

Amsden, G. S., 152.

Anderson, Wilbert L., 334.

Andreä, Johann V., 1008.

Andrews, Alexander, 860.

Andrews, John B., 942.

Anthony, Katharine S., 151, 942.

Anthony, Susan B., 949.

Antin, Mary, 774, 782, 783.

Antony, Marc, 386.

Archer, T. A., 941.

Arcoleo, G., 649.

Aria, E., 948.

Aristotle, 11, 29, 30, 32, 61, 140, 144, 156, 223, 231, 261, 373, 640, 1000.

Aronovici, Carol, 218, 782.

Atkinson, Charles M., 949.

Aubry, P., 937, 938.

Audoux, Marguerite, 151.

Auerbach, Bertrand, 275, 660, 778.

Augustinus, Aurelius (Saint Augustine), 122, 144, 150.

Austin, George L., 949.

Austin, John, 106.

Austin, Mary, _881-83_.

Avebury, _Lord_, 649.

Bab, Julius, 731.

Babbitt, Eugene H., 275, _754-56_.

Babinski, J. F., 648.

Bachofen, J. J., 214, 220.

Bacon, Lord Francis, 66, _233-34_, 1008.

Baden-Powell, H., 219.

Baer, Karl Ernst von, 967.

Bagehot, Walter, 423, 429, _495-96_, 563, 564, 646.

Bailey, Thomas P., 652, 728.

Bailey, W. F., 778.

Bailie, William, 565.

Bakeless, John, 648.

Baker, Ray Stannard, 643, 651, 658, 936.

Balch, Emily G., 781.

Baldwin, J. Mark, 41, 85, 149, 150, 390, 423, 425, 429, 646, 663, 719, 725, 775, 1006.

Balfour, Arthur James, 964, _977-79_, 1004.

Ballagh, James C., 728.

Bancroft, H. H., 942.

Bang, J. P., 650.

Barbellion, W. N. P. [_pseud._], _see_ Cummings, B. F.

Barclay, Robert, 944.

Baring Gould, S., 274.

Barnes, Harry E., 659.

Barr, Martin W., 935.

Barrère, Albert, 428.

Barrow, _Sir_ John, 275.

Barrows, Samuel J., 781.

Barth, Paul, _4_, 211, 1004, 1005.

Bartlett, David W., 949.

Bastian, A., 673, 787.

Bastiat, Frederic, _505-6_, _552-53_, 563, 573.

Bates, Jean V., 778.

Bauer, Arthur, 729.

Bauer, Otto, 777.

Bax, Ernest B., 944.

Beard, Charles A., 498, 658.

Beaulieu, P. Leroy, _see_ Leroy-Beaulieu, P.

Bechterew, W. v, _123-25_, 150, 157, 345, _408-12_, _415-20_, 424, 430, 433, 434, 494, 501.

Beck, von, 179.

Beddoe, _Dr._ John, 536.

Beecher, Franklin A., 940.

Beer, M., 566.

Beers, C. W., 152.

Beethoven, Ludwig von, 228.

Begbie, Harold, 727, 942.

Behn, 366.

Belisle, A., 946.

Bell, Alexander G., 276.

Bell, Sir Charles, 421.

Bellamy, Edward, 1008.

Bellet, Daniel, 947.

Bennett, Arnold, 216.

Bentham, Jeremy, 106, 500, 940, 949.

Bentley, A. F., _458-61_, 501, 503.

Bergson, Henri, 373, 374, 422, 426, 964, _989-94_, 1004.

Bernard, Luther L., 854.

Bernhard, L., 275, 770, 946.

Bernheim, A., 430.

Bertillon, Jacques, 265.

Besant, Annie, 120, 121, 559, 949.

Besant, Walter, 335.

Best, Harry, 276, 567.

Bevan, Edwyn R., 659.

Beveridge, W. H., 567.

Bhattacharya, Jogendra N., 728.

Bigg, Ada H., 948.

