Chapter VIII: Artillery Tactics (1)

_Materiel._ A battery of _light field artillery_ (3"), in the United States service, is sub-divided for action as follows:

Firing battery--4 guns and 6 caissons. (5 sections).
Combat train--6 caissons, 1 battery wagon, 1 store wagon.
Field train--4 army wagons.

The firing battery includes the first five sections (4 gun and 1 caisson).

The combat train includes the 3 remaining caisson sections and the battery and store wagons. The 9th section comprises the battery and store wagons and 4 field wagons. In subdivision part of the 9th section (battery and store wagons) is with the combat train. The battery is also divided into 4 platoons, each includes 2 sections.

A battalion consists of 3 batteries, a regiment of 2 battalions. A battery has 3 telephones and 1 mile of double conductor buzzer wire. A battalion has 2 telephones and 3 miles of double conductor armored cable, on a reel cart. A regiment has same telephone equipment as a battalion with extra buzzer wire.

Each battery carries 358 rounds of ammunition per gun, a portion of which, varying with circumstances, is shell, the remainder being shrapnel. Remarkable results are claimed for the large capacity high explosive shell, against both personnel and materiel. The proper proportions of shell and shrapnel and the feasibility of the use of high explosive shell are still undecided. The weight behind the teams is: gun and limber about 4,300 lbs., caisson and limber about 4,600 lbs.

The gun elevates 15°, and depresses 5°, and these angles may be increased by depressing or elevating the trail. It traverses 4° each side of center. Height of axle 41 inches, tread of carriage, 60 inches.

In the panoramic sight the deflection is measured in mils (angle subtended by .001 times the range--hence approximately ¹/₆₄₀₀ of a circumference). The elevation (range) is measured in yards. The highest reading is 6,250 yards.

The clinometer of the range quadrant is graduated in mils. The range disc of the quadrant is graduated from 0 to 6,500 yards. For greater ranges, with either sight or quadrant, an arbitrary index setting may be employed. The clinometer is used for indirect laying. Set off angle of site on clinometer and range on range disc.

The front covered by the fire of a battery of 4 guns without shifting trails is 60 yds. + 140 mils; this equals 200 yds. at 1,000 yds. range, 480 yds. at 3,000 yds. range, etc.

_Dispositions of Artillery._ On the march the firing batteries of light field artillery are usually near head of main body, a regiment (or battalion) of infantry being immediately in front of them. The combat trains usually march immediately in rear of the last foot troops in the main body. Exceptionally they may be with the firing batteries, especially in a small command, if there seems to be good reason for so placing them. Artillery in column with other troops should preferably occupy not more than about a mile of road space. If the artillery column be much longer than this its flanks will not be properly protected by the fire of the troops in front and rear in case of a sudden attack. In such a case then, a body of foot troops should be placed in the middle of the artillery. The field trains of the artillery on the march, are combined with those of the other troops, in rear.

For dispositions of artillery with advance, rear and flank guards see the Chapters on these subjects. (IV and V.)

In battery a gun and its caisson are placed side by side. Guns are at 20 yard intervals and the caissons of the 5th section are on the flanks of battery at 20 yard intervals. Hence the ordinary front of a battery is 100 yards. The limbers are placed under cover near the battery and to the flank. The combat train should be about 600 yards distant, in a secure position. These will be the usual dispositions, which may, however, be varied to suit the terrain or other conditions. To avoid detection of the location of the artillery by hostile air scouts exact alignments and uniform intervals should be avoided. Dust raised by the blast of discharge may betray the artillery’s location. This can be reduced by wetting or oiling the ground or covering with brush or paulins of inconspicuous color. When not actually firing, guns, limbers and caissons may be concealed by covering with brush or branches of trees. If the ground permits, the guns may be placed in pits with parapets for protection, the works being concealed by trees and branches.

A division is the smallest body of troops having artillery permanently assigned to it.

_Personnel._

_Artillery Commander._ Informs himself as to enemy. Examines terrain, selects general positions. Assigns units (usually large ones only) to general positions and targets in accord with plan of supreme commander. Takes general measures for communication, supply and reinforcement of artillery.

