Chapter LI: Introduction

Modern history as a whole, in contrast with mediæval, is marked by several plainly defined characteristics. They are such as appear, however, in a less developed form, in the latter part of the Middle Ages.

1. In the recent centuries, there has been an increased tendency to consolidate smaller states into larger kingdoms.

2. There has been a _gradual secularizing of politics._ Governments have more and more cast off ecclesiastical control.

3. As another side of this last movement, _political unity_ in Europe has superseded _ecclesiastical unity_. The bond of union among nations, in the room of being membership in one great ecclesiastical commonwealth, became political: it came to be membership in a loosely defined confederacy of nations, held together by treaties or by a tacit agreement in certain accepted rules of public law and outlines of policy.

4. In this system, one main principle is the _balance of power_. This means that any one state may be prevented from enlarging its bounds to such an extent as to endanger its neighbors. We have seen the action of such a principle among the ancient states of Greece. Even in the Middle Ages, as regards Italy, the popes endeavored to keep up an equilibrium. They supported the _Norman kingdom_ in Southern Italy, or the _Lombard leagues_ in the North, as a counterpoise to the German emperors. In the sixteenth century, there were formed combinations to check the power of _Charles V._, king of Spain and emperor of Germany, and afterwards to restrain his successor on the Spanish throne, _Philip II._ In the seventeenth century, there were like combinations against _Louis XIV._ of France, and, over a century later, against the first _Napoleon_.

5. The vast influence and control of _Europe_, by discovery, colonization, and commerce, in other quarters of the globe, is a striking feature of modern times.

6. With the increase of _commerce_ and the growing power of the _middle classes,_ there has arisen the "industrial age." Interests connected with production and trade, and with the material side of civilization, have come into great prominence.

7. Both the pursuits of men, and culture, have become far more _diversified_ than was the case in the Middle Ages.

8. The influence of Christianity in its _ethical_ relations--as an instrument of political and social reform, and a motive to _philanthropy_--has become more active and conspicuous.

PERIOD I. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE REFORMATION _(1453-1517):_

THE CONSOLIDATION OF MONARCHY: INVENTION AND DISCOVERY: THE RENAISSANCE.

CHARACTER OF THIS PERIOD.--In this period monarchy, especially in France, England, and Spain, acquires new strength and extension. The period includes the reigns of three kings who did much to help forward this change: _Louis XI._ of France, _Henry VII._ of England, and _Ferdinand_ the Catholic of Spain. The Italian wars begin with the French invasion of Italy: the rivalship of the kingdoms, and the struggles pertaining to the balance of power, are thus initiated. In this period fall new _inventions_ which have altered the character of civilization, and great geographical _discoveries,_ of which the discovery of the New World is the chief. It is the epoch, moreover, of the _Renaissance,_ or the re-awakening of learning and art. There is a new era in culture. All these movements and changes foretoken greater revolutions in the age that was to follow.