Binet, Alfred, _113-17_, 145, 150, 154, 424, 430, 496.

Bing, Alexander M., 652.

Bismarck, 238, 239, 789.

Blackmar, F. W., 499, 779.

Blair, R. H., 362, 366.

Blanchard, Phyllis, 646.

Bloch, Iwan, 221, 333.

Blondel, H., 729.

Blowitz, Henri de, 859.

Blumenbach, J. F., 243.

Bluntschli, Johann K., 658, 858.

Blyden, Edward W., 651.

Boas, Franz, 19, 154, 332, 660, 725, 730, 770, 777, 938.

Bodenhafer, Walter B., 48.

Böhme Margarete, 650.

Bohannon, E. W., 273.

Bois, Henri, 943.

Bonger, W. A., 562, 569.

Bonnaterre, J. P., 277.

Boodin, J. E., 425.

Booth, Charles, 44, _45_, 59, 212, 219, 335, 955.

Booth, William, 942.

Borght, R. van der, 427.

Bosanquet, Helen, 215, 222, 1008.

Bossuet, J. B., 906.

Botsford, George W., 940.

Bouglé, C., 728, 729.

Bourde, Paul, 654.

Bourgoing, P. de, 275, 945.

Bourne, _Rev._ Ansel, 472, 473.

Bourne, H. R. Fox, 564, 859.

Boutmy, Émile, 940.

Boutroux, Pierre 650.

Bradford, Gamaliel, Jr., 731.

Bradlaugh, Charles, 559.

Bradley, F. H., 106.

Bradley, Henry, 941.

Braid, James, 424.

Brailsford, H. N., 651.

Braithwaite, W. C., 944.

Brancoff, D. M., 946.

Brandenburg, Broughton, 780.

Brandes, Georg, 141, 498, 778.

Braubach, Prof., 810.

Breckinridge, Sophonisba P., 222, 223, 569, 782.

Brehm, A. E., 810.

Brent, Charles H., 855.

Brentano, Lujo, 500, 658.

Breuer, J., 838.

Bridges, 368.

Bridges, Horace, 782.

Bridgman, Laura, 244, 366.

Bright, John, 447.

Brill, A. A., 273.

Brinton, Daniel G., _666_, _671-74_, 725, 857.

Brissenden, Paul Frederick, 566, 658.

Bristol, Lucius M., 718, 725.

Bronner, Augusta F., 152.

Brönner, W., 941.

Brooks, John Graham, 566, 658, 925, 935.

Browne, Crichton, 366.

Browne, Sir Thomas, 65, _128_.

Bruhl, S. Levy, _see_ Levy Bruhl, S.

Brunhes, Jean, 270, 274.

Bryan, William J., 734.

Bryce, James, 650, 652, 658, 726, 759, 779, 851, 852 n., 858, 861, 941, _984-89_, 1004.

Brynmor-Jones, David, 149, 945.

Buchanan, J. R., 731.

Buck, Carl D., 660.

Buck, S. J., 942.

Buckle, Henry Thomas, 270, 493, 498, 912, 1005.

Bücher, Karl, _385-89_, 427, _529-33_, 728.

Bunyan, John, 122.

Burckhard, M., 941.

Burgess, Dr., 366, 367, 368.

Burgess, Ernest W., 426, 1007.

Burgess, John, 741.

Burgess, Thomas, 781.

Burke, Edmund, 449, 850.

Burnell, A. C., 276.

Burns, Allen T., 59, 335, 498, _773_, 782.

Burns, J., 943.

Burr, Anna R., 727.

Bury, J. B., 333, _958-59_, 1004.

Busch, 414.

Bushee, F. A., 1005.

Bussell, F. W., 904.

Buswell, Leslie, 649.

Butler, Joseph, 429.

Butler, Ralph, 660.

Butler, Samuel, 1008.

Butterfield, K. L., 1010.

Cabet, Étienne, 1008.

Cabrol, F., 939.

Cadière, L., 937.

Caelius, 386.

