Chapter V: Europe, the Third French Republic, and the Union of Italy

(1871-).

COMPLETED UNION OF ITALY.--When the war between Prussia and France broke out, the republicans in Italy were disposed to take possession of _Rome_ at once. _Mazzini_ urged them to this step. The king, however, was bound by the agreement with France to prevent this action; which, moreover, might have divided, instead of uniting, Italy. _Mazzini_ was arrested, and sent to _Gaeta_. But with the fall of Napoleon, on the declaration of _Jules Favre_ that the "September Convention" (p. 574) was at an end, _Victor Emmanuel_, professing that he was bound to maintain order in the peninsula, sent his troops into _Rome_. The Pope lost his temporal dominions, and was limited to the title and prerogatives of the spiritual head of the Catholic Church. The seat of the Italian government was removed to the ancient capital (July 1, 1871). The present king, _Umberto I._, ascended the throne 1878.

PIUS IX.: THE COUNCIL OF THE VATICAN.--The long pontificate of _Pius IX_. was distinguished by important acts having relation to the doctrine and discipline of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1854 he promulgated the declaration of the _Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary_. He thus determined authoritatively a question which had long been debated in the schools of theology. Ten years later (1864) he issued an _Encyclical_, together with a _Syllabus_ of Errors, in which, besides the condemnation of opinions in matters of faith which were adjudged heterodox, various alleged encroachments of the civil authority and heretical views respecting the control of the state in reference to marriage, education, etc., were denounced. The views thus condemned are such as the kingdom of Belgium had recognized, and France and some other Roman Catholic countries have shown themselves willing to accept. In 1869 the Oecumenical _Council of the Vatican_ assembled, and after long debate sanctioned the doctrine of papal infallibility; that is, they promulgated the dogma that the Pope, when addressing the whole Church on a subject of morals or theology, is kept by the Spirit of God from enunciating error.

"OLD CATHOLICS."--Most of those who had strenuously endeavored to prevent this action, either because they considered it inexpedient, or disbelieved in the doctrine which it established, acquiesced in the decision of the council. There were some persevering dissentients, however, in Germany especially, of whom Dr. _Döllinger_ was the most distinguished. They organized themselves as a distinct body, under the name of "Old Catholics." They were mostly educated persons; the party had no root among the common people. In France, the most distinguished of them was Père _Hyacinthe_, a preacher of much popularity and eloquence.

REVOLUTIONS IN SPAIN.--After the revolution attended by the flight of Queen _Isabella_ from Spain (1868), a majority of the Cortes decided for a monarchy, although many desired a republic. In 1870 _Amadeus_, the second son of the King of Italy, accepted the crown. But he found it impossible to restore order and peace, and Feb. 11, 1873, abdicated the throne. A bloody conflict of factions ensued. _Don Carlos_, the new Pretender of that name, raised his standard in the North. The Cortes were for a federal republic. _Castelar_, who as president was at the head of the government, and after him Marshal _Serrano_, by whom he was superseded, made no decisive progress against the Carlists. _Alfonso_, the youthful son of _Isabella_, was proclaimed king by General _Martinez Campos_; and the army pronounced in his favor (Dec. 29, 1874). _Serrano_ laid down his office. The Carlist revolt was crushed, and _Don Carlos_ driven out of the country. _Alfonso_ died 1885, and was succeeded by a regency during the long minority of his posthumous son, _Alfonso XIII_. Both _Canovas_ and _Sagasta_ loyally supported the queen-mother, _Maria Christina_, acting as regent.

STATE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE.--In July, 1875, the Turkish provinces of _Herzegovina_ and _Bosnia_ rebelled against the intolerable oppression of the Sultan's government. The little mountainous kingdom of _Montenegro_--which for four centuries had preserved its independence through numerous struggles with Turkey, and had a quarrel of its own with that power--lent help to its Slavonian neighbor. _Servia_ did the same. The Austro-Hungarian Empire, a composite of distinct provinces and nationalities, was strongly interested to avert war in that region. The revolt was not put down by the Turks. The three European emperors moved the Sultan to pledge himself to an extensive programme of reforms in _Bosnia_ and _Herzegovina_,--a pledge which there was no intention on his part to fulfill. England gave no aid to the revolt, but strengthened herself in the East by obtaining, through a purchase of shares from the Khedive of Egypt, the control of the _Suez Canal_ (Nov. 25, 1875). Russia, as kinsman of all the Slavonic peoples, and protector of Greek Christians, assumed alone the part of a champion of the maltreated provinces. But England refused to join with Russia, Germany, Austria, and France, in threatening "more effectual"--that is, coercive--measures, in case of the Porte's refusal to pacify the insurgents by carrying out his promises. Great Britain was bent on keeping the Sultan's empire, as being a barrier in the way of Russian ambition and essential to the security of India, from being dismembered, and professed to be swayed by respect for the rights of Turkey as an independent power. A revolt in Bulgaria was crushed by the Turks, who were guilty of such terrible atrocities that the "Bulgarian massacres" shocked all Christendom (1876). In the course of the difficulties just narrated, two revolutions, by which sultans had been dethroned, had taken place in the palace at Constantinople. The ambassadors of the Great Powers, in a conference at Constantinople, agreed in demanding of Turkey a constitution and guaranties for the benefit of the oppressed subjects in the provinces of the Ottoman Empire. This requirement the Porte refused to accept. A subsequent attempt of the same nature met with no better success (1877). Russia allowed its subjects to render effective help to the revolted districts. On the contrary, England was offended by the alleged ambitious schemes of the Muscovites, and advocated longer forbearance with the Sultan; but _Lord Derby_ announced (April 19, 1877) that Turkey had been warned to expect no assistance from England. Nevertheless, the mission of Mr. _Layard_ to Constantinople, and all the other circumstances, emboldened the Turks to refuse compliance with the Czar's demands.

THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR.--The Turko-Russian war began in April, 1877. Russia, according to her previous declaration, took up arms alone. The Russian troops crossed the Danube and the Balkan Mountains, and seized on the important _Shipka Pass_. At first they seemed destined to a speedy triumph. But the Turks under _Osman Pasha_ fought with unexpected valor and success. At length, however, their leader was obliged to surrender his army of forty-four thousand men at _Plevna_ (Dec. 10). _Adrianople_ was occupied by the Russians (Jan. 28). They were thus in the neighborhood of Constantinople. Meantime, after reverses in the East, the Russians had taken _Kars_, and pushed on to _Erzeroum_.

TREATY OF SAN STEFANO: THE BERLIN CONFERENCE.--Turkey now appealed to England to mediate; but Russia declined any such intervention, and insisted on treating separately with Turkey. England was now ready to interfere in behalf of the Sultan, and for the safety of Constantinople. Russia hastened to conclude with Turkey the _Peace of San Stefano_ (March 3), the stipulations of which greatly reduced the Turkish power in Europe. _Bulgaria_ was to be governed by a Christian prince, and fifty thousand Russian troops were to occupy it for two years. England concluded (June 4) a secret treaty engaging to protect Turkey in Asia: _Cyprus_ was given up to be occupied by the British. Austria, as well as Great Britain, was anxious to deprive Russia of the advantages which she had naturally expected to reap by the war,--a war in which the other powers had declined to take part. Thus another great war was threatened, about the provisions of the _San Stefano_ treaty. The conflict was averted by the _Congress at Berlin_ (June 13-July 13, 1878), where _D'lsraeli_--who was then prime minister, and a friend of the anti-Russian policy--represented England. Austria and England were aided by Germany, and the diplomacy of _Gortchakoff_ was thus overborne. _Servia_ and _Roumania_, as well as _Montenegro_, were declared independent. _Bulgaria_ was divided into two portions; the southern of which, called _East Roumelia_, was to be governed by the Sultan directly, but with a separate administration under a Christian governor. To Austria, the military occupation of _Bosnia_ and _Herzegovina_, which meant the possession of these provinces, was yielded. _Thessaly_ had engaged in an insurrection, and _Greece_ had hoped for an extension of her boundaries; but nothing effectual was done by England to forward this claim. Here Russia, always opposed to the building-up of a strong Greek kingdom, was at one with England. Russia obtained _Kars_, but her gains were far less than she deemed herself entitled to receive. The other powers, on the contrary, permitted Austria to advance far in the direction of Constantinople. During the war, the hostility of the _Magyars_ (or Hungarians proper) to the _Slaves_ had been ready to break out in the form of direct armed assistance to Turkey. On the other hand, the Slaves in Hungary, and in all the Austrian territories, were with difficulty restrained from enlisting actively in aid of the Russians. The arbitrary dealing of the Berlin Conference with _Bosnia_ and _Herzegovina_ occasioned an armed but ineffectual resistance, in these provinces, to the extension of the Austrian sway over them.

SITUATION OF RUSSIA.--Russia, embittered by Austria's refusal to aid in the Crimean War, had remained neutral in the struggle with Prussia, which ended in the exclusion of Austria from Germany. Russia was now offended with Germany for repaying her neutrality in the Franco-Prussian struggle by helping in the Berlin Conference the schemes of England and Austria. The attempt of Russia to form an alliance with France prompted _Bismarck_ (Sept., 1879) to negotiate a defensive alliance with Austria. The activity of the _Nihilists_, and the refusal of France (March, 1880) to deliver up _Hartmann_, charged with an attempt on the life of the Czar, made the French alliance impossible. The sympathy of the Emperor _William_, after the endeavor made to assassinate _Alexander_ (Feb. 17, 1880), tended to restore cordiality. Russia was embarrassed by these internal troubles. _Alexander_ was murdered by Nihilists (March 13, 1881), and was succeeded by his son, _Alexander III._, who died after a lingering illness, Nov. 1, 1894. He was succeeded by his son Nicholas II. In 1891 and 1892 Russia was afflicted by famine and cholera.

NIHILISM.--The accession of _Alexander II._, following on the rigid autocracy of _Nicholas_, had introduced a more lenient rule. _Alexander_ decreed (March 3, 1861) the emancipation of the serfs, who were also endowed with small possessions in land. The boon thus conferred, along with its advantages, brought with it hardship; for there were ways of oppression still open to the nobles, by which the emancipated class were made grievously to suffer. The great measure served to increase the national agitation which was connected with other causes. There had long been an enthusiastic party of "Slavophils," actuated by a strong race-feeling, and eager for "Panslavism," or a union of Slavonic peoples. It was the people in Russia which moved the court, against its will, to go to war, single-handed, with Turkey, in 1877. In the prosecution of the war, the abuses which were brought to light among officials, civil and military, heightened the indignation which the corrupt "bureaucracy"--the administration by departments, each under its chief--provoked. The failure to gather the harvest of the war, of which Russia was deprived by diplomacy, increased the popular unrest. A party of socialistic democracy, a revolutionary party, had developed itself as early as 1874. The way had been preparing for it for a decade of years. Out of this party came later (1878) the "Terrorists,"--the secret body which sought for a remedy for social and governmental evils by annihilating all existing authority in Church and State. They had begun with the demand of a constitution. The despotic, repressive measures of the government--in 1879 and 1880, sixty thousand persons were sent to _Siberia_ without a trial--were followed by more desperate attempts of Nihilist conspirators upon the lives of the rulers of the land, and of their agents. These culminated in the murder of the Czar.