_Regimental Commander._ Informs himself as to location and disposition of enemy and friendly troops. Makes reconnaissance of area for artillery, and assigns battalions to general positions and targets. Takes measures for communication, supply and reinforcement.

_Battalion Commander._ Makes close reconnaissance with officers and scouts as to position of enemy and friendly troops, their disposition, terrain around his position, best method of approach. Selects positions for his batteries and assigns duties (targets, etc.) to each. Assigns direction point and sectors of observation. Gives orders about artificial cover, provides for auxiliary observing stations. Provides for local communications. Sees the position is secure or that there are supporting troops or scouts out. Selects routes for possible subsequent movements and provides for supply of ammunition, location of combat trains, etc.

The functions of the foregoing commanders are mainly tactical. They assign and employ the groups of artillery to meet the requirements of the initial and all succeeding phases of the combat. They keep in close touch with the higher commander under whose orders they are operating, and with the changing conditions on the battlefield.

_Battery Commander._ Examines target and ground near it, and general location assigned him. Picks out place for his battery and way to approach, under cover if possible, similarly for his limbers and combat train (if posted separately) with an eye to supply of ammunition under cover. If direct laying is to be used makes sure each gunner can see target, or if indirect that nothing interferes with fire, that guns are defiladed, etc. and that gunners can see aiming point. Selects an aiming point, a battery commander’s station and auxiliary observing stations. Arranges for communications (telephone and signal), for ammunition supply. Secures firing data. Conducts his battery to position and posts it. Conducts the fire. The functions of the battery commander, especially in battalion, are thus mainly technical.

NOTE: If any of the higher commanders mentioned are not present or if the command is too small to have such, each officer must perform such of the duties of rank next above as the situation requires.

_Lieutenants._ In march or maneuver they command platoons. In subdivision for action the first two command the platoons of the firing battery, the 3d is reconnaissance officer and the junior commands the combat train.

_Reconnaissance Officer._ Determines firing data. Supervises work of scouts and auxiliary observing parties. Watches battlefield and notes tactical changes. Supervises communications. Prior to an action, while on the march, the reconnaissance officer may be sent with the advance guard to make such reconnaissance as may be of value to artillery. May conduct battery to position.

_1st Sergeant._ Assists captain. Posts limbers under cover. Keeps captain informed as to ammunition supply, supervises removal of empty caissons. Has charge of replacement of casualties, removal of wounded, etc.

_Sergeants._ (Q. M. Sgt. commands field train) Command sections. Supervise service of guns. Chief of 5th section sets up B. C. telescope and assists in using it.

_Corporals._ Act as gunners, caisson corporals, scouts, observers, etc.

_Scouts and Signalers._ In each battery 2 corporals trained as scouts, one corporal, 2 privates as signalers. Scouts may be used to guard flanks of battery. Scouts usually operate in pairs. The scouts are trained as ground scouts in selecting routes and guiding batteries along them. They act as auxiliary observers. In battalion the ground scouting is done by battalion scouts.

_Agents._ Agents are men who transmit information from one commander to another, and keep a commander in touch with the lower commanders. Each headquarters in an artillery organization has agents.

_Route Markers._ These are men who are stationed at certain points to indicate the route to a position.

Artillery is so trained that if any of these positions are vacant they are readily filled by an alternate.

An artillery officer, preferably the senior present, should accompany the supreme commander during the advance to battle to learn the situation and the wishes of the commander. An artillery officer should accompany an advance guard. An artillery officer or other agent should accompany an attacking infantry line in order to communicate to the supporting artillery the needs of the infantry. He will generally keep in touch with the commander of the attacking force. The artillery commander is represented at supreme headquarters by a suitable agent from the artillery personnel.

_Kinds of fire._ Fire is classified in various ways:

_Masked fire_ (indirect laying is used)
_Unmasked fire_ (either direct or indirect laying may be used)

Masked fire is where guns are concealed from view and corresponds to indirect laying, where gunner does not see target but uses an aiming point.

