Chapter IV: War of the Austrian Succession; Growth Op the Power of

PRUSSIA: THE DESTRUCTION OF POLAND.

THE PRAGMATIC SANCTION.--On the death of _Augustus II._, there were two competitors for the Polish crown,--his son, _Augustus III._ of Saxony, and _Stanislaus Lesczinski_ whom France supported. After a contest, by the consent of the Emperor _Charles VI._, _Lesczinski_, whose daughter had married _Louis XV._, obtained the duchy of _Lorraine_, which thus became a possession of France (1735). In return, the emperor's son-in-law, _Francis Stephen_ (afterwards _Francis I._), was to have _Tuscany_; and France, in connection with the other powers, assented to the _Pragmatic Sanction_, according to which the hereditary possessions of Austria were to descend intact in the female line. It was expected that the empire would pass along with them.

PRUSSIA: FREDERICK WILLIAM I.--In 1611 the duchy of _Prussia_ and the mark or electorate of _Brandenburg_ were joined together. The duchy was then a fief of Poland. But under the Great Elector, _Frederick William_ (1640-1688), this relation of the duchy to Poland ended. By him the military strength of the electorate was increased. _Frederick_, his son (1688-1713), with the emperor's license, took the title of King of Prussia (_Frederick I._). He built up the city of _Berlin_, and encouraged art and learning. King _Frederick William I._ (1713-1740), unlike his predecessor, was exceedingly frugal in his court. He was upright and just in his principles, but extremely rough in his ways, and governed his own household, as well as his subjects generally, with a Spartan rigor. Individuals whom he met in the street, whose conduct or dress he thought unbecoming, he did not hesitate to scold, and he even used his cane to chastise them on the spot. He cared nothing for literature: artists and players were his abomination. He favored industry, and was a friend of the working-class. Every thing was done with despotic energy. He disciplined the military force of Prussia, and gathered at _Potsdam_ a regiment of tall guards, made up of men of gigantic height, who were brought together from all quarters. He left to his son, _Frederick II._ (1740-1786), a strong army and a full treasury.

CHARACTER OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.--Young _Frederick_ had no sympathy with his father's austere ways. The strict system of training arranged for him, in which he was cut off from Latin and from other studies for which he had a taste, his time all parceled out, and a succession of tasks rigorously ordained for him, he found a yoke too heavy to bear. Once he attempted to escape to the court of his uncle, _George II._ of England; but the scheme was discovered, and the incensed father was strongly inclined to execute the decree of a court-martial, which pronounced him worthy of death. _Frederick_, from the window of the place where he was confined, saw _Katte_, his favorite tutor, who had helped him in his attempt at flight, led to the scaffold, where he was hanged. In the later years of the old king, the relations of father and son were improved. The prince had for his abode the little town of _Rheinsberg_, where he could indulge, with a circle of congenial friends, in the studies and amusements to which he was partial. He grew up with a strong predilection for French literature, and for the French habits and fashions--free-thinking in religion included--which were now spreading over Europe. On his accession to the throne, _Frederick_ broke up the Potsdam regiment of giants, and called back to Halle the philosopher _Wolf_, whom his father had banished. _Frederick_ was visited by _Voltaire_, who at a later day took up his abode for a time with him in _Berlin_. But the king was fond of banter, and the foibles of each of these companions were a target for the unsparing wit of the other; so that eventually they parted company with mutual disgust. Later they resumed their correspondence, and never wholly lost their intellectual sympathy with each other. As a soldier, _Frederick_ had not the military genius of the greatest captains. He applied superior talents to the discharge of the duties of a king, and to the business of war. He was cool, knew how to profit by his errors and to repair his losses, and to press forward in the darkest hour. Napoleon said of him that "he was great, especially at critical moments."

WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCESSION---_Charles VI._ was succeeded, in 1740, by his daughter _Maria Theresa_, who united in her character many of the finest qualities of a woman and of a sovereign. Notwithstanding the _pragmatic sanction_ by which all the Austrian lands were to be hers, different princes deemed the occasion favorable for seizing on the whole, or on portions, of her inheritance. _Charles_, elector of Bavaria, claimed to be the lawful heir, and was aided by France, which was afraid of losing _Lorraine_ if _Maria Theresa's _ husband, _Francis Stephen_, should become emperor. _Augustus III._ of Poland was a participant in the plot. _Frederick II._ of Prussia claimed _Silesia_, and, after defeating the Austrians at _Molwitz_ (1741), seized the greater part of that district. Soon after, the French and Bavarians overran Austria. The Bavarian elector was chosen emperor. Even the elector of Hanover (_George II._ of England) engaged not to assist the empress.