COMMUNISM AND SOCIALISM.--A brief sketch of the various movements thus designated may be here in place. _Communism_ is the name given to the theory that it is desirable to have a community of goods, and a total or partial abolition of private property. _Socialism_ is often used to designate the same system, but is more commonly applied to the doctrine that government should own the land and all the implements of industry. Not a few religious sects of communists, like the _Shakers_ (established in 1780, in the United States), have long existed. The hope of social amelioration by societies of a communistic character has led to a variety of movements for the formation of them on both sides of the Atlantic. Equality, education, deliverance from poverty and from burdensome toil, have been the blessings sought. Prominent leaders in such movements were _Saint-Simon_ (1760-1825), whose ideas produced a strong effect in France; _Charles Fourier_ (1772-1837), by whose influence "phalanxes," as the communities adopting his views were named, were formed in Europe and America; and _Robert Owen_ (1771-1858), whose societies were built up at _New Lanark_ in Scotland, _New Harmony_ in Indiana, and in other places. Since the French Revolution of 1848, these particular attempts of philanthropic socialism have passed out of notice. Shortly after the Reign of Terror, _Babeuf_ attempted (1796) to overthrow the authorities in Paris, and to bring to pass an equal division of property. The course of political struggles in France, in connection with the revolutions in industry and trade, which have occurred since the fall of the first Napoleon, have given rise to a disaffected working-class, or _proletariat_. The complaint has arisen, that the benefits resulting from political freedom in Europe have come to the _middle class_,--to tradesmen and manufacturers possessed of capital,--and that the laboring class are deprived of their due share of the profits of industry. One noted expounder of communism in France was _Proudhon_ (1809-1865), who sought to give emphasis to his doctrine by affirming that "property is theft." _Louis Blanc_, who was a member of the provisional government in France in 1848, both before and after that time was an active promoter of the scheme under which government is to furnish labor on a large scale, and to become the grand employer of the working-class. In Germany, socialism in its later distinctive form, as defined above, has been advocated by a number of well-known writers. Perhaps the ablest of these was _Ferdinand Lasalle_ (1825-1864). Like the other principal socialists, he would clothe the State with a vastly augmented power and responsibility. In this particular, socialism is directly antagonistic to the ideas of democracy which had previously prevailed. _Lasalle's_ doctrine was that the State should lend capital at interest to associations of laborers. This, he thought, would be the first step in their emancipation. _Karl Marx_ would go much farther. He would transfer to the State all capital and all means of production. He would, as he professes, "overthrow all the existing arrangements of society." With property, inheritance is to be abolished; labor is to be made compulsory; all means of transport are to be in the hands of the State, and so forth. _The International Working Men's Association_--popularly called "the International"--was organized in London in 1864. It has held congresses in _Geneva_, and in other cities. It entered upon the most destructive schemes of social agitation and revolution. But the society was divided in 1872, on the expulsion of _Bakunin_, a Russian Nihilist. A faction of the most violent class continued its activity for a while, and stirred up risings in several towns in Spain in 1873, in imitation of the insurrections in Paris in 1871. Different shades of socialistic theory have been advocated; from the "Christian Socialism" which aims at such objects as the creation of cooperative associations in the working-class, to the fanatics who would sweep away existing institutions by violence, and who resort to the use of dynamite as a means of inspiring terror.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION SINCE 1871.--_Thiers_ had wonderful success in providing for the payment of the German indemnity. His term of office was prolonged (Aug. 31, 1871) for three years, with the title of President. _Thiers_ had cooperated with _MacMahon_ in crushing the commune, and in wholesome measures for the preservation of order. An adverse vote in the Assembly (May 24, 1873) caused his resignation. This was effected by a combination of the monarchical parties. _MacMahon_, his successor, took a very conservative position. The monarchists united to restore the _Count of Chambord_ to the throne as _Henry V._, but the scheme failed. In February, 1875, a new constitution, of a conservative republican cast, was established, which provided for a president and a cabinet, a senate, and a chamber of deputies. The legitimists, Orleanists, and imperialists united with the president in his reactionary, anti-republican policy. The whole clerical party were on that side. The republicans were divided among themselves, the most radical group being under the leadership of _Gambetta_. The danger to the republic compelled a common policy. One of the great subjects of controversy related to public education, in the management of which the Church and the clergy desired to retain and extend their influence and control. To secularize education, was a main aim of the body of the republicans. The success of the republicans, against extraordinary efforts made to defeat them, in the elections of 1877, at last prevailed on the marshal-president to accept the verdict of the country; and late in the year a republican cabinet was formed. The measures of _Jules Ferry_ and his supporters, for taking the business of instruction out of the hands of ecclesiastics and of the clerical orders, although most earnestly resisted by Bishop _Dupanloup_ and the whole clerical party, and opposed by a section of the republicans led by _Jules Simon_, were, after heated contention, adopted, and were completely carried out (1880). The death of _Thiers_ (Sept., 1877) did not weaken the party of which he was the most honored leader. The death of the young Prince _Louis Napoleon_ (1879) in South Africa, where he was serving, under the British, against the _Zulus_, was an almost fatal blow to the hopes of the Bonapartist faction. The more recent death of _Count Chambord_ (1883) was followed by the recognition, on the part of the legitimists, of the _Count of Paris_, of the Orleans house, as the next heir to the throne. A manifesto of Prince _Jerome Napoleon_ (1883), after the death of the young Prince _Napoleon_, aroused an agitation against all pretenders to the throne,--in particular, against the Orleanists; which led, after protracted debates, to the forced retirement of all the princes of this family from active service in the French army. In November, 1881, _Gambetta_ became the head of the cabinet; but the opposition to his policy within the republican ranks was stronger than had been anticipated. After a short time he laid down his office. He died Dec. 31, 1882. _Jules Grévy_ (first elected Jan. 30, 1879) was re-elected president Dec. 28, 1885. He was forced to resign in 1887 because his son-in-law was implicated in corrupt transactions. His successor was _Sadi Carnot_.

