Chapter VIII: Discovery and Invention: Science and Literature (2)

SCULPTURE AND PAINTING.--One of the most original of modern sculptors was _Schwanthaler_ (1802-1848), who carved the pediments of the Walhalla at Munich, and the bronze statue of Bavaria. French sculptors at the present day are fully on a level with the recent sculptors of Italy. _Chantrey_ (1788-1841) and _John Gibson_ (1791-1866), a pupil of _Canova_ and himself an original mind, are high on the roll of English sculptors. A genius for sculpture appeared among Americans, and to the names of _Powers and Crawford_, of _Story, Brown, and Ward_, the names of other meritorious artists in this province might justly be added. The German national school of painting had _Overbeck_ for its most eminent founder. _Cornelius_ (1783-1867) revived the art of fresco-painting, and established the Munich school. _Von Kaulbach_, who painted the "Battle of the Huns" in the Berlin Museum, was one of his pupils. _W. von Schadow_ is the founder of the Düsseldorf school. One of his eminent pupils was _K. F. Lessing_. Still more recent are _Ad. Menzel, Liberman, and Lenbach_. In Great Britain, _Constable_ (1796-1837) painted English landscapes full of thought and feeling, and gave a fresh impulse to this branch of art. _Stanfleld_ (1788-1864) was a master of the realistic school, which aims at a simple and faithful representation of the landscape to be depicted. _Wilkie_, a Scotchman (1785-1841), was chief among the _genre_ painters, of whom _Leslie_ (1794-1859), by birth an American, was one of the most forcible and refined. _Eastlake_ (1793-1865) was a writer on art, as well as a painter. _Landseer_ (1802-1873) was unrivaled as an animal painter. _William Hunt_ (1790-1864) had decided skill as a painter in water-colors. The _pre-Raphaelite school_, professing to go back of _Raphael_ to nature, included _Turner, Hunt, Millais_, _and Burne-Jones_. Other prominent artists have been _Herkomer, Leighton_, and _Alma-Tadema_. In France, _Paul Delaroche_ (1797-1856) followed in the path of _Horace Vernet_ (1789-1863), as a painter of battle-pieces and other modern historical scenes. _Ary Scheffer_ (1795-1858), a Dutchman by birth, painted in a graceful and pathetic tone "Christ the Consoler," and other sacred subjects. The more recent French school, comprising _Delacroix, Meissonier, Gérome, Cabanel, Millet, Rosa Bonheur_, an artist of masculine vigor, the famous painter of animal pictures,--is distinguished for technical skill and finish, but also for a bold and peculiar method of treatment. Among the leading landscape-painters of this school, _Corot, Daubigny, Rousseau, Diaz_, are conspicuous. Still more recent are _Bastien-Lepage, Chavannes, Bréton, Bouguereau, Dagnan-Bouveret, Lhermitte, Jean-Paul Laurens_, and _Dupré_.

About the year 1825 an American school of landscape-painters was founded by _Thomas Cole_, many of whose pictures were allegorical. _Durand_ is one of those who excelled in landscape painting. In other provinces of the art, _Peale_, _Weir_, _Huntington_, _Page_, _Morse_, _Chase_, _Whistler_, _Sargent_, _Abbey_; in landscape, _Gifford_, _Kensett_, _Church_, _Bierstadt_, _McEntee_, _Inness_, _Winslow Homer_, well represent what is best and most characteristic in the later productions of American painters.

MUSIC.--In music, Germany in the nineteenth century held the palm. _Schubert_, _Spohr_, _Weber_, _Meyerbeer_, and _Wagner_ are names of world-wide celebrity, while in the works of _Mendelssohn_ (1809-1849) and _Schumann_ (1810-1856) the art of music reached its climax. _Chopin_ (1810-1849), the founder of a new style of piano-forte music, was born in Poland: his father, however, was French.

PHILANTHROPIC REFORM.