If the target can be just seen through the sights (over the mask) the position has sight defilade, if by a mounted or dismounted man, mounted or dismounted defilade. If the mask conceals the flashes of the guns (in day time) the position has flash defilade, this requires 12 to 15 feet vertical cover. Even twigs will explode a shrapnel so make sure mask does not interfere with _fire_. To ascertain this allow height of muzzle 4 feet, angle of departure for range of 3,000 yards = 5° 40´, (Inverse tangent of 0.10). Thus, Distance from mask ÷ 10 > Height of mask - 4 (all figures in feet); or D > 10 (H - 4). To fire over a mask 20 feet high, the distance from the gun to the mask on level ground should be greater than 10 (20 - 4) = 160 feet.

_Fire for adjustment. Fire for demolition. Fire for registration. Fire for effect._

Fire for adjustment is to get on the target. It is adjusted for range, direction, distribution and height of burst (4). Fire for registration is fire to determine ranges, to a position which may in future be occupied by enemy. (It should generally not be employed prematurely unless enemy already knows about your artillery as it would otherwise betray your presence and possibly your position.) Fire for effect is fire on the enemy, materiel or personnel. It is ordinarily directed to that portion of the enemy which is doing or may do most damage to the friendly infantry. Thus in the earlier stages of the action, and while the friendly infantry is in the zone of hostile artillery fire, but not yet within range of the infantry, the fire of the artillery will be directed against the hostile artillery. Later in the attack, during the struggle for fire superiority between the opposing infantries, the artillery will usually direct its fire upon the hostile infantry, that being at this stage, the most threatening element to the friendly infantry. Fire for demolition is fire against material objects, such as walls, houses, etc. For this purpose shell is invariably used.

_Direct laying. Indirect laying._

In direct laying the gunner sees and aims on the target or a designated portion thereof. In indirect laying (whether the target is visible to the gunner or not) he aims on an auxiliary aiming point. Indirect laying is that generally employed, whether the guns are masked or not. It is usually simpler to use a clearly defined aiming point than to indicate to each gunner his allotted portion of a (possibly poorly defined) target. In case of a rapidly moving target, especially at close range, direct laying may be preferable to indirect, as the gunner can see his target, and often observe the effects of his fire. It may also be used in the last stages of an action, the guns being pushed forward to the crest, or for the defense of the guns themselves at close range. Direct laying has the disadvantage that it does not permit the proper concealment of the guns, and renders more difficult the conduct, control and direction of the fire by the captain and the higher artillery commanders. Its employment, therefore, will not be habitual. Indirect laying cannot as a rule be effectively employed against small, rapidly moving targets.

_Salvo fire. Continuous fire. Volley fire. Fire at will._

A salvo is a single discharge of successive pieces at stated intervals from one flank of the battery (or platoon) to the other. It is used especially for ranging, (adjustment) as a series of bursts will give more information than a single burst. In continuous fire shots are fired singly at stated intervals. Volley fire is where each piece fires a stated number of rounds as fast as is consistent with proper laying, independent of the other pieces. Fire at will is used, generally for the defense of the guns themselves, at short ranges. The sights are set at 1,000 yards and the fuses of the shrapnel at zero, this setting being analagous to the “battle sight” of the infantry.

_Time fire and percussion fire._ Percussion fire is generally with shell and is directed against materiel. Time fire is always with shrapnel, and is usually directed against personnel. Shrapnel have a smoke producing matrix to produce a large, dense ball of smoke, at the point of burst, facilitating observation of fire. A shrapnel well burst (at a height of 3 mils) covers effectively a depth of 200 yards at ranges up to 3,000. Beyond this range the depth of the “beaten zone” falls off rapidly, being only 125 yards at 4,500. Due to dispersion along the range of the shots (longitudinal dispersion) the depth of the beaten zone at 3,000 yards is assumed at about 250 yards. It is 150 at 4,500. Width of beaten zone, 20 to 25 yards. Errors of fuse become serious as the range increases beyond 3,000.