FRENCH CONQUESTS ABROAD.--The failure of France, in the Oriental difficulties, to gain the power which she desired, impelled her to build up colonial interests and settlements. Partly to punish marauding tribes, in 1881, an expedition was sent against _Tunis_; and the Bey was forced to accept a protectorate of the French over his dominion. Thus the French enlarged their power in Africa. This proceeding gave great offense to England, Italy, and the Turkish Sultan. On the ground of a treaty of 1841, a French admiral demanded the submission of the north-west coast of _Madagascar_ to a French protectorate; and when this demand was refused, he bombarded and captured the second city in the island, _Tamatave_ (1883). The efforts of France to gain control over _Tonquin_ and the adjacent territory in _China_ attracted still more attention. _Tonquin_ is the most populous province of the kingdom of _Anam_, of which it formed a part after 1802. Over this kingdom, China claimed the rights of a suzerain; which the French refused to acknowledge. In 1862, after a war lasting for almost four years, _Napoleon III._ obtained from _Anam_, by the treaty of _Saigun_, the provinces called _Cochin-China_. In 1874 the French Republic extorted from King _Tuduc_ of Anam a treaty by which his foreign policy was placed under the direction of France. Against this treaty, China protested. In 1882 the French commander _Rivière_ seized the city of _Hanoi_. The "Black Flags," a body of free-lances or pirates, whose leader had been one of the Chinese rebels, fought against the French; but it soon appeared that both the king of _Anam_ and the government of China were in league with his hostile force. Two years later a treaty was signed bringing _Tonkin_ almost directly under French rule and reëstablishing the protectorate in _Anam_.

THE CONFLICT OF PRUSSIA AND THE VATICAN.--The Roman Catholic Church in Germany is recognized as a legal institution. Its revenues are received from the state, which, in turn, exercises a supervision over the education of its clergy. In Prussia, especially under _Frederick William IV._, large privileges were granted by law to the Catholic body. The proceedings of the Vatican Council awakened in Germany, as elsewhere in Europe, the apprehension that the decree of papal infallibility might give rise to conflict between the authorities of the Church and of the State. _Bismarck_ considered that the "ultramontane" party in the Church involved danger to the newly created German Empire. The Prussian government resisted the attempt of the Church, in 1871, to remove from office Catholic teachers who refused to subscribe to the Vatican dogma of papal infallibility. In other words, the government recognized and undertook to protect the "Old Catholics." The contest with the clerical or ultramontane party went on; and before the end of the year, the Catholic branch of the Prussian Ministry of Worship and Instruction was abolished. In a debate in 1872, _Bismarck_ said, "Of this be sure, that neither in Church nor in State are we on the way to Canossa." His policy met with a determined resistance from _Pius IX._ The Jesuits were expelled from the German Empire. This law was afterwards construed to include other orders.

THE FALK LAWS: CONTINUED CONFLICT.--The laws proposed by the Prussian minister of worship, _Falk_, required that candidates for the clerical office in the Catholic Church should have a training in the gymnasium and university, and that every ecclesiastical appointment should be sanctioned by the civil authorities. They provided for a royal court for the settlement of ecclesiastical questions. These laws were passed in 1873. In 1875 civil marriage was made obligatory in the empire. These measures were stoutly resisted by "the Center," or the clerical party, in the Prussian Parliament, and in the _Reichstag_. They were declared by the Pope to be invalid, and Roman Catholics were forbidden to obey them. Other enactments, one of which forbade all payments to the bishops and clergy unless they should sign a promise to obey the laws of the state, were adopted by Prussia. Refractory bishops and priests were punished in various ways. The result was that the Roman Catholic party, led by _Windhorst_, ex-minister of Hanover, in opposition to _Bismarck's_ measures, was consolidated. The struggle extended beyond the bounds of Prussia: it was _Bavaria_, a Catholic state, which proposed the law requiring civil marriage. After the accession of _Leo XIII._, there was on both sides an increased disposition to find terms of peace by which the numerous vacancies in Catholic clerical offices could be filled. The need which _Bismarck_ felt of the support of "the Center" for his financial measures favored this result. _Falk_ resigned (July 13, 1879), he being personally odious to the Roman party. After long debates, a bill was passed (Jan. 1, 1882) giving to the king and his ministers discretionary powers, which opened the way for filling the vacant places. Still, in the great festival at the completion of the Cologne Cathedral (Oct. 15), the clerical party stood aloof. But the mutual friendly approaches of the chancelor and his ultramontane opponents continued. Diplomatic correspondence was opened with the Vatican. Some of the harsher features of the anti-papal legislation were revoked.

