Chapter III: The Reformation in Germany, From the Peace of Nuremberg

TO THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG (1532-1555).

THE PARTIES IN GERMANY, 1532-1542.--For ten years after the Peace of _Nuremberg_, the Protestants in Germany were left unmolested. The menacing attitude of the _Turks_, and the occupations of the emperor in Italy and in other lands, rendered it impossible to interfere with them. _Philip_, the Landgrave of Hesse, a chivalrous Protestant prince, led the way in the armed restoration of Duke _Ulrich of Würtemberg_, who had been driven out of his dominion. Thus a Protestant prince was established in the heart of Southern Germany (1534). In _Westphalia_, a fanatical branch of the Anabaptist sect at _Münster_, with whom the Lutherans did not sympathize, was broken up by the neighboring Catholic princes. The overthrow of the power of _Lübeck_ and of the Hanseatic League did not check the advance of Lutheranism. It continued to make great progress in different directions. The _Smalcald League_ was extended. A _league_ of the Catholic states was formed at _Nuremberg_ in 1538. During three years (1538-1541) efforts were made by the emperor to secure peace and union. Of these the Conference and Diet of _Ratisbon_ in 1541 is the most remarkable. The Protestants and Catholics could not agree upon statements of doctrine; but the necessity of getting Protestant help against the Turks compelled _Charles_ to sanction the Peace of _Nuremberg_, and to make to the Lutherans other important concessions. This arrangement the emperor regarded as only a temporary truce. Among the conquests of Protestantism after the Peace of _Nuremberg_, and prior to 1544, were _Brandenburg_ and _Ducal Saxony_, whose rulers adopted the new doctrine. It was spreading in _Austria_, in _Bavaria_, and in other states. Duke _Henry of Brunswick_ fell into conflict with the Smalcaldic League, and was conquered, so that his principality became Protestant. Even the ecclesiastical elector of _Cologne_ was taking steps towards joining the Protestant side. This would have given to the Lutherans a majority in the electoral college. The bishoprics with temporal power were numerous in Germany. If they were secularized, the old religious system would be deprived of a principal support.

THE SMALCALDIC WAR.--_Charles V_. was now secretly resolved to coerce the Protestants in Germany, and silently made his preparations for war. Before hostilities commenced, _Luther_ died (1546). The emperor concluded the _Peace of Crespy_, after a fourth war with _Francis I_. It was a part of the agreement, that they should act jointly against the heretics. But as _Francis_ in the last two wars against the emperor (1536-1538, 1542-1544) had taken for allies the Turks under _Soliman_, it could not be predicted how long he would abide by his engagements. For the present, _Charles_ was safe in this quarter. He now took pains to shut the eyes of the Protestant princes to their danger. The Smalcaldic League was over-confident of its strength. Its members were discordant among themselves. Of the two chief leaders, the elector of Saxony, _John Frederic_, was a slow and unskillful general; and _Philip_, the Landgrave of Hesse, a brave and capable soldier, could not take command over an elector. Above all, _Maurice_, the Duke of Saxony, was in the midst of a quarrel with his relative, the elector, and coveted a part of his territories. _Maurice_ was an able and adroit man, a Protestant, but without the earnest religious convictions that belonged to the electors and to that generation of princes which was passing away. _Maurice_ was won by the emperor, through promises of enrichment and favor, and pledges not to interfere with religion in his principality. _Charles_ might have been prevented from bringing in foreign troops from the Netherlands and from Italy, but the military conduct of the elector was feeble and indecisive. He was defeated and captured in 1547 at _Mühlberg_, and the surrender of the Landgrave _Philip_ soon followed. The Protestant cause was prostrate. The clever _Maurice_ had his reward: the electoral office was transferred to him; he obtained a goodly portion of the elector's territory.

THE RESULT: THE INTERIM.--_Charles_ was victorious, and apparently master of Germany. The country was occupied by his forces as far north as the Elbe. He was engaged in the work of pacification and of confirming his authority. In 1548 he issued the _Interim of Augsburg_, in which concessions were made to both parties, which proved satisfactory to neither. Skillful as the emperor was in diplomacy, he always showed weakness in dealing with the religious question. He proceeded to force the new measure on the refractory cities in the South. In the North it had little effect. _Maurice_ modified it in his own dominion. When _Charles_ seemed to himself to be on the eve of a complete triumph, he was deserted by the allies on whom he counted,--_Rome_, _France_, and the princes, especially _Maurice_.

BREACH OF CHARLES WITH ROME.--The emperor's assuming to regulate the affairs of religion was regarded with disfavor at Rome. There had been a constant call for a general council to adjust the religious controversies. Rome, from fear of imperial influence, and for other reasons, had opposed the measure. At length, in 1545, the famous _Council of Trent_ assembled. The emperor wanted that body to begin with measures for the reformation of abuses. He looked for co-operation in his scheme for uniting the parties in Germany. But the council took another path: it began with anathemas against the heretical doctrines. Charles found himself at variance with the policy of Rome, at the moment when he was trying to bring Germany to submission.

DISAFFECTION OF MAURICE.--The emperor's course in Germany produced general alarm. He separated the _Netherlands_ from the jurisdiction of the empire, but settled the succession in the government in the house of _Hapsburg_. He drove the Diet into other measures which looked towards the acquiring of military supremacy for himself in Germany. He violated his pledges respecting the two captive princes. _Philip_ of Hesse, the father-in-law of _Maurice_, he treated with great severity and indignity. Threats were thrown out by the counselors of _Charles_ against the other princes, and even against _Maurice_, who complained of the treatment of _Philip_, and was sore under the load of unpopularity that rested on him on account of his warfare against his co-religionists, by whom he was considered another Judas.

THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG.--_Maurice_ laid his plans with secrecy and with masterly skill. He secured the coöperation of other German princes. He concluded an alliance with _Henry II_. of France. He arranged with _Magdeburg_, which he had been besieging, to make it a place of refuge if there should be need of an asylum. When all was ready, without having excited any suspicion on the part of _Charles_, he suddenly took the field, marched southward with an army that increased as he advanced, crossed the Alps, and forced the emperor, tormented with the gout, to fly hastily from _Innsbruck_ (1552). The captive princes were released. It was decided that Germany was not to be ruled by Spanish soldiery. The dream of imperial domination vanished. The Protestants were promised by _Ferdinand_ of Austria, in the name of his brother, toleration, and equality of rights. At the Diet of _Augsburg_ in 1555, the _Religious Peace_ was concluded. Every prince was to be allowed to choose between the Catholic religion and the Augsburg Confession, and the religion of the prince was to be that of the land over which he reigned: that is, each government was to choose the creed for its subjects. Ferdinand put in the "ecclesiastical reservation," which provided that if the head of an ecclesiastical state should become a Lutheran, he should resign his benefice. He also declared that the Lutheran subjects of ecclesiastical princes were not to be disturbed. The "reservation" was to please the Catholics: the additional provision was to meet the wishes of the Protestants. Neither stood on the same basis as the other part of the treaty.

From Maurice the electoral dignity descended in the _Albertine_ line of Saxon princes. The _Ernestine_ line retained Weimar, Gotha, etc.