In a survey of the course of recent history, notice should be taken of the increased activity of a humane spirit in the several nations.

1. SOCIAL SCIENCE.--The investigation of social evils and of their proper remedies, and of the laws which govern man in his social relations, has received of late the name of _social science_. In 1857 a meeting in _London_, over which Lord _Brougham_ presided, resulted in the organization of a society of persons interested in different forms of social improvement, bearing the name of the _National Association for the Promotion of Social Science_. Its work embraced the consideration of these five subjects: law-amendment,--to promote which a society had existed, of which Lord _Brougham_ was the head; education; prevention and repression of crime; public health; and social economy. Branches were established in various towns in England. Similar societies have flourished in the United States. An international society of the same character held its first meeting in _Brussels_ in 1862. The wide range of special topics which these societies consider may give an appearance of indefiniteness to their aims. The movement at least indicates that social advancement has assumed the form of a distinct and comprehensive problem, and is drawing to itself the deliberate attention of thoughtful persons of diverse nations and creeds.

2. MITIGATION OF THE SUFFERINGS OF WAR: HOSPITALS.--If wars are still frequent and destructive, much more has been done of late to mitigate the sufferings consequent upon armed conflicts. The right of an invading force to ravage the territory of an enemy was seldom practically asserted in the nineteenth century. Non-combatants, according to the modern rules of war, are not to be molested. Their property, if it is taken, is to be paid for at its fair value. The doctrine that requisitions may be made by a commander is not yet abandoned. It was acted on by _Napoleon_ on a large scale. It was not approved by _Wellington_. There is a growing opinion against it. It is not now held to be a crime for an officer to hold a fortress as long as he can. In the care of the sick and the wounded, there has been a great change for the better. The _ambulance_ system, or the system of movable hospitals accompanying armies on the field, was established by the French, with the approval of _Napoleon_, in 1795. The name _ambulance_ is also frequently given to the vehicles for transporting the wounded and sick. The whole ambulance system was completely organized in the American civil war, and defined by an Act of Congress in 1864. To a French surgeon is due, also, the establishment of a corps of _stretcher-bearers_. By the European Convention adopted at _Geneva_ (1864), the wounded, and the whole official staff connected with ambulances, are exempted from capture as prisoners of war. For the more efficient organization of hospitals, a great service was rendered by the example of _Florence Nightingale_, an English lady, who, at the head of a company of volunteer nurses, during the Crimean war created a great establishment of this sort at Scutari (1854). The increased pains-taking in the method of building, in the ventilation and general management of hospitals, during the last half-century, has gone far towards freeing them from the dangers and evils to which they were formerly subject.

SANITARY SCIENCE.--Sanitary science, and the engineering connected with it, belong to the nineteenth century, and mainly to the second half of it. Systems of drainage have been devised which involve much mechanical skill, not to dwell on their usefulness in promoting health. Prior to 1815, in England, the law forbade the discharge of sewage in water-drains. The law of 1847 required that which up to 1815 was prohibited. The great change on this whole subject dates from the cholera of 1832, which awoke public attention to the sources of disease. The condition of the poor, and the discussions relating to it, lent a new stimulus to the inquiry. A series of English reports, from 1842 to 1848, had a great influence in producing a sanitary reform, in the particulars referred to, in England and in other countries.