BISMARCK AND SOCIALISM.--One motive in this modification of the chancelor's policy was the rapid progress of socialism. At first, while _Bismarck_ was engaged in a struggle with the liberals, who impeded his plans in the Prussian Parliament, he had willingly availed himself of the support of _Lasalle_ and his socialistic followers. But after the war with France, the party of the "Social Democrats" became more and more numerous and formidable. It was not, however, until a second attempt was made on the emperor's life, that Bismarck was able to carry, against the combination of parties, his measures giving to the government extraordinary powers for the stifling of socialistic agitation (1879). The law for the suppression of socialistic meetings, newspapers, etc., was rigorously enforced.

THE "PARTICULARISTS."--Bismarck was, moreover, obliged to contend with the "Particularists," who were hostile to the Empire, and with a large number besides them, who were opposed to a greater degree of imperial centralization at the expense of the power of the separate states. Unable to obtain for the imperial government the control over the German railroad system, he devised a plan (1879) by which Prussia would eventually control three-quarters of the railroads of Germany. An imperial code of laws was adopted (1877); but, from jealousy of Prussia, the seat of the supreme court of appeal was fixed at _Leipsic_. In his economical and financial measures, the chancelor was often charged with the exercise of arbitrary power. Free, representative government, according to the English system, did not accord with his idea of the Prussian monarchy, and with the character of the new empire, the unity of which he was naturally anxious to fortify. By his alliance with Austria in 1879, he placed Germany in a situation to resist Russia and France, in case Russia, aggrieved by the action of Germany at the Berlin Conference (1878), should join hands with France in acts of hostility against the German empire. In 1888 _William I._ died and was succeeded by his son, _Frederick III._, who held the sovereignty but a few months, dying June 15, 1888. His son, _William II._, succeeded him.

THE BRITISH SWAY IN INDIA.--British sway by degrees extended itself over India. The fall of the Mogul empire left the country in a state of anarchy. Strife arose with one tribe after another, until the authority of England came to be acknowledged as far north as the Himalayas. The English advance was made with the help of native auxiliaries, and could not have been made without it. It was quite as much an internal revolution as a foreign conquest. As the British enlarged their dominion, and came into conflict with the French, the appetite for supremacy grew. Under the rule of the _Marquis of Wellesley_ (1798-1805), partly through the victories of _Sir Arthur Wellesley_ (afterwards the Duke of Wellington), "the policy of intervention and annexation" was pursued with brilliant success. The _Burmese_ were conquered, and parts of their territory annexed, in 1826, 1852, and 1885. The effort always was to secure a quiet frontier. In 1843 a war with _Scinde_ resulted in its absorption in British territory. In 1849 the annexation of _Punjab_ followed, a British protectorate having been found insufficient. The misgovernment of the native princes in _Oude_ led to the assumption of the government of that province by the English in 1856.

THE INDIAN MUTINY.--There was hostility to British rule among the Mohammedans in India, and distrust among the Hindoos. The latter acquired a fanatical belief that the English, who had abolished the burning of widows, and even legalized their marriage, meant to force the people to lose caste by driving them to sacrilegious practices. The report that cartridges had been served out which had been lubricated with the fat of the swine, abhorred by Moslems, and of the cow, venerated by the Hindoos, stirred up a revolt among the native Sepoy troops (1857). The insurrection spread, and was attended with savage cruelties. There was a frightful massacre of women and children at _Cawnpore_, before General _Havelock_ could arrive for its relief. The English, who were besieged in _Lucknow_, after terrible suffering, were relieved by the opportune coming of this gallant soldier. All the English residents in _Delhi_, who could not escape into the jungle, were murdered. The weak old king placed himself at the head of the rebellion. _Delhi_ was recaptured by the British, and the conquest completed by _Sir Colin Campbell_ (March 22, 1858). _Oude_ was subdued. Gradually the rebellion was crushed, and merciless severity was exercised by the conquerors upon those most actively concerned in it. One consequence of the revolt was the entire transference of the government of India from the East India Company to the Crown. The measure was introduced into Parliament by _Lord Palmerston_ (1858). Under the ministry of _Disraeli_, and on his motion, the Queen added to her titles that of "Empress of India" (1877).

BRITISH WARS WITH THE AFGHANS.--In the last century _Ahmed Khan_, the ruler of Afghanistan, extended his dominion as far as _Delhi_. But he died in 1773, and his son _Timour_ changed the seat of government from _Candahar_ to _Cabul_. In 1838 the English declared war against _Dost Mohammed_, one of the three rulers of the country, whose seat of power was in this city. The British attack was successful; but insurrections broke out (1841), and they agreed to evacuate the country. The whole British army, which had to pass through the _Kurd-Cabul Pass_, was destroyed by cold and hunger, and by the harassing attacks of the mountaineers (1842). It numbered forty-five hundred fighting men and twelve thousand five hundred camp-followers. Another British army, under _Gen. Pollock_, forced the _Khyber Pass_, and took vengeance on _Cabul_. In 1855 _Dost Mohammed_, now an ally of the English, drove the Persians out of _Herat_, which, as "the key of India," the British were anxious to protect against ambitious schemes of Russia. In 1863 he took _Herat_ from _Ahmed_, the sultan there, who was considered a tool of Persia and of Russia. _Dost Mohammed_ died soon after, and was succeeded by his son _Sher Ali Khan_. After the acquisition of _Quetta_ by the English, he began to side with the Russians. His intrigues with them, and his refusal to receive a British embassy, brought on the second Afghan war of the British (1878-81). The ameer died (Feb. 21, 1879); the Afghans were defeated by _Gen. Roberts_, who took _Cabul_, and installed as ameer _Abdurrahman Khan_ (1880). The English then decided to evacuate the territory. On their march they were attacked by _Ayub Khan_ of Herat. Later he was defeated by _Roberts_, and driven back to that place. The _Gladstone_ ministry had succeeded the ministry of _Disraeli_, who had been anxious to establish a "scientific frontier" between Afghanistan and the Czar's territories,--such a frontier as would secure a "neutral zone" between them and India, to serve as a barrier against Russian invasion.