The claims to Austria were as follows:--

_Augustus III._, king of Saxony, and _Charles Albert_,
elector of Bavaria, had married daughters of the Emperor _Joseph
I._ (the brother and predecessor of _Charles VI._). The wife
of _Charles Albert _ was the _younger_ daughter; but he
appealed to an alleged provision in the will of the Emperor
_Ferdinand I._, according to which the posterity of his
daughter _Anna_ (who married a Bavarian duke) was to inherit
the duchy of Austria and Bohemia, in case his _male_
descendants should die out. It was not to the _male_
descendants, but to the _legitimate_ descendants, however, that
the will referred. The _Bourbons_ in France and Spain seized
the occasion to regain the possessions of Spain lost in the Peace of
Utrecht (p. 466). _Francis Stephen_, the husband of _Maria
Theresa_, it was feared, might seek to get back Lorraine from
France (p. 474). Spain was anxious to recover Milan. _Philip
V._ of Spain claimed the Austrian possessions on the basis of
certain stipulations of _Charles V._ and _Philip III._ in
the cession of them. To weaken the Austrian house in Germany, was an
aim of France. The courts of France and Spain were ready, on all
these grounds, to support _Charles_ of Bavaria. They were
ready, also, to support _Frederick II._ in legal claims which
he set up to a portion of Silesia. The empress rejected the offer of
_Frederick_ to defend Austria if she would give up this
territory.

SPIRIT OF THE EMPRESS: CESSION OF SILESIA.--_Maria Theresa_ proved herself a Minerva. She threw herself for support on her Hungarian subjects, who responded with loyal enthusiasm to her appeal made at the _Diet of Presburg_. Her forces drove the Bavarian and French troops before them in Austria, entered Bavaria, and captured _Munich_. Reluctantly the queen, in the _Peace of Breslau_ (1742), ceded _Silesia_ to _Frederick_, in order to lessen the number of her antagonists. She was crowned (1743) in _Prague_, and at length gained an ally in _George II._ of England. The "Pragmatic Army," as it was called, defeated the French under Marshal _Noailles_ at _Dettingen_. _Sardinia_ and _Saxony_ joined the Austrian alliance.

TO THE PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.--These events widened the dimensions of the contest. France declared war directly against England and Austria. _Frederick II._ of Prussia was now the ally of France, and began the _second Silesian war_. He took _Prague_, but, being deserted by the French, was driven back into _Saxony_. The son of _Charles Albert_ of Bavaria, _Maximilian Joseph_, made peace with Austria,--the Peace of _Füssen_,--promising to give his vote to _Francis_, the husband of _Maria Theresa_, for the office of emperor. _Francis_ (1745-1765) was crowned at Frankfort. Victories in Saxony on the side of _Frederick_ led to the _Treaty_ of _Dresden_, which left _Silesia_ in his hands (1745). The most of the English army went back to England to fight the Pretender. The war went on in the Netherlands and in Italy, and between France and England; the English being victors on the sea under _Anson_ (1747), while the French were generally successful on the land. The peace of _Aix-la-Chapelle_ (1748) provided for a reciprocal restoration of all conquests: _Silesia_ was given to _Prussia_, and the _Pragmatic Sanction_ was sustained in _Austria_.

ALLIANCE AGAINST FREDERICK.--_Frederick the Great_ used the next eight years in doing what he could to encourage industry and to increase the prosperity and resources of Prussia, at the same time that he strengthened his military force. Prussia had evinced so much power in the late conflicts as to be an object of envy and apprehension. _Maria Theresa_ was anxious to recover _Silesia_. _Frederick_ had a foe in _Elizabeth_, empress of Russia, whose personal vices he made a subject of sarcastic remark, and who, besides, coveted Prussian provinces on the Baltic. An alliance was formed between _Russia_ and _Austria._ This was joined by _Saxony_, and by _France;_ since _Louis XV._ had become alarmed by the calculating selfishness of _Frederick's_ policy, and was induced to depart from the French traditional policy, and to unite with Austria. The only ally of _Frederick_ was _George II. _of England, which was then engaged in a contest with France respecting the American colonies (1756).

THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR.--Thus arose the _Seven Years' War._ _Frederick,_ secretly informed of the plans of his enemies, anticipated their action by invading Saxony and capturing _Dresden _(1756). At _Lobositz_ he defeated the Austrians: he soon took eighteen thousand Saxon troops. He had now to encounter the military strength of the various nations opposed to him. With the bulk of his forces he marched into Bohemia, and gained a great but costly victory at _Prague_ (1757). For the next six months, successes and reverses alternated; but before the end of the year (1757) _Frederick_ won two of his most famous triumphs,--one at _Rossbach,_ over the French and the Imperialists; and the other over the Austrians, at _Leuthen._ _Frederick_ was now admired as a hero in England, and was furnished by the elder _William Pitt,_ who had succeeded _Newcastle_, with money and troops. In 1758 the Prussians vanquished the Russians at _Zorndorf_, but were, in turn, soon defeated by the Austrians at _Hochkirch_ Of the numerous battles in this prolonged war, in which the military talents of _Frederick_ were so strikingly shown, it is possible to refer only to a few of the most important. He was defeated by the united Austrians and Russians at _Kunersdorf;_ and so completely that he was for the moment thrown into despair, and wrote to his minister _Finkenstein,_ "All is lost." In 1760 _Berlin_ was held for a few days by the Russians, but _Frederick_ soon defeated the Austrians once more at _Torgau._ In 1761, however, his situation was in the highest degree perilous. His resources were apparently exhausted. _Spain_ joined the ranks of his enemies. He faced them all with determined resolution, but he confessed in his private letters that his hopes were gone.