3. PUBLIC EDUCATION.--During the nineteenth century, systems of general education were established in different countries. In a part of the United States, an effective common-school system has always existed. In Germany also, especially in Prussia, there have long been thorough provisions for the instruction of all the young in elementary branches. In France, in consequence of the laws requiring primary schools in all the communes of any considerable size, the average of illiteracy has of late steadily diminished. In 1881, in France, instruction in the public primary schools was made absolutely free. England has witnessed a very great change in the legal establishment of means of instruction in the rudiments of knowledge for the whole people. The Education Act of 1876 required that every child between the ages of five and fourteen should receive such teaching. In England, and in some other countries, the employment of children who have not had a certain amount of school instruction was prohibited by law. In the new kingdom of Italy, every commune having four thousand inhabitants was required by law (1859) to maintain a primary school. By subsequent legislation, the compulsory principle was adopted as far as the circumstances of the country would allow. The result has been a most remarkable diminution in the numbers of the wholly illiterate class. Other European states have made primary education compulsory. For instance, in Hungary, attendance at school was made obligatory for children from the beginning of the eighth to the end of the twelfth year. Such measures in behalf of general education as governments have adopted in recent times are founded, to be sure, partly on the conscious need of self-protection against ignorance and its baleful consequences to the state. A more directly humane impulse, however, mingles with this motive. The operation of benevolent feeling is seen in the multiplying of special schools for the benefit of the blind, of the deaf and dumb, and even of imbeciles.

4. REFORM OF CRIMINAL LAW.--The advance of humane sentiment has produced a reform of criminal law. In England, in the closing part of the eighteenth century, there were two hundred and twenty-three offenses that were punished with death. To injure Westminster Bridge, to cut down young trees, to shoot at rabbits, to steal property of the value of five shillings, were capital offenses. Vigorous and persevering opposition was made to the mitigation of this bloody code. Sir _Samuel Romilly_ (1757-1818) began his effort at reform by endeavoring to secure the repeal of these cruel laws, one by one. His bills, when carried with difficulty through the Commons, were repeatedly thrown out by the House of Lords. One of the most strenuous opponents of the change was the Lord Chancellor, _Eldon_. Lord _Ellenborough_, the chief justice, stigmatized the proposed alteration of the statutes as the fruit of "speculation and modern philosophy." It was predicted that, if it were made, there would be a terrible increase of crime. Sir _James Mackintosh_ continued with success the effort of Romilly. In 1837 the list of capital offenses had been reduced to seven. One consequence was the striking diminution of crime. Another reform in England was that of the police-system (1816). The officers of the police had encouraged crime in order to secure the reward of forty pounds offered by the government on conviction, in the case of crimes of a certain grade.

5. PRISON-DISCIPLINE REFORM.--One of the distinctions of modern philanthropy is the prison-discipline reform. When _Howard_ began his labors (1773), the prisons in England were generally dirty, pestiferous dens, crowded with inmates of both sexes,--nurseries of loathsome disease, and of still more loathsome vice. Soon after this time, a serious effort began to make prisons a means of reform, instead of schools of debauchery and crime. There was a movement for the erection of penitentiaries of improved construction. This was aided by the exertions of _Jeremy Bentham_. The most successful efforts in behalf of a better system of management in prisons were made by members of the Society of Friends. Of these, the most useful person in this cause was Mrs. _Elizabeth Gurney Fry_ (1780-1845), a woman of rare powers of mind and of the noblest Christian character. By her personal influence, she wrought such a transformation of character and behavior among the female convicts in Newgate Prison as it had been deemed impossible to effect. The reforms which Mrs. _Fry_ effected spread to other places. Her labors were not confined to Great Britain. She visited France (1838), Belgium, Holland, and other countries. Her correspondence in the interest of the cause which she served extended to Russia and Italy. Her recommendations bore fruit for good in almost all parts of Europe. Signal improvements in plans of construction, and in the interior life of prisons, have been effected under the auspices of the Prison Discipline Society in England. In these changes, the example of changes and reforms in this matter in the United States has had a marked influence. The two great ends kept in view at present in the arrangements and occupations of prisons are the reform of the criminal, and the deterring of others from the commission of crime. Distinct establishments for the detention, reform, and training of juvenile offenders, who were formerly corrupted by association with criminals mature in vice, are peculiar to recent times. The transportation of English convicts to Australia began in 1787. As these multiplied, there sprang up cruelty on the part of supervisors in the colonies; and in the penal settlements where the worst offenders were guarded, there were found the most corrupt and degraded herds of criminals. The opposition in the colonial communities to transportation found support in England. In 1840 deportation to New South Wales ceased. At length Van Dieman's Land also refused to receive this forced emigration even of released convicts. The British Government was obliged to rely on other methods of punishment, especially on the graduation of the term of confinement according to the conduct of the criminal.