RUSSIA AND AFGHANISTAN.--The gradual approaches of Russia in the direction of _Herat_ have been on two lines. The one is the line south-easterly from the Caspian. She gained a lodgment in 1869 at _Krasnovodsk_ on the eastern shore of that sea. In 1880 _Geopteke_ and _Askabat_ were taken. The other line of aggressive approach is south-westerly from the neighborhood of the Oxus. On this line, partly from displeasure at the English occupation of Egypt, and in pursuance of the policy, adopted especially since the Berlin Conference (1878), to advance towards _Herat_, the Russians suddenly seized _Merv_, an oasis extremely important from a military point of view, over which _Persia_ claimed a certain suzerainty. The Russians occupied it in force, under Gen. _Komaroff_ (March 16, 1884). Subsequently England and Russia agreed to ascertain and fix the northern boundary of Afghanistan. The occupation of _Penjdeh_ by the Afghans, followed by the advance of _Komaroff_,--of which the British complained as an aggression,--brought the two countries to the verge of war (1885).

THE WESTERN POWERS AND EGYPT.--"The Oriental question"--the question relating to Turkey and its dependencies--constantly took on new phases, and presented to the powers of Europe fresh difficulties and dangers of conflict. The Khedive of Egypt, _Ismail Pasha_, was a friend and admirer of _Napoleon III_. and of the French. He succeeded in obtaining from the Sultan repeated concessions, which reduced his dependence on Turkey to little more than an obligation to pay an annual tribute, together with certain marks of respect and honor. His conflicts with lands on the south, _Dafour_ and _Abyssinia_, his extravagant outlays in public works of internal improvement, and the enormous interest paid to foreign capitalists for their loans, involved him in the utmost financial embarrassment. This furnished the occasion to the Western powers, in particular to England and France, to intermeddle still more in Egyptian affairs. The Khedive sold to the British Government his shares in the _Suez Canal_, and gave into the hands of the English and French (1878) the control of the financial administration of the country. This sort of dependence was repugnant to both the Khedive and the Egyptian people. The native officers were pushed into the background. The most lucrative stations were filled by foreigners, and the weight of taxation was almost intolerable. The attempt to throw off this yoke only resulted in the deposition of _Ismail_ by the Sultan, on the demand of the two Western powers. His weak son, _Tewfik Pasha_, took his place. The control of the finances remained in foreign hands. The result of the discontent of the people, and of the disaffection of the Egyptian officers, was a revolt led by _Arabi Pasha_, a military officer (1881). The Khedive complied with the demands of the insurgents: their chief was made minister of war. The Western powers were bent on suppressing this movement, and, in addition to threats and diplomatic measures, sent their fleets to Egypt. A revolt broke out in _Alexandria_, in which the English consul was wounded and many Europeans were slain (June, 1882). The city was filled with terror, and all trade was suspended. The English fleet bombarded the city, and set it on fire. _Arabi_ withdrew his troops to _Cairo_. He was now deposed by the Khedive, and declared a rebel. His troops showed little spirit. The fortifications of _Tel-el-Kebir_ were taken by the English general, Sir _Garnet Wolseley_, almost without resistance. _Aboukir, Damietta_, and _Cairo_ surrendered, and the Egyptian leader, _Arabi_, was captured and banished. From that time Egypt fell into a condition of helpless dependence on England. France found herself without the influence there which she had always coveted since the days of the first _Napoleon_. The system of administration in Egypt was now organized by the English, through Lord _Dufferin_. Great complaint was made against them by the other powers, for not taking sufficient precautions to prevent the introduction of the cholera from India. The principal troubles of the English grew out of the invasion of the false prophet called _El Mahdi_, who gathered to himself a host of followers in the _Soudan_, partly instigated by Moslem fanaticism, but largely impelled by their hatred of the Egyptian government established over that region. The people of the _Soudan_ complained bitterly of the oppressive Egyptian officers. The slave-dealers there were exasperated at the prohibition of their traffic, on which England had insisted. In the course of the conflict with _El Mahdi_, _Hicks Pasha_, an English officer in the service of the Khedive, was defeated and slain, and his force cut to pieces, near _El Obeid_ (Nov. 3, 4, and 5, 1883). There was great fear now for the province of _Sennaar_ and especially for the city of _Khartoum_, where there were many Europeans. Mr. _Gladstone_, and the English ministry of which he was the head, were not disposed to hold the _Soudan_, but desired to give it up as soon as the garrisons could be rescued and brought away. To this policy the Khedive was opposed. The project of a military interference in the _Soudan_ by the Sultan, the English took care to prevent by attaching to it impossible conditions. On the Red Sea, _Osman Digna_, a partisan of the _Mahdi_, made repeated attacks upon _Suakim_, the base of the operations of _Baker Pasha_, another former English officer, now become general of the Egyptian army. On account of the cowardice of the Egyptian troops, _Baker_ was defeated with heavy loss (Feb. 4, 1884). The British troops from _Cairo_ under _Graham_ had better success; and _Osman Digna_ was vanquished, and driven into the mountains. The English government adopted the extraordinary measure of sending General _Gordon_ to Khartoum; his errand being to pacify the tribes of the _Soudan_, to provide for the deliverance of the garrisons, and to arrange terms of accommodation with _El Mahdi_. This last it was found impossible to accomplish. _Berber_ was captured by the enemy, and garrison and male population were slaughtered. _Gordon_ was shut up in _Khartoum_. The peculiar financial situation obliged the English ministry to hold a conference of the great powers (June 28, 1885) at London. Lord _Granville_ insisted that only financial points, and not the general Egyptian question, should be considered, which did not accord with the views of the other powers, and the conference adjourned without effecting anything. The perilous situation of _Gordon_, and the feeling in England on this account, obliged the government to send out General _Wolseley_ with a large force to Egypt; but before aid could be given _Gordon_, _Khartoum_, was betrayed, and he was slain. The course of England respecting Egypt had left her isolated as regards the other European powers, and had awakened much disaffection in England. It was the policy of the Gladstone ministry in relation to Egypt, even more than complaints growing out of their conduct in the troubles with Russia, that obliged them to resign, and to give place to the Tory cabinet of Lord _Salisbury_. Upon the death of _Tewfik_ (Jan. 7, 1892) his son, _Abbas Pasha_, became khedive.

