Chapter IV: Europe, From the Beginning of the Austro-Prussian War to

THE END OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1866-1871).

RIVALSHIP OF PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA.--The brief but mighty struggle which secured for Prussia the preponderance in Germany grew immediately out of complications respecting _Schleswig-Holstein_. It was, however, the fruit of a rivalship which had been gaining in intensity since the times of Frederick the Great. It was the grand triumph of Prussia, after a long succession of defeats and humiliations in the field of diplomacy.

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN.--The two duchies of _Holstein_ and _Schleswig_ had long been annexed to the crown of Denmark, whose king, as Duke of Holstein, was a member of the German Confederation. The two duchies, as regards their government, did not stand on the same footing; but the people of _Holstein_ and the German portion of the _Schleswig_ people held that by a treaty in 1460 the two duchies could not be separated. Moreover, the law of succession in the duchies excluded the female line, and when there was a prospect that the male line of the Danish dynasty would die out the Germans wished the duchies to become independent under an Augustenburg prince while the Danes wished to absorb the duchies in Denmark. In 1848 the Germans of Schleswig-Holstein revolted against _Frederick VII._ The troops of the German confederation assisted them; but the attitude of England and Russia, which favored the Danes, moved Prussia to conclude the armistice of _Malmö_,--an act that excited the anger of the German National Assembly at Frankfort. After the expiration of the truce, the war, with intermissions, went on, waged by Schleswig-Holstein, alone or with aid from Germany; later in a protocol--an agreement signed in _London_ in 1852 by the Great Powers, in which Austria and Prussia concurred,--the king of Denmark and his heirs were guaranteed in the possession of the duchies. This act, however, was not accepted by the duchies themselves, or by the Diet of the German Confederation; so that the seeds of strife still remained.

PREPONDERANCE OF AUSTRIA.--After the suppression of the revolts of 1848, Austria, whose counsels were guided by the astute minister _Schwarzenberg_, labored to dwarf and supplant the influence of Prussia. _Frederick William IV_. of Prussia aimed to bring about a closer union of German states, and called a national parliament to meet at _Erfurt_. Austria withstood these attempts. The disposition of Prussia to support the resistance in _Hesse_ to the tyranny of its elector, threatened to bring on an armed contest with Austria and its German allies; but the attitude of Russia caused Prussia to desist from its movement. At the conference at _Olmütz_ (1850), _Manteuffel_, the Prussian minister, yielded every thing to Austria; and subsequently, under the influence of Russia, the German Confederation of 1815 was restored. Prussia took no part with the Western powers in the Crimean war, with which it had no direct concern, and thus did not, like Austria, make herself obnoxious to the Czar.

WILLIAM I: BISMARCK.--On the accession of _William I_. as regent (Oct. 1857), the Prussian government initiated a more spirited and independent policy in its relations to Austria. It refused to lend active aid to that country in the war with France and Sardinia (1859). The efficient measures of King _William_ for the reorganization and increase of the army encountered constant opposition, year after year, in the assembly, from the liberal party, which did not divine his motives, and saw in them nothing but the usurping of an unconstitutional authority. In 1862 the king made _Bismarck_ minister of foreign affairs, and the virtual head of the administration. This able man had widened his knowledge of European politics by serving as ambassador first at _St. Petersburg_ and then at _Paris_. Previously he had been allied with the absolutist party of _Manteuffel_: he was always for "strong government." After 1851, when he was delegate of Prussia at the Federal Diet at _Frankfort_, he made up his mind to deliver Prussia from the domineering influence of Austria. But he was held in distrust by the Prussian liberals, who saw in him only an energetic supporter of the king in his reform of the army by acts of arbitrary power not warranted by the constitution. In 1863 _Francis Joseph_ summoned a congress of German princes to _Frankfort_ to frame a new German constitution; but as Prussia stood aloof, nothing was accomplished. There was much bitterness between the two states. For the moment, however, attention was diverted by the aspect of affairs in _Schleswig-Holstein_.