Caesar, 144, 238, 386, 387.

Cahan, Abraham, 335, 782.

Caird, Edward, 1005.

Cairnes, J. E., _546_, _547_, _548_.

Calhoun, Arthur W., 215, 222, 726.

Cambarieu, J., 938.

Campanella, Tommaso, 1008.

Campbell, John C., 275, 654.

Campeano, M., 941.

Canat, René, 273.

Cannon, Walter B., 422, 426.

Cardan, Jerome, 144.

Carlton, Frank T., 657.

Carlyle, Thomas, 494.

Carnegie, Andrew, 670.

Carpenter, Edward, 1004.

Carter, George R., 564.

Cartwright, Peter, 944.

Carver, Thomas N., 1006.

Case, Clarence M., 1005.

Case, S. J., 857.

Castle, W. E., _128-33_, 147.

Caxton, William, 237.

Cellini, Benvenuto, 151.

Chabaneix, Paul, 855.

Chapin, F. Stuart, 59, 1007.

Chapin, Robert C., 215, 222.

Chapman, 298.

Charcot, J. M., 144, 415, 424.

Charlemagne, 238.

Cherrington, Ernest H., 942.

Chevillon, Andre, 650.

Chevreul, M. E., 462.

Cheysson, E., 729.

Chirol, Valentine, 936.

Chrestus, 386.

Christensen, A., 940.

Churchill, William, 275, 428.

Cicero, 386, 387.

Ciszewski, S., 775.

Claghorn, Kate H., 782.

Clarendon, Earl of, 65.

Clark, H., 940.

Clark, John B., _544-50_.

Clark, Thomas A., 731.

Claudius, Emperor, 752.

Clayton, H. H., 947.

Clayton, Joseph, 855.

Clemens, Samuel L., (Mark Twain, _pseud._), 152.

Clements, Frederic E., 217, _526-28_, 554, 571.

Clerget, Pierre, 948.

Cleveland, Catharine C., 944.

Clibborne, 543.

Clodd, Edward, 857.

Clough, H. W., 947.

Cobb, Irvin, _735_.

Cobden, Richard, 447, 949.

Coblenz, Felix, 150.

Codrington, R. H., 857.

Coe, George Albert, _235-37_, 726.

Coffin, Ernest W., 779.

Cohen, Rose, 336, 774, 782.

Coicou, M., 729.

Colcord, Joanna, 223.

Coleman, Charles T., 940.

Coleridge, Samuel T., 368.

Collier, John, 732.

Commons, John R., 644, 657, 658, 776, 780, 942.

Comte, Auguste, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 24, 25, 39, 43, 44, 57, 60, 61, 68, 140, 210, 496, _716_, 959, _968-69_, 1005.

Condorcet, Marie J. A. C., 3, 553, 1005.

Conn, Herbert W., 1007.

Connor, Dr. Bernard, 241.

Constantin, A., 648.

Conway, M., 940.

Cook, Edward, 859.

Cooley, Charles H., 56, 58, 67, _67-68_, 70, _71_, 147, 154, 156, 157, 216, 285, 330, 421, 425, 430, 500, 646, _665_, _708-12_, _723_, 729, 855, 934, 955, 1004.

Coolidge, Mary R., 781.

Corelli, Marie, 936.

Cornyn, John H., _751-54_.

Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille, 126.

Cory, H. E., 731.

Coulter, J. M., 128-33, 147.

Crafts, L. W., _254-57_.

Crawley, A. Ernest, 221, _291-93_, 282, 330, 332, 651, 850, 856, 857, 1006.

Creighton, Louise, _779_.

Crile, George W., _522-26_, 562, 571, 641, 563, 564, 783.

Croly, Jane (Mrs.), 942.

Crooke, William, 276, 728, 777, 943.

Crosby, Arthur T., 648.

Crothers, T. D., 940.

Crowell, John F., 564.

Crozier, John B., 1009.

Culin, Stewart, 655, 656.

Cummings, B. F., 151.