PROGRESS TOWARDS THE UNITY OF MANKIND.

UNITY AMID DIVERSITY.--The path of human progress has led in the direction of _unity_ as the ultimate goal. It is, however, a _unity in variety_ toward which the course of history has moved. The development and growth of distinct nations, each after its own type, and, not less, the freedom of the individual to realize the destiny intended for him by nature, are necessary to the full development of mankind,--necessary to the perfection of the race. The final unity that is sought is to be reached, not by stifling the capacities of human nature, but by the complete unfolding of them in all their diversity. The modern era has made an approach toward this higher unity that is to coexist with a rich and manifold development. An enlightened man, Prince _Albert_ of England, remarked in a public address (1850): "Nobody who has paid any attention to the peculiar features of our present era will doubt for a moment that we are living at a period of most wonderful transition, which tends rapidly to accomplish that great end to which, indeed, all history points, _the realization of the unity of mankind!_ Not a unity which breaks down the limits and levels the peculiar characteristics of the different nations of the earth, but rather a unity, _the result and product_ of those very national varieties and antagonistic qualities."

In concluding this volume, it is proper to advert to some of the signs and means of this unification of mankind, which belong to the recent era.

1. INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS.--The words quoted above from Prince _Albert_ were spoken in anticipation of the Great International Exhibition in London, in 1854. The industrial exhibitions, in which the products of many nations are collected, and to which visitors are drawn from different parts of the earth, are one indication of the effect of manufactures and commerce in drawing mankind together. The first displays of this kind were for French manufactures alone, and were held in Paris in 1798, and, under the consulate of Napoleon, in 1801 and 1802. The first _international_ exposition was in Paris in 1844; and it was followed by the "World's Fair" in London (1850), for which the vast edifice called "the Crystal Palace," made of iron and of glass, was constructed. Similar exhibitions were held in New York (1853), in Paris in 1855 and again in 1867, in Constantinople, Amsterdam, Vienna, (1873), in Philadelphia on the hundredth anniversary of American independence (1876), in Chicago in 1893, and in Paris in 1900. In these fairs, the products of the industry of the far East were shown by the side of the products of European and American manufacture.

2. ECONOMICAL ENLIGHTENMENT.--In connection with the wide extension of commerce, the better methods and ideas which have come into vogue in respect to commercial relations deserve notice. The _system of credit_, facilitating trade and forming a bond of confidence and of union between different nations, although it began in the Middle Ages, was not fairly established until the organization of the Bank of Amsterdam in 1609. This system, if it is "one of the most powerful engines of warfare," is likewise "one of the great pledges of peace." The stimulus given to manufactures by mechanical inventions has been an effective promoter of commercial intercourse. The teaching of _Adam Smith_, and of the political economists since his time, by which it is seen that the gain of one nation is not the loss of another, and that nations are mutually benefited by the interchange of the products of their labor, which is the true source of wealth, has operated as an antidote to discord. The ruin of a neighbor, or non-intercourse with him, has been discovered to be as contrary to the demands of a prudent self-interest as of a disinterested benevolence.

3. COMMUNITY IN SCIENCE AND LETTERS.--The community of literature and science has been growing more cosmopolitan. The barriers created by differences of language are overcome. The custom of learning foreign languages has become more diffused. The most important writings, in whatever country they appear, circulate through translations in all other civilized lands. All well-stored libraries are polyglot.

4. WIDENED POLITICAL SYSTEM.--In the political relations of countries, it is found necessary to comprehend all parts of the globe in the political system, in the right adjustment of which each country has a stake, and over which stretches an acknowledged code of international law. The establishment of an international tribunal of arbitration at The Hague is a long step toward making such a code effective and toward preventing war.

