Chapter III: The Great Northern War: the Fall Op Sweden: Growth of

THE POWER OF RUSSIA.

SWEDEN.--The eventful epoch in the history of Sweden, in this period, is the reign of Charles XII. (1697-1718). At his accession, when he was only sixteen years old, Sweden ruled the Baltic. Its army was strong and well disciplined. What is now St. Petersburg was a patch of swampy ground in Swedish territory, where a few fishermen lived in their huts. The youth of Charles was prophetic of his career. In doors, he read the exploits of Alexander the Great; out of doors, gymnastic sports and the hunting of the bear were his favorite diversions. He became an adventurous warrior after, the type of Alexander. His rashness and obstinacy occasioned at last the downfall of his country. Three great powers, _Russia, Poland_, and _Denmark,_ with the support of _Patkul_, a disaffected Livonian subject of Sweden, joined in an attack on the youthful monarch (1699). _Patkul_, who was a patriot, unable to secure the rights of Livonia, and condemned as a rebel, had entered the service of the Elector Augustus of Saxony, who was king of Poland. There were territories belonging to Sweden which each of the confederates coveted. _Frederick IV._ of Denmark expected to incorporate Sweden itself in his dominions.

RUSSIA: PETER THE GREAT.--The first ruler of the house of Romanoff, which has raised Russia to its present rank, was _Michael_ (1613-1645). Under _Alexis,_ his son (1645-1676), important conquests were made from the Poles, and the _Cossacks_ acknowledged the sovereignty of the Czar. The principal founder of Russian civilization was _Peter the Great_ (1682-1725). Through the machinations of his half-sister _Sophia_, who contrived to get the armed aid of the streltzi,--the native militia,--he had to share the throne with a half-brother, _Ivan_, who was older than himself, and lived until 1696. _Sophia_ pushed aside Peter's mother, and grasped the reins of power. Peter learned Latin, German, and Dutch, and acquired much knowledge of various sorts. As he grew older, his life was in danger; but at the age of seventeen, he was able to crush his enemies (1689). _Sophia_, who was at their head, he shut up in a monastery for the remainder of her days. From _Lefort_, a Swiss, and other foreigners, Peter derived information about foreign lands, and was led to visit them in order to instruct himself, and to introduce into his own country the arts and inventions of civilized peoples. He invited into Russia artisans, seamen, and officers from abroad. He traveled through _Germany _and _Holland _to _England_, and with his own hands worked at ship-building at the dock-yards of _Zaandam_ (near Amsterdam) and _Deptford_. On his way to Venice, he was called home by a revolt of the streltzi, which he put down. He was unsparing in his vengeance, and, despite his veneer of culture, never got rid of his innate barbarism. _Azoff _he conquered, and it was ceded to him by the Turks in the Peace of _Carlowitz_ (1699). Then his ambitious thoughts turned to the Baltic, for he was bent on making Russia a naval power. He formed a secret alliance with Denmark and Poland against Sweden.

CONDITION OF POLAND.--In 1697 _Frederick Augustus _II.,--Augustus _the Strong_,--Duke of Saxony, was elected king of Poland: he became a Roman Catholic that he might get the crown. But the Polish nobles took care to increase their power, which was already far too great to be compatible with unity or order. Under the anarchical but despotic nobility and higher clergy, stood the serfs, embracing nine-tenths of the whole population, who were without protection against the greed and tyranny of their lords.