GREAT BRITAIN AND CANADA.--On the cession of Canada to Great Britain (1763), the French inhabitants of _Lower Canada_ were secured in the free exercise of the Catholic religion, and in the possession of equal rights with English settlers. "The Quebec Act" of 1774 made Canada one royal government, and brought in the English criminal code with trial by jury. During the Revolution, many loyalists emigrated to Upper Canada. A strong desire arose for a repeal of the "Quebec Act." In 1791, under _Pitt_, the two parts of Canada were made separate provinces. A constitution was granted, which provided for an elective legislature for each. The governors, the executive councils, and the legislative councils were to be appointed by the Crown. The governments were still subject to the Colonial Office in London. A spirit of opposition between the two provinces increased. _Upper Canada_, under English law, grew in numbers and prosperity; but the growth of population in _Lower Canada_ was much more rapid. Here there was an antagonism between the Assembly and the English governors. There was an open rebellion in 1837, which spread into Upper Canada. The two Canadas were united in 1841; the executive department became responsible, as in England, to the popular branch of the legislature; and under the liberal and enlightened administration of Lord _Elgin_ (1847-54), a better feeling arose. He was obliged, however, to suppress a mob of the conservatives, or "loyalists" (1849), who were hostile to the extension of a general amnesty to former rebels. In 1856 the Upper House was made elective. In 1857 _Ottawa_ was made the seat of government. In 1867 the _Dominion of Canada_ was constituted. It was at first a federal union of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Canadas; _Upper Canada_ receiving the name of _Ontario,_ and _Lower Canada_ being named _Quebec._ _Manitoba,_ formed out of a part of Hudson Bay Territory, was admitted to the Dominion in 1870, and _British Columbia_ in 1871. _Prince Edward Island_ was admitted in 1873; and the same year the territories were received by transfer from the Hudson Bay Company. The Dominion has a Senate and a House of Commons. The authority of the Crown is represented by the governor-general and the council. Legislation is subject to a veto from the sovereign. Each province has its local government, but whatever powers are not expressly reserved to the several provinces are granted to the General Government,--a provision the reverse of that found in the Constitution of the United States, which the Canadian system in various features resembles.

In the Peace of Utrecht (1713), France gave up its claim to _Nova Scotia:_ the Peace of Paris (1763) surrendered to Great Britain _New Brunswick,_ and _Cape Breton_ and _Prince Edward_ islands. These are known at present as the _maritime provinces._ When the American War of Revolution began, thousands of loyalists emigrated to _Nova Scotia,_ as well as to _Upper Canada,_ from whom many of the present inhabitants are descended. The island of _Vancouver,_ on the western coast of _British Columbia,_ was surrendered to the navigator of this name by _Quadra,_ a Spanish commander, in 1792. In 1843 a trading-post was established at _Victoria_ by the Hudson Bay Company. The island forms politically a part of _British Columbia._ The Government of the Dominion, when British Columbia was received, engaged to construct a railway to the Pacific across British North America. England acquired a title to _Newfoundland_ in 1713. It first received a constitution in 1832. The government was made responsible to the Assembly in 1852.