EVENTS LEADING TO WAR.--On March 30, 1863, _Frederick VII_. of Denmark issued a decree for the separation of _Schleswig_, and its incorporation in Denmark. The troops of the German Confederacy were sent by the Diet into _Holstein_. Prussia and Austria, who held that the Danes had broken the Treaty of 1852, announced their agreement to prosecute the war with Denmark as independent powers, apart from the confederation. They persisted in this purpose, and their victories over the Danes compelled _Christian IX_. to sign a treaty (Oct. 30, 1864) by which he resigned his rights in the duchies in favor of the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia. How should the duchies be disposed of? It was _Bismarck's_ aim to annex them to Prussia, which was sorely in need of seaports. He professed that the war had abrogated the London Treaty of 1852. The prime object of Austria was to prevent Prussia from making this gain. The dispute was hot and threatening; but in the _Gastein Convention_ (Aug. 14, 1865), _Lauenburg_ (which the Danes had also ceded) was sold to Prussia, and the disposition of the duchies was left to be determined later. Meantime the Prussians were to hold _Schleswig_, and the Austrians _Holstein_. The Prussians were, moreover, to hold provisionally the port of _Kiel_. The scheme of Austria was to hand over the debated question to the Diet of the Confederation, where it could command a majority. To this Prussia would not consent, but demanded that the Confederacy should be reconstituted in such a that Prussia, as well as Germany, might have strength in the event of a European war. _Bismarck_ made a secret treaty with Sardinia, which provided that Prussia and Sardinia should act together in case of war with Austria, and that peace should not be made until _Venetia_ had been given up to the kingdom of Italy. When Austria convoked the estates of _Holstein_ Prussia retorted by sending twenty thousand troops into _Holstein_. The Austrian force, which was inferior, retired. When the Confederation (June 14) passed a motion made by Austria to put the confederate troops, not Austrian or Prussian, on a war footing, the Prussian plenipotentiary protested, and declared the Diet dissolved. He also presented a new constitution as the basis of a new league of states, from which Austria was to be excluded. Prussia issued a proclamation, to the effect that the purpose of the war that was now to begin was the union of Germany, and the establishment of a free parliament of the German nation.

THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR.--The Prussian military plans were the work of _Von Moltke_, chief of the general staff, who was without a superior in military science. They were carried out with astonishing precision and celerity. On June 15 Prussia required _Saxony_, _Hanover_, and _Hesse_ to disarm, to remain neutral, and to send delegates to a German parliament. A few hours were given them to decide. They refused the demand, and on the 16th the Prussian forces marched into their lands. On that day they seized the capital of _Hesse_, and took the elector prisoner. On the 29th they had surrounded _King George of Hanover_, and he was compelled to surrender with his whole army. The main Austrian army, under _Benedek_, made up of contingents from the various nations subject to the emperor, with the troops of Saxony, one of his German allies, were gathered in _Bohemia_. Thither three Prussian armies moved, on different lines, as they were directed by telegraph from Berlin. Several battles occurred. The armies approached one another, but were purposely kept apart. On June 30 _King William_ and _Von Moltke_ left Berlin. On the 2d of July it was determined to attack the Austrians the next day; and word was sent to the crown prince, whose division was not so far that he could not bring up his forces to take part in the combat. In the morning the battle of _Sadowa_, in which between two hundred thousand and three hundred thousand men were in each of the contending hosts, began. It raged until noon, with no decisive advantage on either side. At two o'clock the division of the crown prince, after a hard march, arrived; and their attack on the flank of the Austrians was the signal for a forward movement along the whole Prussian line. The battle in its course resembled that of _Waterloo_. The defeat of the Austrians virtually decided the whole contest. _Francis Joseph_ asked France to mediate, but Prussia and Italy refused to consent to the proposal. The Austrian emperor ceded _Venice_ by telegraph to _Louis Napoleon_. The Austrians had defeated the Italians at _Custozza_ (June 24), and in a naval battle at _Lissa_. But a great part of the Austrian army it was necessary to transfer to the North.

