Chapter I: Rome Under the Kings (753-509 B.c.)

CHARACTER OF THE LEGENDS.--There is no doubt that the Romans lived for a time under the rule of kings. These were not like the Greek kings, hereditary rulers, nor were they chosen from a single family. But the stories told in later times respecting the kings, their names and doings, are quite unworthy of credit. They rest upon no contemporary evidence or sure tradition. To say nothing of the miraculous elements that enter into the narratives, they are laden with other improbabilities, which prove them to be the fruit of imagination. They contain impossibilities in chronology. They ascribe laws, institutions, and religion, which were of slow growth, to particular individuals, apportioning to each his own part in an artificial way. Many of the stories are borrowed from the Greeks, and were originally told by them about other matters. In short, the Roman legends, including dates, such as are recorded in this chapter, are fabrications to fill up a void in regard to which there was no authentic information, and to account for beliefs and customs the origin of which no one knew. They are of service, however, in helping us to ascertain the character of the Roman constitution, and something about its growth, in the prehistoric age.

THE LEGENDARY TALES.--_Romulus_ and _Remus_, so the legend runs, were sons of the god _Mars_ by _Rhea Silvia_, a priestess of Vesta, whose father, _Numitor_, had been slain by his wicked brother, _Amulius_, who thereby made himself king of Alba Longa. The twins, by his command, were put into a basket, and thrown into the Tiber. The cradle was caught by the roots of a fig-tree: a she-wolf came out, and suckled them, and _Faustulus_, a shepherd, brought them up as his own children. _Romulus_ grew up, and slew the usurper, _Amulius_. The two brothers founded a city on the banks of the Tiber where they had been rescued (753 B.C.). In a quarrel, the elder killed the younger, and called the city after himself, _Roma_. Romulus, to increase the number of the people, founded an asylum on the Capitoline Hill, which gave welcome to robbers and fugitives of all kinds. There was a lack of women; but, by a cunning trick, the Romans seized on a large number of Sabine women, who had been decoyed to Rome, with their fathers and brothers, to see the games. The angry Sabines invaded Rome. _Tarpeia_, the daughter of the Roman captain, left open for them a gate into the Capitoline citadel, and so they won the Capitol. In the war that followed, by the intervention of the Sabine women, the Romans and Sabines agreed to live peaceably together as citizens of one town, under _Romulus_ and the Sabine, _Tatius_. After the death of Tatius, _Romulus_ reigned alone, and framed laws for the two peoples. During a thunder-storm he was translated to the skies, and worshiped as the god _Quirinus_ (716 B.C.). After a year _Numa Pompilius_, a Sabine, was elected king (715-673 B.C.). He stood in close intercourse with the gods, was full of wisdom and of the spirit of peace. He framed the religious system, with its various offices and rites. The gates of the temple of _Janus_, closed only in peace, were shut during his mild reign. He died of old age, without illness or pain. The peaceful king was followed by the warlike king, _Tullus Hostilius_ (673-641 B.C.). War breaks out with _Alba_. The two armies face each other, and the contest is decided by the single combat of the three _Horatii_, champions of the Romans, and the three _Curiatii_, champions of Alba. One Roman, the victor and sole survivor, is led to Rome in triumph. Thus _Alba_ became subject to _Rome_. Afterwards Alba was destroyed, but the Albans became Roman citizens. The fourth king, _Ancus Marcius_ (641-616 B.C.), loved peace, but could not avoid war. He fought against four Latin towns, brought their inhabitants to Rome, and planted them on the _Aventine_ hill. He fortified the hill _Janiculum_, on the right bank of the Tiber, and connected it by a wooden bridge with the town. The next king was by birth an Etruscan. _Lucumo_ and his wife, _Tanaquil_, emigrated to Rome. Lucumo took the name of _Lucius Tarquinius_, was stout, valiant, and wise, a counselor of _Ancus_, and chosen after him, instead of one of the sons of Ancus, whose guardian he was. _Tarquinius Priscus_ (616-578 B.C.)--for so he was called--waged successful wars with the Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans. The _Etruscans_ owned him for their king, and sent a crown of gold, a scepter, an ivory chair, an embroidered tunic, a purple toga, and twelve axes in as many bundles of rods. He made a reform of the laws. He built the temple of Jupiter, or the Capitol, laid out the forum for a market-place, made a great sewer to drain the lower valleys of the city, leveled a race-course between the _Aventine_ and _Palatine_ hills, and introduced games like those of the Etruscans. Tarquinius was killed by the sons of Ancus; and _Servius Tullius_ (578-534 B.C.), the son of _Ocrisia_, a slave-woman, and of a god, was made king through the devices of _Tanaquil_. He united the seven hills, and built the wall of Rome. He remodeled the constitution by the census and the division of the centuries. Under him Rome joined the Latin league. He was murdered by his flagitious son-in-law, _Tarquinius Superbus_ (534-510 B.C.)--Tarquin the Proud. He ruled as a despot, surrounding himself with a bodyguard, and, upon false accusation, inflicting death on citizens whose property he coveted. By a treacherous scheme, he got possession of the town of _Gabii_. He waged war against the _Volscians_, a powerful people on the south of Latium. He adorned Rome with many buildings, and lived in pomp and extravagance, while the people were impoverished and helpless. The inspired _Sibyl_ of _Cumae_ offered him, through a messenger, nine books of prophecies. The price required excited his scorn, whereupon the woman who brought them destroyed three. She came back with the remaining six, which she offered at the same price. On being refused in the same manner, she destroyed another three. This led Tarquin to pay the price when she appeared the third time with the books that were left. They were carefully preserved to the end, that in times of danger the will of the gods might be learned. Another story told of the haughty king was, that, when he had grown old, and was frightened by dreams and omens, he sent his two sons to consult the oracle at Delphi. With them went his sister's son, _Junius_, who was called _Brutus_ on account of his supposed silliness, which was really feigned to deceive the tyrant. The offering which he brought to the Delphian god was a simple staff. His cousins, who laughed at him, did not know that it was stuffed with gold. The god, in answer to a question, said that he would reign at Rome who should first kiss his mother. _Brutus_ divined the sense of the oracle, pretended to stumble, and kissed the mother earth. The cruel outrage of _Sextus Tarquinius_, the king's son, of which _Lucretia_, the wife of their cousin, was the pure and innocent victim, caused the expulsion of the house of Tarquin, and the abolishing of regal government. Her father and husband, with Brutus and the noble _Publius Valerius Poplicola_, to whom she related "the deed of shame" wrought by Sextus, swore, at her request, to avenge her wrong. She herself plunged a dagger into her heart, and expired. _Brutus_ roused the people, and drove out the _Tarquins_. Two _consuls_ were appointed in the room of the king, who should rule for one year. _Brutus_ was one. When it was ascertained that his own sons had taken part in a conspiracy of the higher class to restore Tarquinius, the stern Roman gave orders to the lictors to scourge them, and to cut off their heads with the ax. Now the senate and people decreed that the whole race of Tarquinius should be banished for ever. Tarquinius went among the Etruscans, and secured the aid of the people of _Tarquinii_, and of _Veii_. In a battle, _Aruns_, the son of Tarquinius, and _Brutus_, both mounted, ran upon one another, and were slain. Each army marched to its home. Tarquinius then obtained the help of _Porsena_, king of the Etruscans, with a strong army. They took _Janiculum_; but _Horatius Cocles_, with two companions, posted himself at the entrance of the bridge, and kept the place, Horatius remaining until the bridge had been torn away behind him. He then, with his armor on, leaped into the river, and swam back to the shore. The town was hard pressed by the enemy and by famine. _Mucius Scaevola_ went into _Porsena's_ camp, resolved to kill him. But he slew another whom he mistook for the king. When threatened with death, he thrust his right hand into the fire, to show that he had no fear. _Porsena_, admiring his courage, gave him his freedom; and, on being informed that three hundred young Romans were sworn to undertake the same deed which _Mucius_ had come to perform, _Porsena_ made peace without requiring the restoration of Tarquinius. _Tarquinius_, not despairing, persuaded the _Tusculans_ and other _Latins_ to begin war against Rome. The Romans appointed a dictator to meet the exigency, _Marcus Valerius_. In a battle near _Lake Regillus_, when the Romans began to give way, the dictator invoked _Castor_ and _Pollux_, vowing to dedicate a temple to them in case he was victorious. Two young men on white chargers appeared at the head of the Roman troops, and led them to victory. _Tarquinius_ now gave up his effort, and went to _Cumae_ to the tyrant _Aristodemus_, where he lived until his death.