_Fire at single range. Searching fire (fire at successive ranges). Sweeping fire._ Fire at a single range is employed in case accurate adjustment has been surely obtained by previous firing. As such accurate adjustment is very difficult to obtain it will generally be advisable to increase the dispersion by employing fire at successive ranges, gradually reducing the number of ranges as observation may warrant. Searching fire is also used to sweep ground known to be occupied by the enemy’s reserves or over which they must pass in reinforcing the firing line or making a counter-attack.

In absence of opportunity for observation of fire such practice will cause a great expenditure of ammunition often with little result. It may, however, be justified by circumstances. Sweeping fire is that which sweeps the front at same range. It is obtained by giving a full turn to the traversing wheel after each shot. This corresponds to a change of 8 mils of front. Ordinarily sweeping fire will be from right to left. But note that when entire sheaf is moved along the front it is better to begin at the leeward side, so that the first shots fired will not obscure target for the remainder. At a range of about 2,500 yards sweeping will just about cover the front. If the range is greater there will be intervals unswept and if it is less the successive cones of dispersion will overlap. If the front of the target is not much over 35 mils it can be covered without sweeping. If more it can be swept, or the B. C. may shift the entire sheaf and attack first one part of the front and then another (see post).

_Individual distribution._
_Collective distribution._

In the former each gunner is assigned a definite part of the target to attack. Direct laying is used. In the latter the pieces have a common aiming point, and the B. C. distributes the fire over the target by varying the deflections of the different guns (deflection difference). Indirect laying is always employed. The B. C. can open or close the sheaf to fit the front of his target, and can shift the entire sheaf to the right or the left, the latter by varying the deflection, the former by varying the deflection difference. Or he may do both at once. To obtain or verify adjustment the sheaf may be converged until adjustment is secured and then properly distributed. Searching fire (at successive ranges) is used when the adjustment is imperfect, or to cover an area of some depth known or believed to be occupied by the enemy, or through which his supports or reserves must pass in reinforcing his firing line, making a counter-attack, etc. It usually implies a large expenditure of ammunition in proportion to the physical effect produced, but must, nevertheless be frequently employed, albeit with judgment and not at random.

The “firing data” obtained by the captain or reconnaissance officer are:

1. Deflection for directing gun.
2. Deflection difference for other guns.
3. Corrector for height of burst.
4. Angle of site.
5. Range.

In addition to this information the battery is also shown the aiming point and told the kind of fire to be used.

_Observation and control of fire._ The officer conducting the fire should generally be posted near his battery so that he can watch it if possible or at least communicate readily, and to facilitate adjustment. In order to observe ground which cannot be seen from his station, as well as to assist in the control of the fire it may be desirable to have auxiliary observing stations. These should generally be on commanding sites.

Observing stations well to the front will give a closer view than possible to the B. C. and a station on the flank will afford better opportunity for observing errors in range and burst. A flank observer may be able to detect movements of troops, and also secure the battery against a flank or surprise attack. If there is no supporting detachment, observers to guard the exposed flank of the artillery should never be omitted. These auxiliary observing stations are usually established by the captain or reconnaissance officer, and usually occupied by battery scouts. Their number depends on circumstances. They communicate with B. C. by telephone, flag or helio. They should report promptly everything they see including movements of troops. There should also be communication between the B. C. and the advanced friendly troops. An agent may accompany the advance for this purpose. Trees and houses or other elevated points may be utilized for observing stations. Stations close to the guns like B. C. Sta. should generally be to windward, if practicable. Stations well out to the flanks are often favorable for observing the enemy’s interior lines, particularly the location of his artillery. If there are no natural observing stations artificial ones must be erected. The B. C. station should if possible be within 200 yards of the battery, preferably on a flank, in prolongation of the front of the battery and on a high point. It is desirable that it be within megaphone range if practicable. It would be quite rare for the B. C. station to be distant as much as 800 yards from the battery. It is very desirable that the captain should be able to observe the effect of the fire. It is very important that the B. C. station should not be too conspicuous. If it is it may draw enemy’s fire, and perhaps betray location of battery.