Cunningham, William, 563.

Cutler, James E., 654.

Cutrera, A., 655.

Cuvier, Georges, i.e., J. L. N. F., 809.

D'Aeth, F. G., 729.

Damiron, J. Ph., 647.

Dana, Charles A., 859.

Dana, Richard H., Jr., 276.

Daniels, John, 781.

Danielson, F. H., 147, 254.

Dargun, L. von, 220.

Darwin, Charles, 7, 143, 165, 214, 329, 342, _361-65_, _365-70_, 421, 422, 426, 432, 512, 513, 514, _515-19_, _519-22_, 554, 557, 562, 563, 570, 571, 641, 647, 663, 768, 810, 959, 1001.

Daudet, Alphonse, 120.

Daudet, Ernest, 649.

Dauzat, Albert, 429.

Davenport, C. B., 71, _128-33_, 147, 254, 568, 1007.

Davenport, Frederick M., 943.

Davids, T. W. Rhys, 943.

Davis, H., 654.

Davis, Katharine B., 570.

Davis, Michael M., 781.

Dawley, Almena, 569.

Dealey, J. Q., 222.

Deane, 238.

DeGreef, Guillaume, 58.

Delabarre, Frank A., 1009.

Delbet, E., 729.

Delbrück, A., 273, 777.

Delesalle, Georges, 428.

Dellepaine, A., 1007.

Delvaille, Jules, 1004.

De-Marchi, A, 856.

Demolins, Edmond, 333.

Demoor, Jean, 1007.

Demosthenes, 638.

Densmore, Frances, 938.

Desagher, Maurice, 276.

Descartes, René, 372, 463, 465.

Despine, Prosper, 938, 940.

Devine, Edward T., 333, _491_, 498, 567, 732.

Devon, J., 569.

Dewey, John, _36_, _37_, 38, 149, 164, _182-85_, 200, 225, 424, _426_, 430, 509, 964, _975-77_, 1004, 1010.

Dibblee, G. Binney, 427.

Dicey, A. V., _445-51_, 557, 793, 831, 851, 858.

Dilich, Wilhelm, 241.

Dinneen, P. S., 945.

Disraeli, Benjamin, 721.

Ditchfield, P. H., 334.

Dixon, Roland B., 777, 854.

Dixon, W. H., 945.

Dobschütz, E. von, 333.

Dodge, Raymond, _837-41_.

Doll, E. A., _254-57_.

Dominian, Leon, 275, 645, 945.

Donovan, Frances, 569.

Dorsey, J. Owen, 655, 711.

Dostoévsky, F., 142, 273.

Down, T. C., _895-98_, 942.

Downey, June E., 146, 153.

Drachsler, Julius, 774, 781.

Draghicesco, D., 729.

Draper, J. W., 641, 647.

Dubois, L. Paul, 945.

Du Bois, W. E. Burghardt, 152, 222, 781, 783.

Dugas, L., _370-75_, 422, 426.

Dugdale, Richard L., 143, 147, 254.

Dugmore, H. H., 861.

Duguit, Léon, 850.

Dumas, Georges, 938.

Dunbar, Paul Lawrence, 627.

Duncan, Sara Jeannette, 652.

Durand, E. Dana, 652.

Durkheim, Émile, 18, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, _39_, 40, 58, 164, _193-96_, 217, 221, 222, _267_, _268_, 343, 671, _714-18_, 723, 729, 854, 857, 894.

Dushkin, Alexander M., 774, 781.

Dutaillis, C. E. Petit-, _see_ Petit-Dutaillis, C. E.

East, E. M., _128-33_, 147.

Eastman, R. S., 732.

Eaton, Isabel, 781.

Eddy, Arthur J., 565.

Edie, Lionel D., 498.

Edman, Irwin, 148.

Edwards, Bryan, _727_.

Edwards, E., 943.

Edwards, Milne, _519_.

Effertz, Otto, 563.

Egerton, Charles E., 652.

Egli, Emil, 944.