TRUTH IN THE LEGENDS.--There are certain facts which are embedded in the legends. _Alba_ was at one time the head of the Latin confederacy. The _Sabines_ invaded Latium, settled on some of the hills of Rome, allied themselves with the _Romans_, and the two peoples were resolved into one federal state. This last change was a very important step. The tradition of a doubling of the senate and of two kings, _Romulus_ and _Taiius_, although not in literal form historical, is believed to be a reminiscence of this union. It is thought that the earliest royalty was priestly in its character, and that this was superseded by a military kingship. It is probable that the _Etruscans_ who had made much progress in civilization, in the arts and in manufactures, gained the upper hand in _Latium_. The insignia of the Roman kings were Etruscan. The Etruscan kings were driven out. There were advances in civilization under them, the division of the people into classes took place, and at that period structures like the "Servian" wall were built.

PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS.--The Romans from the beginning were divided into the upper class, the _Patricians_, and the common people, or _Plebeians_, who were free, but, like the _perioeci_ and _metoeci_ in Greece, had no political rights. The plebeians, as they included the conquered class, were not all poor. A part of them, who were under the special protection of citizens, their _Patrons_, were called _Clients_. The patricians were the descendants of the first settlers and proprietors. Under the old constitution, ascribed in the legends to _Romulus_, the patricians alone formed the military force, and were styled the _Populus_. They were divided into _curiae_ (districts or wards), at first ten in number, and, after the union of the Romans with the _Tities_ and _Luceres_, thirty. Each _curia_ was divided into ten families, or _gentes_. The assembly of the citizens was called the _Comitia Curiata_. The _Comitia_ chose the _King_. The _Senate_ was a council of elders representing in some way the gentes.