Aiming points should be considered as follows:

1. Are they surely visible from each gun?
2. Are they distinctive, easily described and identified?
3. Are they at a considerable distance from the guns?
(Preferably over 2,000 yards).
4. Are they near the normal to the front?

A point in front or rear is best if it is at least 1,000 yards distant. It should preferably be in rear in order that the guns may be defiladed from possible hostile observing stations. If not more than 1,000 yards away it had better be on a flank.

TACTICAL EMPLOYMENT OF FIELD ARTILLERY.

The recent great improvements in materiel and methods of modern field artillery lend most of their advantages to the attack. The defender should cover the front of his position by a careful distribution of his batteries, permitting co-operation and mutual support. Batteries may be placed to cover areas which would otherwise be defiladed, on or near the military crest, or immediately in rear thereof, whence they can be run forward by hand to cover the defiladed area.

The positions of artillery in the attack will be governed by the following considerations:

1. What is the mission or purpose of the commander?

2. Is the attack a feint or holding action, or is it to be decisive? Is it made for the purpose only of developing the enemy’s strength and position? Is it the action of an advance guard, pushing forward to seize a favorable position, to cover the deployment of the main body? Is it a deliberately planned attack, or a rencontre engagement? Is it an attack over ordinary terrain, or a river line or other special form of attack? Is it intended to pursue the defeated enemy in case of success? etc., etc.

3. What are the relative strengths of the attack and defense in all arms?

4. What is known of the enemy’s dispositions, including those of his artillery, and what further inferences can be drawn?

5. The terrain: what bearing has it on the dispositions of the artillery? etc., etc.

The more detailed technical, tactical and topographical requirements of an artillery position will include the following:

1. CAN THE ARTILLERY FROM THIS POSITION EFFECTIVELY PERFORM THE TASKS ASSIGNED IT?

2. Is the range much over 4,000 yards? If so look for a closer position. The fire of light artillery is very effective up to about 4,500 yds. The principal objection to long ranges is the difficulty of observation. 3,000 yds., being beyond the range of hostile infantry and machine guns and yet close enough for good observation of fire, is an ideal range; but a good position at 4,000 yds., or at 2,000, is to be preferred to a poor or indifferent one at 3,000 yds.

3. Has it a wide field of fire, wide in angle? Guns well disposed can fire 45 degrees on each side of normal to front. Sometimes the position may cover a still wider front by a shifting of the guns without change of location.

4. Is the position wide enough for the artillery to occupy it? (A battery normally takes up a front of 100 yards.)

5. Is the position such as to afford suitable ranges for all stages of the action, or will it be necessary to shift and if so are there suitable positions which can be approached under cover, and which are otherwise good?

6. Is there concealment from view, especially by aero scouts, both in position and approaching same?

7. Is the front approximately normal to the mean direction of fire?

8. Is the position such that it is possible to change to direct laying without moving the guns too far?

9. Are there many dead spaces, how are they located, and are any of them such as to menace the safety of the guns or afford cover from which the friendly infantry might be effectively opposed?

10. Particularly is the field of fire to the flanks good, and could the guns protect themselves to the flanks by indirect fire and direct fire at short range?

11. Are there good natural observing stations available?

12. Is the position likely to be easily detected, especially by observers well out on the enemy’s flank or by aero scouts?

13. Are the communications good, front, rear and flanks? Also for ammunition supply?

14. Is there cover for limbers and teams? And for the ammunition or combat trains at a suitable distance?

15. Are there suitable aiming points for indirect fire which are not also possible hostile observing stations?

16. Can the position be readily “connected up” by telephone or signaling? etc., etc.

A position in the interval between the frontal and enveloping attacks has the advantages that the artillery is well protected, and can support either attack with oblique or possibly flanking fire. A position on the flank, while usually requiring an escort, is very effective for oblique fire. It is also very useful in opposing an envelopment, as it may be able to cause it to make so great a detour as to defeat its purpose, or to delay it until the necessary dispositions can be made to oppose the movement. The conformation of the terrain will have a great influence on the decision as to where to place the artillery. The position in any case should be such as to best permit the artillery to accomplish its mission.