EVENTS OF THE NORTHERN WAR.--The _Danes _first attacked the territory of _Holstein Gottorp_, whose duke had married the sister of _Charles XII_. _William III_. of England supported Sweden. The Anglo-Dutch fleet came to Charles's assistance. He landed his troops in _Zealand_. The Danes gave up their alliance, and sued for peace. Europe was now astonished to discover that the Swedish king was an antagonist to be feared. In the field he shared the hardships of the common soldier, and was as brave as a lion. _Charles _now attacked the Russian army before _Narva_, in Livonia. With the Swedish infantry he stormed the camp of the Russians, and routed their army, which was much larger in numbers than his own (1700). He then raised the siege of _Riga_, which the Poles and Saxons were besieging, having first defeated their troops on the _Dwina_. These brilliant successes might have enabled _Charles _to conclude peace on very advantageous terms. But he lacked moderation. He was as passionate in his public conduct as _Peter the Great _was in his private life. He was resolved to dethrone _Augustus _in Poland. After the battle of _Clissau_ (1703), he occupied that country, and made the Diet give the crown to _Stanislas Lesczinski_, the Palatine of Posen. To prevent Russia and Saxony from uniting against the new king, _Charles_ carried the war into Saxony, and forced _Augustus_, in the Peace of _Altranstädt_, to renounce his claim to the Polish crown, and to surrender _Patkul_, the rebel, who had become a subject of Russia, whom he put to death with circumstances of cruelty. In 1703 _Peter_ laid the foundations of the new city of _St. Petersburg_. But, a few years later, Russia was invaded by _Charles_, who in 1708 almost captured the Czar at _Grodno_, defeated his army near _Smolensk_, and was expected to advance to _Moscow_. But the imprudent Swede turned southward into the district of the _Ukraine_, there to be joined by _Mazeppa_, the "hetman" of the Cossacks, who led them in revolt against Peter. Mazeppa was able, however, to bring him but few auxiliaries. The harshness of the winter, and other untoward events, weakened the Swedish force. The battle of _Pultowa_ (1709) was a great victory for the Czar. Charles escaped with difficulty to Turkey. There he remained for three years, supported with his retinue, at _Bender_, by the Sultan. His object was to bring about a war between the Sultan and the Czar. He so far succeeded that _Peter_, when surrounded on the _Pruth_ by Turkish troops, was rescued only by the courage and energy of _Catherine_, the mistress whom he afterwards married. _Charles_ was finally obliged to leave Turkey, after being exposed to imminent peril in an attack by the janizaries, who seized his camp and took him captive. With a few attendants, riding by day and sleeping in a cart or carriage by night, he journeyed back to Sweden, and arrived at _Stralsund_ (1714). The hostile allies, together with _Hanover_ and _Prussia_, were once more in array against him. _Baron van Görtz_, a German, became his principal adviser. He negotiated a peace with _Peter_, of whom the other allies were beginning to be jealous. _Charles's_ plan was to invade Norway, then to land in Scotland, and, with the help of Spain and of the Jacobites, to restore the Stuarts to the English throne. While besieging _Friedrichshall_, a fortress in Norway, he exposed himself near the trenches, and was killed by a bullet (1718). It was long a question whether the fatal shot was fired from the enemy or by an assassin. Not until 1859 was it settled, by an examination of the skull, that the gun was discharged from the fortress.

RESULTS OF THE WAR--One result of the Northern war was the execution of _Görtz_, to whom the Swedish aristocracy were inimical, and a reduction of the king's authority. _Hanover_ received _Bremen_ and _Verden_; _Prussia_, the largest part of _Pomerania_; _Sweden_ gave up its freedom from custom duties in the Sound. _Augustus_ was recognized as king of _Poland_. _Russia_, by the _Peace of Nystadt_ (1721), obtained _Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland,_ and a part of _Carelia_, but restored _Finland_. _Sweden_ no longer had a place among the great powers. The place that Sweden had held was now taken by _Russia_.

CHANGES IN RUSSIA.--The Czar, _Peter_, took the title of emperor. He transferred the capital from _Moscow_ to _St. Petersburg_. By constructing canals, roads, and harbors, he promoted trade and commerce. By fostering manufactures and the mechanic arts, and by opening the mines, he increased the wealth of the country. He altered the method of government, making the _ukases_, or edicts, emanate from the sole will of the emperor. He abolished the dignity of _Patriarch_, making the _Holy Synod_, of which the Czar is president, the supreme ecclesiastical authority. _Peter_ made a second journey through Germany, Holland, and France (1716). His son _Alexis_, who allied himself with a reactionary party that aimed to reverse the Czar's policy, he finally caused to be tried for treason. He was condemned, but died either from the bodily torture inflicted on him to extort confession, or, as many have believed, by poison, or other means, used by the direction of his father. His friends, after being barbarously tortured, were put to death.

Great as was the work of _Peter_, "he brought Russia prematurely into the circle of European politics. The result has been to turn the rulers of Russia away from home affairs, and the regular development of internal institutions, to foreign politics and the creation of a great military power." In his last years, the frugality of his own way of living in his new capital was in striking contrast with the splendor with which his queen, _Catherine_, preferred to surround herself. He died at the age of fifty-three, in consequence of plunging into icy water to save a boat in distress.

The document called "The Testament of Peter the Great," which
explains what has to be done in order that Russia may conquer all
Europe, is not genuine. It is first heard of in 1812, in a book
published by _Lesur_, probably by direction of Napoleon
I. "Lesur's book," says _Mr. E. Schuyler_, "was merely a
pamphlet to justify the invasion of Russia by Napoleon." (Schuyler's
_Life of Peter the Great_, vol. ii, p. 512.)