The clan, or _gens_, was always of great consequence among the
Romans. Its name was a part of the proper name of every citizen. The
particular or individual names in vogue were not numerous. The name
of the gens was placed between the personal name, or the
_praenomen_, and the designation of the special family
(included in the gens). Thus in the case of Caius Julius Caesar,
"Julius" was the designation of the gens, "Caesar," of the family,
while "Caius" was the personal name.

THE EARLY CONSTITUTION.--The "Servian constitution" made all land-owners, whether patrician or plebeian, subject to taxation, and obliged to do military service. The cavalry--the _Equites_, or knights,--was made up, by adding to the six patrician companies already existing, double the number from both classes. The infantry were organized without reference to rank, but were graded according to their property. The whole people were divided thus into five classes, and, when assembled, formed the _Comitia Centuriata_,--as being made up of the companies called "centuries," or "hundreds." At first this body was only consulted by the king in regard to offensive wars. Gradually it drew away more and more power from the _Comitia Curiata_, which consisted solely of patricians. Those who had no land were now distinguished from the land-owning plebeians. For the purposes of conscription, the city was divided into four _Tribes_, or wards. Every four years a _census_ was to be taken.

MAGISTRATES.--When the kingship was abolished, and under the system that followed, the two _Consuls_ were to be patricians. They exercised regal power during their term of office. They appointed the senators and the two _Quaestors_, who came to have charge of the treasury, under consular supervision. The consuls were attended by twelve _Lictors_, who carried the _fasces_--bundles of rods fastened around an ax,--which symbolized the power of the magistrate to flog or to behead offenders. The _Comitia Centuriata_ acquired the right to elect the consuls, to hear appeals in capital cases from their verdicts, and to accept or reject bills laid before it. This was a great gain for the plebeians. Yet the patricians were strong enough in this assembly to control its action. On occasions of extraordinary peril, a _Dictator_ might be selected by one of the consuls, who was to have absolute authority for the time. The Senate commonly had an important part, however, in the selection of this officer. There was a _Master of Horse_ to command the knights under him. He was appointed by the dictator.

RELIGION.--Worship in families was conducted by the head of the household, the _paterfamilias_, who offered the regular sacrifices. But, as regards the whole people, worship was under the direction of the pontiffs, with the chief pontiff, the _Pontifex Maximus_, at their head, and in the hands of the priests. These were all officers of the state, elected to their places, and entirely subordinate to the civil magistrates. The _pontiffs_ were not so much priests as they were guardians and interpreters of divine law. They were masters of sacred lore. They looked out that the numberless and complex rules in respect to religious observances should be strictly complied with. At the same time they had enough knowledge of astronomy to enable them to fix the days suitable for the transaction of business, public or private. They had the control of the calendar. The _Augurs_ consulted the will of the gods as disclosed in omens. The augur, his eyes raised to the sky, with his staff marked off the heavens into four quarters, and then watched for the passage of birds, from which he took the auspices. In early times, there was an implicit faith in these supposed indications of the will of the divinities; but this credulity passed away, and the auguries became a political instrument for helping forward the schemes of some person or party. Besides the college of pontiffs and the college of augurs, there was the college of _Fetiales_, who were the guardians of the public faith in relation to other peoples, and performed the rites attending the declaration of war or the conclusion of peace. The _Soothsayers_ (haruspices) were of Etruscan origin. They ascertained the will of the gods by inspecting the entrails of the slaughtered victims. The _Flamens_ were the priests having charge of the worship of particular divinities. The _Vestals_ were virgin priestesses of Vesta, who ministered in her temple, and kept the sacred fire from being extinguished.

The chief gods worshiped by the Romans were _Jupiter_, god of
the sky; his wife, _Juno_, the goddess of maternity;
_Minerva_, the goddess of wisdom; _Apollo_, the god of
augury and the arts; _Diana_, the goddess of the chase and
archery; _Mars_, the god of war; _Bellona_, the goddess of
war; _Vesta_, patron of the Roman state and of the national
hearthstone; _Ceres_, the goddess of agriculture;
_Saturnus_, the patron of husbandry; _Hercules_, the Greek
god, early naturalized in Italy as the god of gain and of mercantile
contracts; _Mercury_, the god of trade; _Neptune_ god of
the sea. _Venus_ was an old Roman goddess, who presided over
gardens, but gradually was identified with the Grecian
_Aphrodite_. _Lares_ and _Penates_ were household
divinities, guardians of the family.

The Romans assigned a spirit to almost every thing. Each individual had his own protecting _genius_. _Janus_ was the god of beginnings, _Terminus_ was the god of the boundary, _Silvanus_ of the forest, _Vertumnus_ of the circling year. The farmer, in each part of his labor,--in harrowing, plowing, sowing, etc.,--invoked a spirit. So marriage, birth, and every natural event had each a sacred life of its own. Not less than forty-three distinct divinities are spoken of by name as having to do with the actions of a child. Thus the number of divinities was countless. Gods were great or small, according to the department of nature or of life where they severally were present and active.