In the beginning of an action longer ranges may be permissible for the defense than for the attack. If the defense is relatively weak in artillery it is sometimes an advantage to have it out of range of the attacking artillery while still able to fire on advancing infantry. The attack must get within range of the defense artillery and may sometimes be forced to take an exposed position if defender’s artillery is well back.

Whatever the situation the mission of the field artillery is to support the infantry, particularly at the critical stages. While the infantry is deploying and during its advance through the zone of hostile artillery fire, the artillery of the attack engages that of the defense. When the infantry contest for fire superiority opens, the artillery of the attack, or a portion of it, will sweep the hostile infantry lines with the objects of causing the hostile infantry to keep their heads down, getting on their nerves, diminishing the effect of their fire, preventing supports from coming forward, etc. The actual physical effect of such fire may not be great, but if its moral influence is sufficient to diminish the efficacy of the hostile infantry fire, thereby permitting the steady advance of the friendly infantry, its purpose is accomplished. When the attacking infantry is so close to the hostile lines as to be in danger from the fire of its supporting artillery directed thereat, the latter should increase the range without cessation of fire. This will have a decided moral effect on the defenders in the fire trenches as the shrapnel will burst nearly over their heads. It also establishes a fire swept zone in rear of the hostile firing line through which supports and reserves must pass in moving forward, or through which the firing line must retreat in case it breaks to the rear. It is desirable that the attacker’s artillery positions should be sufficiently close to permit effective fire upon retreating troops, known as “pursuing by fire.” The attacker’s artillery should move to advanced positions by echelon, in order that there be no cessation of artillery fire.

In defense the dispositions of the artillery will be very largely dependent upon the probable moves of the attacker. The principal consideration will be, is the combat to be to a decision, or is it a delaying action merely? In either case a long range fire is desirable in order to force the attacker to an early deployment, and to embarrass as much as possible his preliminary dispositions. In a decisive action the defender’s artillery should cover every portion of the front over which the attacker may pass. This may be done by taking a position near the crest, or by so distributing the artillery units that each will sweep the dead space in front of others (defensive relation). Or a combination of the two methods may be employed. Of these the second method is generally to be preferred, as it permits the occupation of covered positions difficult to detect, and at suitable ranges. If in this case there be dead space (defiladed from all the guns in the sheltered localities) this may be covered by “dagger batteries,” placed well forward in the defiladed area. The fronts of the dagger batteries should be covered by artillery fire, and they should also be supported by infantry and machine guns.

The artillery of the defense enjoys a certain advantage in that it frequently has opportunity to make preliminary arrangements, such as determining ranges, constructing shelter, providing for ammunition supply, etc., so that it is able to deliver an effective fire from the start. Some at least of the artillery of the defense may be held “in readiness,” or “in observation,” pending the development of the enemy’s attack, being placed in action according to the developments of the situation. Fire must be brought to bear upon the advancing infantry regardless of the attacker’s artillery. If overmatched by hostile artillery the defender’s artillery ceases fire temporarily but resumes again at the critical moment. Such a proceeding may often deceive the attacker. The defender’s artillery must prevent the attacking artillery from advancing to the position if captured, must concentrate its fire on the hostile infantry which has penetrated, support a counter-attack, or cover the rallying of the defender’s infantry, sacrificing itself without hesitation if necessary. Unless it be necessary to reply to the attacking artillery because of the damage due to its unrestricted fire the artillery in defense (unless favorable targets are presented) may often remain silent and avoid disclosing its position until it is ready to fire on the hostile infantry. If it is perfectly concealed it may begin firing at any time, even if inferior to the attack.

Firing over the heads of friendly troops will be the rule in both attack and defense. In the attack this may be continued until the assaulting infantry is quite close to the enemy’s line, the exact distance depending on the accuracy of adjustment, terrain and other conditions. It is the duty of the artillery to support the infantry assault to the last practicable moment. Thereafter the attacking artillery increases the range to cover the ground in rear.

Positions are not occupied by formal maneuvers, but each battery proceeds under cover in most convenient manner. In moving in vicinity of a masked position it is advisable to go at a walk so as not to raise dust and betray location.