THE PEACE OF PRAGUE: THE PEACE OF VIENNA.--The Peace of Prague was concluded between Prussia and Austria (Aug. 23, 1866). Austria was excluded from Germany, and gave up her rights in _Schleswig-Holstein_ to Prussia. At the request of Prussia, _Venice_ was ceded to Italy. _Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau_, and _Frankfort_ were incorporated in Prussia. The population of Prussia from about nineteen millions was increased to twenty-three millions five hundred thousand. In the Peace of Vienna (Oct. 3), Austria recognized the kingdom of Italy, to which _Venice_ had been ceded.

NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION.--The South German states remained independent; but the _North German Confederation_ was formed, under the leadership of Prussia, which was to have control of the military forces of its members. In the council of the Confederation, Prussia was to have seventeen votes, and the other states together twenty-six votes. An imperial Diet was established, the members of which were to be elected by general suffrage. _Bismarck_ was made chancelor of the Confederation.

THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE.--The war with Prussia was followed by the political reorganization of the Austro-Hungarian empire on a more liberal basis. _Von Beust_, who had been a Saxon minister, became minister of foreign affairs (1866), and afterwards president of the ministry and chancellor of the empire. The Hungarian constitution of 1848 was restored, and a separate ministry was constituted for _Hungary_; while, as regards the army and foreign affairs of both divisions of the empire, an imperial ministry was established. The _Cisleithan_ division, composed of the German and Slavonic provinces, was to have its own ministry and constitution. This conferred on the people and their representatives "rights and privileges of the greatest importance,--equality of all citizens before the law, freedom of the press, right of association and meeting, complete liberty of faith and conscience, the unrestricted right to impose taxes and levy recruits, etc." The reconciliation with Hungary having been effected, _Francis Joseph_ was crowned as King of Hungary at _Pesth. Transylvania_ and _Croatia_ were united with Hungary. Great legal improvements in Austria ensued. The army was re-constituted after the example of the Prussian military system. There was an improvement in financial administration. Marriage by civil contract was authorized; and on subjects connected with marriage, the clergy were deprived of jurisdiction. The control of education, except religious education, was assumed by the state. In case of marriage between Catholics and Protestants, the male children were to be educated according to the faith of the father; the female children, according to that of the mother.

LOUIS NAPOLEON BAFFLED.--The Austro-Prussian war hastened the downfall of _Louis Napoleon_. The only consolation which the French had for the loss of freedom at home was power and reputation abroad. The astonishing rapidity of the Prussians, and the overwhelming success of their arms, had disconcerted the schemes of the French emperor. The defeat of Austria was so quick and so complete that he could not come in as mediator between the belligerents, and manage to secure the extension of France to its "natural frontiers" on the Rhine. He was baffled by _Bismarck's_ diplomacy, as before he had been outwitted by _Cavour_; for Napoleon had wished, not a united Italy, but simply a Northern Kingdom. The French felt humiliated at the sight of military achievements parallel to those by which in other days they had disposed of the fate of Prussia herself. The opposing factions grew bolder in their attitude towards the Napoleonic government. The emperor made cautious attempts to secure cessions of territory from Prussia on the Rhine, but was met with a blunt refusal from _Bismarck_. He then sought to purchase from the king of Holland, _Luxemburg_, which had formerly belonged to the German Confederation. This attempt was resisted by _Prussia_, and war seemed imminent; but it was finally settled at the _London Conference_, that the duchy should be neutral territory, and that the fortress, which had been occupied by the Prussians, should be demolished. Germany was making progress towards a more complete union. A customs parliament, representing all the states, met at _Berlin_ in May, 1868. Before that time, treaties of offensive and defensive alliance had been made between the _North German Confederation_ and _Würtemberg_, _Baden_, and _Bavaria_. They were published on March 17, 1867.