END OF THE WAR.--At this time there was a turn of events in his favor. In Russia, _Peter III._, who succeeded _Elizabeth_, was an admirer of _Frederick,_--so much so that he wore a Prussian uniform,--and hastened to conclude a peace and alliance with him (1762). _Peter_ was soon dethroned and killed by Russian nobles; and his queen· and successor, _Catherine II._, recalled the troops sent to _Frederick's_ aid. Nevertheless, they helped him to a victory over the Austrians, under the command of _Daun,_ at _Burkersdorf_ (1762). Austria, too, was exhausted and ready for peace. The negotiations between England and France, which ended in the _Peace of Paris_ (1763), made it certain that the French armies would evacuate Germany. _Prussia_ and _Austria_ agreed to the _Peace of Hubertsburg_, by which Prussia retained _Silesia_, and promised her vote for the Archduke _Joseph_, son of _Maria Theresa_, as king of Rome and successor to the empire (1763).

POSITION OF PRUSSIA.--_Joseph II_. succeeded his father as emperor in 1765, and was associated by his mother, _Maria Theresa_, in the government of her hereditary dominions. From the conclusion of the Seven Years' War, _Prussia_ took her place as one of the five great powers of Europe.

THE BRITISH INDIAN EMPIRE.--It was during this period that the empire of the British in _India_ grew up out of the mercantile settlements of a trading corporation, the _East India Company_. The result was effected after a severe struggle with the French. After the beginning of the eighteenth century, the _Mughal empire_ at _Delhi_ declined. Insubordinate native princes admitted only a nominal control over them. The effect of successive _Mahratta_ and _Afghan_ invasions was such, that when England and France went to war in Europe, in 1745, _India_ was broken up into different sovereignties, to say nothing of the great number of _petty_ chieftains who were practically independent. _Pondicherry_ was the chief French settlement. For a time it seemed that in the struggle for control France, under the masterly guidance of _Dupleix_, must triumph. In 1756 _Calcutta_ was taken from the English by the _Nabob of Bengal_, and many Englishmen died in the close room of the military prison in which they were shut up,--"the Black Hole." In 1757 _Clive_ defeated a great army of the natives, with whom were a few French, in the decisive battle of _Plassey_. He had previously shown his indomitable courage in the seizure of _Arcot_, and in its defense against a host of besiegers. The victory at _Plassey_ secured the British supremacy, which gradually extended itself over the country. The various local sovereignties became like Roman provinces. On the death of _Clive_, _Warren Hastings_ was made governor-general (1772). After his recall, he was impeached (1788), on charges of cruelty and oppression in India, and his trial by the House of Lords did not end until seven years after it began. He was then acquitted. Among the conductors of the impeachment on the part of the House of Commons, were the celebrated orators _Edmund Burke_ and _Richard Brinsley Sheridan_. In 1784 the power of the East-India Company had been restricted by the establishment of the _Board of Control_. Up to that time the Indian Empire, made up of dependent and subject states, had been governed by the sole authority of the company.

CATHERINE II. OF RUSSIA.--_Catherine II_. (1762-1796) in her private life was notoriously dissolute. If she did not connive at the assassination of her husband, _Peter III_., she heaped gifts upon his murderers. In her policy, she aimed to strengthen Russia, especially towards the sea. This occasioned successful conflicts with the Turks.

THE PARTITION OF POLAND.--At first inimical to _Frederick the Great, Catherine_ afterwards made an alliance with him. She compelled the election of one of her lovers, _Poniatowski_, to the throne of _Poland_. Poland was mainly Catholic; and the _Confederation_ of _Bar_ (1768), made by the Poles to prevent the toleration of Greek Christians and Protestants, was defeated by a Russian army, and broken up. The Turks were worsted in the war which they made in defense of the confederacy. As one result, Russia gained a firm footing on the north coasts of the Black Sea (1774). The "free veto," oppression of the peasantry, their distress, and the general want of union and public spirit, had reduced Poland to a miserable condition. _Catherine_, however, favored no reforms there looking to an improvement in the constitution. She preferred to prolong the anarchy and confusion. She wished to make the death of Poland in part a suicide. At length she invited _Prussia_ and _Austria_ to take part with her in the first seizure and partition of Polish territory (1772). Each took certain provinces. In 1793 the second, and in 1795 the final partition of Poland, was made by its three neighbors. The capture of _Warsaw_, and the defeat of the national rising under _Kosciusko_, obliterated that ancient kingdom from the map of Europe. It should be said that a large part of the territory that Russia acquired had once been Russian, and was inhabited by Greek Christians. By the division of Poland, Russia was brought into close contact with the Western powers. The _Crimea_ was incorporated with Russia in 1783. After a second war, provoked by her, with the Turks, who now had the Austrians to help them, the Russian boundaries through the Treaty of _Jassy_ (1792) were carried to the _Dniester_.