The artillery is safeguarded generally by the other troops. It should not have special supports unless these be required by its exposure or distance from the attacking or defending forces. Such a detachment if required weakens the other arms. Machine guns are especially useful as a support for artillery. The artillery must carefully watch its own flanks even when it has a support. It should be particularly watchful also of dead spaces.

The general positions of the artillery, its general duties, target, etc. are prescribed by the supreme commander. The exact positions and the control and direction of fire are under the artillery commander. Artillery should make necessary reconnaissance, take position with promptness, and at once obtain data, etc. The supreme commander will designate whether batteries will take position for immediate action, in observation, or in readiness. In the first case the artillery opens fire as soon as possible. The position may be masked or unmasked. In the second case (observation) the battery unlimbers and takes position, obtains data, and prepares to open fire on indicated targets when directed. The position is generally masked. In the third case (readiness) the guns are not unlimbered, but are held near the selected approximate position ready to go into action or to move to another locality. Meantime the tactical situation is studied and the locality reconnoitered, preparation being made to go into action if directed. Before going into action a battery is sub-divided into firing battery, combat train and field train. As to when it is divided this depends on circumstances. If done too soon the other arms may get between battery and combat train and interfere with supply of ammunition. If not done soon enough the combat trains may interfere with movement to front of other arms. The field trains are usually held in rear with other trains. The order for subdivision is “form for action.”

The combat trains may be with the batteries or the battalions. If at the rear of the combatant troops they are usually assembled by battalion or regiment. Communication must always be maintained with the fighting batteries by agents from the combat trains. Battalions are rarely split to permit the employment of batteries singly, batteries are practically never split.

The artillery should be kept well in hand, not necessarily all in one group, but where it can be under one control. The desideratum is concentration or dispersion of fire, at will. If batteries are somewhat dispersed they will not be so readily silenced or overcome by hostile fire. Facilities for communication permit greater dispersion with better control. Artillery employs no “reserves” in the sense in which the term is used with reference to infantry. Its reserve consists in its reserve supply of ammunition and in its power to increase the rapidity of its fire to meet crises of the combat. Nevertheless, it will not always be advisable to place all the artillery in action at the outset. The mission of the force and the circumstances of the case must be considered. If it be desired to develop from the outset an overwhelming superiority of artillery fire all the guns may be posted for immediate action. An example of this would be a rencontre engagement of an advance guard, seeking to seize or hold an advantageous position pending the arrival of its main body. In the case, however, that the enemy’s strength and dispositions (including those of his artillery) are not accurately known, and when the nature and course of the engagement cannot be foreseen, it would be unwise to commit all the guns to action prematurely, as it would then be difficult to meet rapid and unexpected developments in the situation. In such a case part of the artillery may be held “in observation” or “in readiness,” to be put into action as the developments of the situation may require. A few guns may develop a considerable volume of fire, for a limited period, by utilizing the rapid fire qualities of the weapon. The proper assignment of the artillery is not a matter of rule, but a question of judgment. Enough guns should be placed in action at any time to meet the existing situation and accomplish the mission of the artillery. The combat and ammunition trains should be kept together (in large groups) to facilitate proper control and ammunition supply. They should be in safe positions, but not too far to the rear. Ammunition trains are marked with red flags or lanterns so that they may be readily identified.

Different batteries may be assigned special tasks, but these may be subject to change, in fact usually are, one battery also fulfilling several different functions. The functions are: Counter batteries: To fire on hostile artillery. Infantry batteries: To prepare and support the infantry attack. They include batteries of preparation which fire on opposing infantry, and breaching batteries which open passages through the enemy’s line. Batteries of the counter-attack: Usually posted in observation to watch for and oppose a counter-attack if made. Accompanying batteries: To advance to the close support of the infantry. They usually support the close advance without themselves actually advancing. Reinforcing batteries: Held in observation to come to the support of other batteries when needed. Decoy batteries: To draw fire of hostile batteries not yet discovered. Usually posted with wide intervals, they employ rapid fire. These classifications and terms, while necessary for study and discussion, are seldom employed in the verbiage of _field orders_. They are not to be considered as fixed or rigid. A single battery may successively fulfill several functions at different stages of the action, and it will be rare that all would be required in a single engagement. When infantry batteries are directed to support certain organizations in the attack, the Commander of the organization to be supported would generally indicate the target and exercise some supervision, but the artillery would not be under his command, but under that of the artillery commander of the entire force. The front of the position especially in defense, may be divided into areas to be assigned to the various groups. These groups should be so disposed as to permit the greatest possible concentration or dispersion of fire, in other words the best possible _control_. Where the terrain does not favor this, or the course of the action is uncertain, some artillery should be held “in observation” or “in readiness” to meet developments.