Ehrenfels, Chrn. v., 500.

Elderton, Ethel M., 566, 568.

Eliot, George, 142, 231.

Elliott, A. M., 276.

Ellis, Havelock, 148, 153, 215, 221, 223, 659, 726, 938, 957, 1007.

Ellwood, Charles A., 41, 58, 566, _846-48_, 950.

Elsing, W. T., 566.

Elworthy, F. T., 332.

Ely, Richard T., _444-45_, 502, _646_, 855.

Empey, Arthur Guy, 429.

Engel, Ernst, 215, 222.

Engelgardt, A. N., 870.

Engels, Frederick, 565.

Espinas, Alfred, 163, _165-66_, 217, 224, 225, 407.

Estabrook, A. H., 147, 254.

Eubank, Earle E., 223.

Evans, F. W., 944.

Evans, Maurice S., 643, 651, _811-12_.

Faber, Geoffrey, 660.

Fadl, Said Memum Abul, 649.

Fahlbeck, Pontus, 218.

Fairfield, Henry P., 780, 781.

Faria, Abbé, 424.

Faris, Ellsworth, 147, _960-62_.

Farmer, John S., 427, 428.

Farnell, L. R., 856.

Farnam, Henry W., 569.

Farquhar, J. N., 944.

Fauriel, M. C., 937.

Faust, Albert B., 780.

Fawkes, J. W., 939.

Fay, Edward A., 276.

Fedortchouk Y., 946.

Féré, Ch., 405, 430.

Ferguson, G. O., Jr., 154.

Fernald, Mabel R., 569.

Ferrari, G. O., 115.

Ferrero, Guglielmo, 935, 936.

Feuerbach, Paul J. A., von, 277.

Field, J., 949.

Field, James, A., 566.

Fielding Hall, H., 649.

Finck, Henry T., 221.

Finlayson, Anna W., 148.

Finney, C. J., 943.

Finot, Jean, 651.

Finsler, G., 937.

Fischer, Eugen, 776.

Fishberg, Maurice, 149, _271_, 274, 431, 778.

Fisher, H. A., 639.

Flaten, Nils, 276.

Fleming, Daniel J., 780.

Fleming, Walter L., 730, 731, 942.

Fletcher, Alice C., 938.

Flint, Robert, 565, 953.

Florian, Eugenio, 333.

Foerster, Robert F., 781.

Foley, Caroline A., 948.

Forel, A., 169, 170.

Fornarsi di Verce, E., 569.

Fosbroke, Thomas D., 274.

Fosdick, H. E., 237.

Foster, William Z., 653.

Fouillée, Alfred, 149, 152, _461-64_, 499.

Francke, Kuno, 493, 498, 660.

Frazer, J. G., 149, 221, 330, 850, 855, 856.

Frederici, Romolo, 1006.

Frederick the Great, 628, 986.

Freeman, Edward A., 3, 10, _23_.

Freeman, R. Austin, 957, 1007.

Freud, Sigmund, 41, 144, 236, 329, 475, 478, 479, 482, 486, 487, 497, 501, 504, 638, 855, 858.

Friedländer, L., 935.

Friedmann, Max, 927, 937.

Friesen, P. M., 657.

Frobenius, Leo, 640, 648, 730, 776, 1004.

Froebel, F. W. A., 82.

Froment, J., 648.

Froude, James A., 1006.

Fuller, Bampfylde, 935.

Fustel de Coulanges, 855, 860.

Gall, F. J., 145.

Galpin, Charles J., 212, 218, _247-49_, 275, 724, 731.

Galton, Francis, 726, 963, _979-83_, 1007, 1011.

Gardner, Charles S., 940.

Garofalo, R., 649.

Gavit, John P., 782.

Geddes, P., 153.

Gehring, Johannes, 657.

Gennep, A. van, 857.

George, Henry, 1009.

Gerland, Georg, 270, 274, 856.

Gesell, A. L., 148.

Gibbon, Edward, 711.