BEGINNING OF THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR.--As _Louis Napoleon_, or those who held sway in his counsels, were bent on war with Prussia, a pretext was easily found. The bad administration of _Queen Isabella_ of Spain, and her personal misconduct, caused insurrections to break out in 1868; and she was obliged to fly to France. A provisional government was established under Gens. _Serrano_ and _Prim_, and Señor _Olozaga_. Later (1869) _Serrano_ was made regent. The Cortes in 1870 offered the Spanish crown to Prince _Leopold_ of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who belonged to a younger branch of King _William's_ family. The proposal was regarded in France with indignation, as a new step in the upbuilding of Prussian power. King _William_ was required to forbid his relative's candidacy, which he declined to do. The prince, however, of his own accord withdrew. Not satisfied with this issue of the affair, _Napoleon_ insisted that the Prussian king should engage never to support the candidacy of a Hohenzollern prince for the Spanish crown. _William_, who was at _Ems_, told the French ambassador, _Benedetti_, that he could not give a promise of this sort. When the question was again raised he sent an aide-de-camp, declining to discuss the matter further. This act was represented at Paris as an insult to France, and orders were issued to mobilize the army. The king, on his way to Berlin, was met at the Brandenburg station by the crown prince, _Von Moltke_, _Von Roon_, the able war minister, and _Bismarck_. The Confederate Diet assembled July 19, and placed its resources at the disposal of the king. The French declaration of war was received on the same day. _Bavaria_, _Würtemberg_, and the _South German States_, contrary to the unreasonable expectation of _Napoleon_, allied themselves with Prussia. In a moment all Germany was ablaze. The recollection of the days of the first _Napoleon_, and of the war of liberation, filled the whole land with patriotic enthusiasm. More than a million of men took the field in defense of the fatherland.

EVENTS TO SEDAN.--At the outset _Napoleon_ tried to modify the plans _Marshal Niel_ had drawn up in 1867 for such an emergency, and which called for three armies. He unwisely attempted to unite all the troops under his own command. Had he been able by a bold initiative to have gained a foothold in South Germany, _Italy_ and _Austria_ would probably have come to his support. But the French army was not in the state of full readiness which had been alleged to exist. The masterly dispositions of _Von Moltke_, and the swift movements of the Germans, broke up the French programme. The three great divisions of the German army were led by _Steinmetz_, Prince _Frederick Charles_, the king's nephew, and the crown prince, _Frederick William_. They advanced towards the boundary from _Treves_ to _Landau_. Three victories of the Germans--at _Weissenburg_ (Aug. 4), over Marshal _MacMahon_ at _Wörth_ (Aug. 6), and at _Spicheren_ on the same day--compelled the French army to retreat towards the Moselle. The Baden division was left to besiege _Strasburg_. The next great battles, of which _Gravelotte_ (Aug. 18) was the most hotly contested, were fought for the purpose of preventing Marshal _Bazaine_ from joining with the main army the forces of _MacMahon_. _Bazaine_ was defeated, and confined with his immense body of troops in and about the fortress of _Metz_; and his efforts to break through the German lines were baffled. The Prussian crown prince and the crown prince of Saxony, with their combined armies, proceeded against _MacMahon_. The defeats of the French had occasioned such wrath at Paris, that the ministry of _M. Ollivier_ was compelled to retire (Aug. 10), and it was not safe for the emperor, who was with _MacMahon_, to return to the capital. The French general concentrated his forces at _Sedan_. On Sept. 1 the decisive battle was fought. The French were worsted and surrounded. The Emperor _Napoleon_ yielded his sword to King _William_. The terms of capitulation were agreed upon by _Von Moltke_ and Gen. _Wimpffen_ (_MacMahon_ being disabled by a wound), while other matters of a civil nature were arranged between _Napoleon_ and _Bismarck_. The army that was surrendered numbered eighty-two thousand men, with fifty generals and five thousand other officers.