5. INTERNATION PHILANTHROPY.--The growth of humane feeling, of the interest felt in man as man, engendered a spirit of universal philanthropy. For example, the hostility to the slave-trade led to the treatment of it as piracy by the municipal laws and by the treaties of several nations, while it is prohibited and punished by nearly all of the countries of Europe. This is the direct result of a heightened respect for man and for the rights of human nature, however poor or degraded man may be. Instances have occurred in which help has been generously given to sufferers by fire or famine, by strangers in remote lands. A famine in Persia called out liberal contributions from America. Examples of the exercise of justice and kindness toward distant nations may remind the reader of opposite examples of wrong and cruelty. We are pointing out, however, only the _drift_ of sentiment; and it must be remembered that the facts which have been referred to as illustrative of the growth of philanthropy, are such as never occurred in former ages.

6. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS.--The spread of the Christian religion by missionary efforts is one of the means of unifying mankind. In ancient times and in the Middle Ages, the two great achievements of the Church were the conversion of the Roman Empire, and then of the barbarian nations by whom it was subverted. But, in the Middle Ages, there was also missionary labor, here and there among the Saracens and in the lands of the East. Since the thirteenth century, missions in the Roman Catholic Church have been chiefly prosecuted by the monastic orders. In this work, the Jesuits, from the first establishment of their order, were conspicuously active in all quarters of the globe. Of their missionaries, none have been more eminent and zealous than _Francis Xavier_ (1506?1552), who died just as he was about to undertake the conversion of China. Protestants, in the period after the Reformation, were too busy in the struggles going forward in their own lands, to undertake foreign missions on an extended scale. Yet they were not indifferent to the importance of the work. Under the protectorate of _Cromwell_, an ordinance established a Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England (1649). In 1701 the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was established in England. Later, the Moravians from the beginning evinced great interest in foreign missions, and planted missionary stations in several countries. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Congregation of the Propaganda was founded in 1622, for the general superintendence of missionary operations. Colleges for their training were established, the chief of which was the "Urban College" at Rome, where students from all nations have been educated for missionary service.

The nineteenth century was marked by an extraordinary outburst of missionary activity. In this sort of exertion the Roman Catholic body has kept up an unflagging zeal. Within the various Protestant denominations, a remarkable increase of fervor and of success in this department of Christian labor has been witnessed. In the room of _seven_ societies for this purpose at the end of the eighteenth century, there were in 1880, in Europe and America, _seventy_ organizations. At this last date, there were not less than twenty-four hundred ordained Europeans and Americans employed in this service, besides a great number of assistants, both foreign and native. The native converts numbered not less than 1,650,000. The yearly contributions for the support of the missions increased proportionately. In 1882 British contributions alone amounted to £1,090,000. It is not an exaggeration to say that the globe is now "covered with a network of Christian outposts."

The following passage, slightly abbreviated, from a German writer,
presents a glowing sketch of the wide extension of recent missionary
labors:--