Gibson, Thomas, 947.

Gibson, William, 943.

Giddings, Franklin H., _32_, 33, 36, 40, 58, 544, _610-16_, 661, 735, 740, 1009.

Gilbert, William S., _65_.

Gillen, F. J., 149, 220, 861.

Gillin, J. L. 499, 567, 657.

Ginsberg, M., 214, 220.

Gladden, Washington, 491, 498.

Glynn, A. W. Wiston-, _see_ Wiston-Glynn.

Gobineau, Arthur de, 769.

Goddard, Henry H., 131, 143, 147, 152, 254, 568.

Godkin, Edwin L., 858.

Godwin, William, 553.

Godwin, William, 565.

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, 126, 909, 967.

Goldenweiser, A. A., 777.

Goltz, E. von der, 273.

Goncourt, Edward de, and Jules de, 405.

Goodhart, S. P., 468.

Goodsell, Willystine, 222.

Gordon, Anna A., 950.

Gordon, Ernest, 942.

Goring, Charles, 145, 153.

Gould S. Baring-, _see_ Baring-Gould, S.

Gowen, B. S., 937.

Gowin, Enoch B., 855.

Graebner, F., 777.

Graetz, H., 944.

Grant, 809.

Grant, Madison, 963.

Grass, K., 943.

Grass, K. K., 657.

Grasserie, R., de la, _see_ La Grasserie, R. de.

Gratiolet, Pierre, 421.

Gray, Thomas, 314.

Gray, W., 856.

Greco, Carlo Nardi-, _see_ Nardi-Greco, Carlo.

Greeley, Horace, 949.

Green, Alice S. A., 334.

Green, Samuel S., 780.

Gregoire, Abbé, 451.

Gregory XV, 837.

Grierson, Sir G., 687.

Grierson, P. J. H., 564.

Griffiths, Arthur, 274.

Grinnell, G. B., 938.

Groat, George G., 657.

Groos, Karl, 426, 639, 640, 646.

Grosse, Ernst, 221, _790_, 939.

Grote, George, 233, _260-64_.

Grotjahn, Alfred, 566.

Groves. E. R., 941.

Grundtvig, N. F. S., _Bishop_, 931.

Gulick, Sidney L., 431, 782.

Gummere, Amelia M., 274.

Gummere, F. B., 939.

Gumplowicz, Ludwig, 212, 341, _346-48_, 420, 425, 431, 642, 645, 649, 776.

Guyot, Édouard, 565.

Hadley, Arthur T., 658.

Haeckel, Ernst, 912.

Hagens, von, 169.

Haines, Lynn, 659.

Haldane, _Viscount_, _102-8_.

Hall, Arthur C., 1009.

Hall, Frederick S., 652.

Hall, G. Stanley, 77, 150, 647, 648.

Hall, H., Fielding-, _see_ Fielding-Hall, H.

Hall, W. P., 563.

Halpércine, Simon, 649.

Hammer, von, 380.

Hammond, Barbara, 334.

Hammond, John L., 334.

Haney, Levi H., 564.

Hanford, Benjamin, 653.

Hanna, Charles A., 780.

Hanna, Rev. Thomas C., 468, 469.

Hansen, F. C. C., 430, 535.

Hansen, J., 937, 938.

Hanson, William C., 568.

Hapgood, Hutchins, 152, 731, 783.

Harlan, Rolvix, 945.

Harnack, Adolf, 942.

Harper, Ida H., 949.

Harrington, James, 1008.

Harris, Benjamin, 834.

Harris, George, 1005, 1009.

Harrison, Frederic, 649, 1007.

Harrison, James A., 276.

Harrison, Jane E., 17, _18_, 856, 857.

Harrison, Shelby M., 59, 219, 859.

Hart, A. B., 499.

Hart, Joseph K., 731.

Hartenberg, P., 941.

Hartmann, Berthold, 86.

Harttung, Pflug-, _see_ Pflug-Harttung.

Hasanovitz, Elizabeth, 335, 782.