GREAT BRITAIN AND AUSTRALIA.--Australia, which covers an area of three million square miles, when it was first visited by Europeans was found to be inhabited by native tribes of the Papuan, Melanesian, or Australasian race, of whom about eighty thousand now remain. In the seventeenth century, various points along its coasts were touched by European voyagers, especially by the Dutch. The discoveries of Captain _Cook_ (1769 to 1777) had an important influence in leading to settlements on this island-continent. _New South Wales,_ a name given by _Cook,_ is the oldest of the English provinces in Australia. Not _Botany Bay,_ which he had selected for a settlement, but _Port Jackson,_ was made a penal station (1788) for convicts from England. This place, however, continued to be erroneously called _Botany Bay._ The principal harbor was named _Sydney Cove._ In 1803 _Van Dieman's Land,_ now called _Tasmania,_ was first occupied. Thus the beginnings of colonization in Australia were made by the dregs of English society. The convicts labored for their own support, and, when their terms had expired, sometimes received as a gift small farms, and implements with which to till them. The character of the settlement, and the management of it, became much more humane after 1810, when _Macquarie_ became governor. Free colonists, English and Scotch, came and joined it. The discovery of the upland pastures beyond the Blue Mountains, which were remarkably adapted to sheep, made an epoch in the history of the colony. Spanish merino sheep were introduced: wool became the chief staple; the production of it, especially after the invention of the combing-machine, became very profitable, and free emigrants poured in. The Australian Agricultural Company was formed in England. Western Australia began to be settled in 1829, but did not thrive. New colonies continued to be formed in Eastern Australia. South Australia was made prosperous by copper-mines. Victoria, which became a distinct province in 1851, owes its growth to gold mines. _Melbourne_, its chief town, was planted in 1837. The first British governors at _Sydney_ were military officers, ruling with despotic authority. Representative institutions were gradually formed in the different provinces. The constitutions were framed on the model of the home government; but in _Victoria_ and _Tasmania_ the Upper House was made elective. After long conflicts with the home government, the Australian colonies escaped from the misfortune of being places to which convicts were transported. The discovery of gold in _New South Wales_ and _Victoria_ was made in 1851, and caused at once an immense influx of immigrants. Next to gold, the most important article of export has been wool. Wheat and copper have been exported in large quantities. The breeding of cattle has been a profitable employment in these communities.

NEW ZEALAND.--In 1838 the first regular and permanent settlement was made in New Zealand. _Wellington_ was founded in the next year. New Zealand, with South Island and North Island, became a colony independent of Australia in 1841.

ENGLAND AND IRELAND.--The disaffection of the Irish, and their antipathy to English rule, broke out in different forms, as circumstances changed. For a long time the demand was for "Catholic emancipation." This was granted (p. 558); but most of the English concessions were made under such a pressure, and in appearance so grudgingly, that little was accomplished by them in placating Irish hostility. The outcry against tithes for the support of the Protestant Established Church was to a great extent quieted in 1838, when the odious features of this tax were removed. The Act disestablishing the Irish Protestant Church, carried by Mr. _Gladstone_ in 1869, and put in execution in 1871, took away one of the great grievances of which the Irish nation had to complain. The repeal of the legislative union of England and Ireland was the watchword of _O'Connell_ and his followers. In one form or another, the demand for local self-government or independence, which has been more lately urged under the name of "home rule," has been kept up with little intermission. It is about the special question of land reform that the most bitter conflicts have centered. The ownership of a great part of the land in Ireland by a few persons: the fact that great obstacles and great expenses--difficulties of late somewhat lightened--have existed in the way of the transference of land if any one had the means to purchase it: the circumstances that the owners have generally been, not residents, but absent landlords; that, in cases of dispute with tenants, the laws were for a long period framed in their interest; that the management of estates was left to agents or middle-men; that multitudes of tenants, whose holdings were small, could glean a bare subsistence from the soil, were doomed to famine if the potato-crop failed, and, when unable to pay the rent, were liable to "eviction," that is, to be turned out of doors, with their families, to perish,--these have been causes sufficient to give rise to endless disputes and conflicts. Add to these facts the inbred hostility arising from differences of race and religion; the memory, on the part of the Irish, of centuries of misgovernment, and the feeling that the lands held by sufferance were wrested from their ancestors by force,--and the animosity manifested in revolts and outrages is easily explained. The English government, in a series of measures,--in connection with which, acts of coercion for preventing and punishing violence have been passed,--undertook to lessen the evils that exist, and to produce a better state of feeling. The _Encumbered Estates Court_ was established to render more easy the transfer of lands. This Act, and the _Land Act_ passed the same year (1860), although well meant, failed to improve the situation of the tenants. Mr. _Gladstone's_ great measure of disestablishment has been referred to. His second great reform measure was the Land Law of 1870, the effect of which was to make the landlord pay damages to the evicted tenant, to compensate him for improvements which he had made, etc. One object of this Act was to create a body of peasant proprietors in Ireland. Additional Acts, in 1880, were designed to assist tenants to purchase their holdings. The hopes as to the practical benefit to follow the Act of 1870 were disappointed. In 1877, 1878, and 1879, there was a partial failure of the crops. The _Fenian_ movement, designed to secure Irish independence by force, was organized in the United States, 1857. By uniting with similar Irish brotherhoods, it extended itself in Great Britain as well as America, collected large funds, and, 1866, made ineffectual attempts to invade Canada. An armed rising in Ireland shortly after, under Fenian leadership, was suppressed. The national agitation consequent on these proceedings in Ireland, issued in the organization, 1870, of the Home Rule party, with Mr. _Isaac Butt_ a leading promoter. The object was to secure an Irish Parliament for Irish affairs, and for the control of Irish resources; the Imperial Parliament being left to deal with imperial affairs. In this period (about 1874) Mr. _Parnell_ grew to be conspicuous in politics. He became the leader of the Home Rule members of the House of Commons, who sought, by obstructing the progress of business, to compel the English government to withdraw its measures of coercion, and to legislate in accordance with the views of himself and his associates. The "obstructionists," by joining the Tories, effected the retirement of the Gladstone Cabinet (1885). In Ireland a system of "boycotting" was adopted for the punishment of landlords guilty of evicting tenants. This led to deeds of violence and blood. _Parnell_ died in 1891. and _Justin McCarthy_ became the leader of the Irish cause in Parliament. A Gladstone Cabinet again came into power in 1892, with an avowed object of securing Home Rule for Ireland.