"At the beginning of this century, the island world of the Pacific
was shut against the gospel; but England and America have attacked
those lands so vigorously in all directions, especially through
native workers, that whole groups of islands, even the whole Malayan
Polynesia, is to-day almost entirely Christianized, and in Melanesia
and Micronesia the mission-field is extended every year. The gates of
British East India have been thrown open wider and wider during this
century; at first for English, then for all missionaries. This great
kingdom, from Cape Comorin to the Punjaub and up to the Himalayas,
where the gospel is knocking on the door of Thibet, has been covered
with hundreds of mission-stations, closer than the mission-net which
at the close of the first century surrounded the Roman empire; the
largest and some of the smaller islands of the Indian Archipelago,
Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, and now New Guinea also, are
occupied, partly on the coast and partly in the interior. Burmah, and
in part Siam, is open to the gospel; and China, the most powerful and
most populous of heathen lands, forced continually to open her doors
wider, has been traversed by individual pioneers of the gospel, to
Thibet and Burmah, and half of her provinces occupied from Hong-Kong
and Canton to Peking; and in Manchuria, if by only a thin chain, yet
at many of the principal points, stations have been founded, while
the population overflowing into Australia and America is being
labored with by Protestant missionaries. Japan also, hungry for
reform, by granting entrance to the gospel has been quickly occupied
by American and English missionary societies, and already, after so
little labor, has scores of evangelical congregations. Indeed, the
aboriginal Australians have, in some places, been reached. In the
lands of Islam, from the Balkans to Bagdad, from Egypt to Persia,
there have been common central evangelization stations established in
the chief places, for Christians and Mohammedans, by means of
theological and Christian medical missions, conducted especially by
Americans. Also in the primitive seat of Christianity, Palestine,
from Bethlehem to Tripoli, and to the northern boundaries of Lebanon,
the land is covered by a network of Protestant schools, with here and
there an evangelical church. Africa, west, south, and east, has been
vigorously attacked; in the west, from Senegal to Gaboon, yes, lately
even to the Congo, by Great Britain, Basel, Bremen, and America,
which have stations all along the coast. South Africa at the
extremity was evangelized by German, Dutch, English, Scotch, French,
and Scandinavian societies. Upon both sides, as in the center,
Protestant missions, although at times checked by war, are
continually pressing to the north; to the left, beyond the Walfisch
Bay; to the right, into Zululand, up to Delagoa Bay; in the center,
to the Bechuana and Basuto lands. In the east, the sun of the gospel,
after a long storm, has burst forth over Madagascar in such
brightness that it can never again disappear. Along the coasts from
Zanzibar and the Nile, even to Abyssinia, out-stations have been
established, and powerful assaults made by the Scotch, English, and
recently also by the American mission and civilization, into the very
heart of the Dark Continent, even to the great central and east
African lakes. In America, the immense plains of the Hudson's Bay
Territory, from Canada over the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean,
have not only been visited by missionaries, but have been opened far
and wide to the gospel through rapidly growing Indian missions. In
the United States, hundreds of thousands of freedmen have been
gathered into evangelical congregations; and, of the remnants of the
numerous Indian tribes, some at least have been converted through the
work of evangelization by various churches, and have awakened new
hope for the future. In Central America and the West Indies, as far
as the country is under Protestant home nations, the net of
evangelical missions has been thrown from island to island, even to
the mainland in Honduras, upon the Mosquito Coast; and in British and
Dutch Guiana it has taken even firmer hold. Finally, the lands on and
before the southern extremity of the continent, the Falkland Islands,
Terra del Fuego, and Patagonia, received the first light through the
South American Missionary Society (in London); and recently its
messengers have pushed into the heart of the land, and are rapidly
pressing on to the banks of the great Amazon, to the Indians of
Brazil."

RESULTS OF MISSIONS.--In carrying forward missionary work during the nineteenth century, the Bible has been translated into numerous languages. Missionaries, as in the early days of the Church, have reduced the languages of uncultivated peoples to writing, and made the beginning of native literatures. Schools, colleges, and printing-presses follow in the path of the preachers. The contributions made to philology and to other branches of science by missionary preachers and explorers are of high value. As far as the number of converts is concerned, progress has been more rapid, as was the case in the first Christian centuries, among uncivilized tribes. The reception of Christianity is more slow in a country like China, and among the Aryan inhabitants of India. But the influence exerted by missions in such communities is not to be measured by the number of converts. Moreover, history has often shown, that, in the spread of the Christian religion, the first steps are the most slow and difficult: they are like the early operations in a siege. Sir _Bartle Frere_ writes thus: "Statistical facts can in no way convey any adequate idea of the work done in any part of India. The effect is enormous where there has not been a single avowed conversion. The teaching of Christianity amongst a hundred and sixty millions of civilized, industrious Hindoos and Mohammedans in India, is effecting changes, moral, social, and political, which for extent and rapidity in effect are far more extraordinary than any that have been witnessed in modern Europe." Of the same tenor is an opinion expressed in strong terms by Sir _Henry Lawrence_, governor-general of India during the mutiny of 1857, and a most competent judge.