Hasbach, Wilhelm, 495.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 237.

Hayes. A. W., 731.

Hayes, Edward C., 499.

Hayes, Mary H., 569.

Hayes, Samuel P., 943.

Haynes, E. S. P., 647.

Haynes, Frederick E., 658.

Headlam, Cecil, 946.

Healy, William, 59, 152, 273, 562, 645, 935.

Hearn, Lafcadio, 938.

Heaton, John L., 859.

Hecker, J. F. C., 875, _879-81_, 936.

Heckethorn, C. W., 274, 730.

Hegel, G. W. F., 69, 156, 959.

Heidenhain, 415.

Heijningen, Hendrik M. K. van, 654.

Helps, Sir Arthur, _66_, 727.

Hempl, Georg, 276.

Henderson, Charles R., 566.

Henderson, Ernest L., 424, 429.

Henry, R., 946.

Hericourt, 115.

Hermann, F. B. W. v., 499.

Heron, David, 560, 566.

Herschel, Sir J. F. W., 1001.

Hertzka, Theodor, 1009.

Hess, Grete Meisel, _see_ Meisel Hess.

Hibben, J. G., 1006.

Hichborn, Franklin, 659.

Hicks, Mary L., 732.

Higgs, Henry, _556_.

Hill, Georgiana, 949.

Hinde, Sidney L., _869_.

Hinds, William A., 334.

Hirn, Yrjö, 344, _401-7_, 426, 430, 433, 808, 869, 870, 938.

Hirt, Eduard, 152.

Hobbes, Thomas, _25_, 29, 30, 61, 106, 140, 156, 223, 512, 642.

Hobhouse, Leonard T., 56, _190-93_, 214, 220, 225, 728, 795, _796_, _798_ n., 849, 854, 963, 964, _969-73_.

Hobson, John A., 567.

Hocart, A. M., 749.

Hoch, A., 152, 273.

Hocking, W. E., _95-97_, 148, _205-9_.

Hodder, Edwin, 949.

Hogarth, William, 402.

Holdsworth, W. S., 861.

Hollingworth, H. L., 149.

Hollingworth, Leta S., 152, 153.

Hollman, Anton H., 931.

Holmes (Judge), 736, 853.

Holmes, William H., 948.

Holt, Edward B., _478-82_, 501, 503.

Home, H., _Lord Kames_, 402.

Homer, 264.

Hooper, Charles E., 332.

Horak, Jakub, 781.

Horn, Paul, 429.

Hotten, John C., 428.

Howard, G. E., 214, 222.

Howard, John, 949.

Howells, William Dean, 627.

Hoxie, Robert F., 644, 657.

Hoyt, F. C., 656.

Hubert, H., 856, 857.

Hudson, Frederic, 859.

Hudson, W. H., _245-47_, _604-5_, _883-86_.

Hughes, Charles C., 1009.

Hughes, Henry, 429.

Humboldt, Alexander von, 673, 909.

Hume, David, 3, 429, 553, 786, _829-30_.

Hunter, Robert, 653.

Huntington, Ellsworth, 328, 666, 726.

Huot, Louis, 648.

Hupka, S. von, 333.

Hurry, Jamieson B., 947.

Huxley, Thomas H., 963.

Hyde, 749.

Hyndman, Henry M., 950.

Inge, William R., _954_, 959, _1001_, 1004.

Ingersoll, Robert, 912.

Ingram, John K., 563, 675.

Ireland, W. W., 941.

Irving, L., 1009.

Irwin, Will, 859.

Itard, Dr. Jean E. M. G., 242, 271, 277.

Iyer, L. K. A. K., 728.

Jacobowski, L., 221.

Jakstas, A., 946.

James, B. B., 945.

James, E. O., 856.

James, William, 77, _119-23_, 148, 150, 421, 426, 472, 473, 486, 598, 661, 669, 726, 736, 932.

Janes, George M., 652.

Janet, Pierre, 144, 430, 935.