SIEGE OF PARIS: SURRENDER OF METZ.--As soon as the news of _Sedan_ reached Paris, the imperial government fell to pieces. The Empress _Eugénie_ escaped to England. A republic was proclaimed; and a new government was improvised, composed of enemies of the Empire, who belonged to different parties. _Trochu_ was president, and governor of Paris; _Jules Favre_, a moderate republican, was minister of foreign affairs; and _Gambetta_, an extreme republican, was minister of the interior. The wish was for peace; but the inexorable demand of the Germans for the cession of _Alsace_ and _Lorraine_, once parts of Germany, and now asserted to be necessary for its defense against future attack from France, called out a united and indignant spirit of resistance. The defense of _Paris_ was undertaken with extraordinary energy: a large army was collected there, and a great supply of provisions was gathered. The siege of Paris was prosecuted by the Germans with an equally unflinching determination, from Sept. 19, 1870, to Jan. 28, 1871. Repeated sallies of the French troops, although made with much spirit, failed of success. The efforts to break the Prussian lines of connection with Paris, and to compel them by movements from without to raise the siege, were likewise baffled. _Gambetta_ escaped from Paris in a balloon, and at _Tours_ directed in the formation of two armies,--the army of the _Loire_, and the northern army, both of which were defeated. _Strasburg_ capitulated (Sept. 27); and a month later (Oct. 27) _Bazaine_ surrendered _Metz_, with three marshals, three thousand officers, and one hundred and seventy-three thousand soldiers. The main army of France was thus lost.

WILLIAM MADE EMPEROR: SURRENDER OF PARIS.--While the siege of Paris was in progress, all the princes of Germany, and the senates of the three free towns, united in the resolution to offer to the President of the Confederation the title of Emperor. Accordingly, on Jan. 18, 1871, King _William_, in the Hall of Mirrors at _Versailles_, was formally proclaimed Emperor of Germany. On the next day _Trochu_ led the final sortie from Paris, of a hundred thousand men, which was repulsed after a severe contest. The provisions in the city were nearly exhausted, and on Jan. 23 an armistice for twenty-one days was signed. Paris surrendered on the 28th; and on the first day of March a national convention at Bordeaux accepted the preliminaries of peace, which included the cession of _Alsace_ and the German part of _Lorraine_ with _Metz_, and the payment of an indemnity of five thousand million francs. _Thiers_, who was elected chief of the executive department (Feb. 17), had managed the negotiations with _Bismarck_ at _Versailles_, and urged the acceptance of them on the convention.

THE GERMAN IMPERIAL CONSTITUTION.--The first Diet of the new German Empire was opened at _Berlin_ on March 21. The constitution of it left to each state the management of its domestic affairs. To the imperial government, with the Federal Council or _Bundesrath_, the _Reichstag_, and the emperor were relegated the affairs of common interest. The president of the Council was the imperial chancellor: _Bismarck_ was appointed to that office. The _Reichstag_ was composed of deputies chosen by general suffrage. The chancellor is not responsible to the Reichstag, but to the emperor. Power has not passed from the monarch to the representatives of the people.

CONTEST WITH THE COMMUNISTS: REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION.--After the conditions of peace with the Germans were settled, _Paris_ had to pass through a terrible period of disorder. The communists were bent on establishing municipal independence, or the self-government of the _Commune_, and a democratic republic. They demanded a federation of the townships, or _communes_, and distrusted the republicanism of the officials who were in the exercise of power. They are not to be confounded with _communists_ in the socialistic sense: only a small fraction of the communal government, or central committee, were socialists. The party comprised a multitude of fanatical democrats of the lower classes, who were ready for the most violent measures. They had risen several times during the siege of Paris, and had tried to seize on power, but had been put down by the troops. After the surrender of Paris, they gained possession of the northern part of the city, and fortified it. The attempt to get back the cannon which they had seized caused a great communist uprising (March 18, 1871). A new reign of terror began. _Darboy_, the Archbishop of Paris, and many others, were murdered. _MacMahon_, acting for the Assembly, besieged Paris anew; the Germans being neutral in the forts that were still left, according to the treaty, in their hands. In the fierce struggle for the possession of the city, the principal buildings of Paris were set on fire by the savage communistic mob. The Tuileries, the Hôtel de Ville, and a part of the Palais Royal, with other public edifices, were destroyed. The insurrection was at length suppressed, and severe punishments were inflicted. A large number of the ringleaders were either shot or transported.