It is worthy of remark, as one characteristic of the Christian missions of the recent period, that the religions of the non-Christian nations have been studied more thoroughly, and the true and praiseworthy elements in them have been better appreciated.

The progress made in the past encourages the hope that the unity of mankind, a unity which shall be the crown of individual and national development, will one day be reached. That unity of mankind, in loyal fellowship with Him in whose image man was made, is the community of which the ancient Stoic vaguely dreamed, and which the apostles of Christ proclaimed and predicted,--the perfected _kingdom of God_.

LITERATURE. See lists on pp. Alison, _Hist. of Europe_, from
1815 to 1852 (8 vols.); Bulle, _Gesch. d. neuesten Zeit_,
1815-1871 (2 vols.); Flathe. _Zeitalter der Restauration und der
Revolution_; Stern, _Geschichte Europas_ (3 vols.); Debidpur,
_Hist. Diplomatique de l'Europe_ (2 vols.); Seignobus,
_Political History of Europe since 1814_; Sears. _Political
Growth in the Nineteenth Century_; Lavisse et Rambaud. _Hist
Gén._, Vols. X., XI., XII.; Phillips, _European History_,
1815-1899; Müller, _Political History of Recent Times_ (Peters's
translation, 1882); Müller, _Politische Gesch. d. Gegenwart_ (an
annual, since 1867); Honegger, _Grundsteine einer
allgem. Culturgeschichte d. neuesten Zeit_ (5 vols.).

Works on the History of Italy. Thayer, _Dawn of Italian
Independence_ (2 vols.); Reuchlin, _Geschichte Italiens_ (4
vols.); Stillman, _Union of Italy_; Probyn, _Italy from_
1815-1878; Lives of Cavour, by De la Rive (English translation), by
E. Dicey, by Mazade (French); _Life and Writings of Mazzini_ (9
vols.).

Works on the History of Germany. Treitschke, _Deutsche
Geschichte_; Von Sybel, _Founding of the German Empire_ (6
vols,); Busch,_ Bismarck in the Franco-Prussian War_ (2 vols.),
_Bismarck, The Man and the Statesman_ (2 vols.); Springer,
_Geschichte Oesterreichs_ (2 vols.).

France. Hillebrand, _Gesch. Frankreichs_ (1830-1870); Adams,
_Democracy and Monarchy in France_; Stein, _Gesch. der
Sozialen Bewegung in Frankreich_; Guizot, _Memoirs of His Own
Time_ (1807-1848) (4 vols.); Delord, _Hist. du Second Empire_
(6 vols.); Zevort, _Hist. de la 3'me Republique_ (4 vols.);
Hanotaux, _Contemporary France_ (Vol. I.); Bodley, _France_
(2 vols.); Simon, _The Government of M. Thiers_ (from 1871-1873)
(2 vols.).

Works on the History of England. Harriet Martineau, _The History of
England_ (1800-1854); Walpole, _A History of England_, from
1815 (6 vols., 1878-1880); Molesworth, _The History of England_
(1830-1874); Justin McCarthy, _A History of Our Own Times_
(1878-1880); Kinglake, _The Invasion of the Crimea_ (6 vols.);
Seeley, _The Expansion of England_; Rutherford, _The Fenian
Conspiracy_; Richey, _The Irish Land Laws_; King, _The
Irish Question_; Morley, _Life of Gladstone_, 3 vols. (1903)
(an able historical review).

Works on History of the United States. Benton, _Thirty Year's
View_ [1820-1850]; Johnston, _History of American Politics_;
DE TOCQUEVILLE, _Democracy in America_ (2 vols.); Thorpe,
_Constitutional History of the American People_ (2 vols.);
Roosevelt, _Winning of the West_ (4 vols); Stanwood, _A
History of the Presidency_; Bryce, _The American
Commonwealth_ (2 vols).; Ostrogorski, _Democracy and the Origin
of Political Parties_ (2 vols.); Henry Adams, _History of the
United States_ (1800-1817, 9 vols.); Rhodes, _History of the
United States from the Compromise of 1850_ (4 vols.); Wilson,
_Division and Reunion_; Burgess, _The Middle Period, The Civil
War and the Constitution _(2 vols.); Dunning, _Essays on the
Civil War and Reconstruction_; Bolles, _Financial History of the
United States_ (3 vols.); Wilson, _History of the Rise and Fall
of the Slave Power_; Blaine, _Twenty Years in Congress_;
Histories of the Civil War, by the Count of Paris (2 vols.), by
Roper, by J. W. Draper, by H. Greeley, by A. H. Stephens, by
E. A. Pollard (_The Lost Cause_); Swinton's _Twelve Decisive
Battles of the _[_Civil_] _War_; _Memoirs of
Gen. W. T. Sherman,_ by himself; Grant, _Personall Memoirs_
(2 vols.); John Sherman, _Recollections_ (2 vols.); Moore,
_The Rebellion Record_ (1861-1871); Biography of
_Gallatin_, by H. Adams; of _Jackson_, by Parton, by
W. G. Sumner; of _Madison_, by Rives; of _J. Q. Adams_, by
Morse; of _Josiah Quincy_, by Edmund Quincy; of _Webster_,
by G. T. Curtis, by Lodge; of _Clay_, by Schurz; of
_Calhoun_, by Crallé; of _Sumner_, by E. L. Pierce; of
_Lincoln_, by Nicolay and Hay, by Morse; of _Seward_, by
Fr. Brancroft; of _W. L. Garrison_, by O. Johnson, by
W. P. Garrison; _The American Commonwealths_, a series of
histories of the separate States (edited by H. E. Scudder); writings
of J. Q. Adams, Webster, Clay, Calhoun, E. Everett, C. Sumner,
W. H. Seward; John Fiske, _American Political Ideas_.

Literary Biographies. _Life of Walter Scott_, by Lockhart; of
Jeffrey, by Cockburn; of Macaulay, by Trevelyan; of Arnold, by
Stanley; of Dickens, by Forster; of Carlyle, by Froude; of George
Eliot [Mrs. Lewes], by Cross. _Life of Irving_, by P. M. Irving;
of Bryant, by Parke Godwin; _Life and Letters of George Ticknor;
Life of Ripley_, by Frothingham; Series of "American Men of
Letters," including _Washington Irving_, by Warner;
_Cooper_, by T. R. Lounsbury; _Emerson_, by O. W. Holmes,
etc.

Argyll, _The Eastern Question, 1856 to 1858 and the Second Afghan
War_; Taylor, _Russia before and after the War_ [of 1877]
(1880); _Daily News Correspondence of the War between Russia and
Turkey_ [1877-78] (2 vols.); Baker Pasha, _War in Bulgaria_
(2 vols.); Wallace, _Egypt and the Egyptian Question_; Malleson,
_History of Afghanistan_; Labilliere, _Early History of the
Colony of Victoria_ (2 vols.); Grant and Knollys, _The China War
of 1860_; Scott, _France and Tongking_ [in 1884]; Vambéry,
_Central Asia_; Stanley, _Congo and the Founding of its Free
State_ (2 vols.).

Rae, _Contemporary Socialism_; Woolsey, _Communism and
Socialism_; Laveleye, _Le Socialisme Contemporain_ (10th
ed.); Schaeffle, _Quintessens des Socialismus_; A. Menger,
_Das Recht auf den vollen Arbeitsertrag_ (2d ed.).

End of Project Gutenberg's Outline of Universal History, by George Park Fisher