At the command “Prepare for Action” the instruments are taken out, breech and muzzle covers removed, guns examined and cleaned, shields set, etc. This command may be given before or after reaching position and before or after unlimbering.

At the command “March order,” battery being limbered or unlimbered, these operations are reversed and the gun and equipment secured for the march. When the commander rides forward, leaving command to follow he instructs officer in charge as to tactical situation, and gives him such other pertinent information as may appear desirable. He may also, in his judgment, instruct this officer as to time and place of subdivision for action (if not already made), time to prepare for action, route to be followed, gait, etc. An officer preceding a command to a position should determine the route to be followed and post the necessary markers.

It is desirable to secure at the outset a position suitable for all stages of the action. The terrain must be carefully examined for such positions. If batteries are well located and doing good service changes during an action should be made only when it is apparent that a distinct advantage can be thus gained. These changes take time, necessitate readjustment on the target and are often dangerous. They should be made under cover if possible. Sometimes they may advantageously be made at night, or the first position may be taken at night. Advantage should also be taken of lulls in the action. Changes may be necessitated by the artillery of the enemy having adjusted on a battery. In such a case a short move during a lull, may be all that is required. Movements must be anticipated and the necessary reconnaissance, clearing, repair of bridges, etc. and all other things necessary as preliminaries must be attended to. Changes of position are ordinarily made in echelon, the stationary part covering the change with its fire. Batteries do not retire because they are out of ammunition, they wait for more. A disabled gun is not sent to rear to be repaired during action. A battery does not move in echelon, but all at once.

It is the province of the supreme commander to order changes of his artillery positions. But in emergency the artillery commander may order changes.

Before important change, have plenty of ammunition. Economy of ammunition at all times is a duty of all officers and non-commissioned officers.

There must always be the closest co-operation between the artillery and the other arms. The artillery commander should be kept advised of the tactical situation and of any changes therein, and of the requirements of the other arms. He should be in frequent conference and constant communication with the supreme commander.

“Dummy” emplacements are sometimes used, especially on defense, to draw fire and expose enemy’s artillery position.

Horse artillery usually accompanies a cavalry force of any size. Its tactical employment is similar to that of light artillery. It is particularly useful in a rear guard on account of its great mobility.

Do not get closer than 2,000 yards to hostile infantry of defense. Their artillery will likely be about 500 yards behind the infantry. Get within 3,000 to 3,500 yards of the defender’s artillery if practicable.

The best results against artillery will be obtained by the effect of shrapnel on the men and animals. After a battery has been immobilized by shrapnel fire high explosive shell may be used for the demolition of the materiel. With the 3 inch rifle it is generally a waste of ammunition to attempt the destruction of battery materiel except at ranges within 2,500 yards, and then only when the fire can be observed. With the high power ordnance, materiel may be destroyed at greater ranges (see post).

In firing on a rapidly moving target direct laying will usually be preferred. If direct fire is, for any reason, contemplated the artillery, while employing indirect fire should be near a crest to which the guns can be moved forward for direct fire. The movement of the guns by hand, except for short distances and on smooth and gentle slopes, is a very laborious task. It will usually be better to limber up.

Opportunities for surprise fire at relatively close ranges will occasionally be practicable in defense, but seldom in attack.

Oblique and enfilade fire are ordinarily more effective than frontal fire, and are desirable when they can be obtained without too great dispersion or exposure of the artillery.

A support for the artillery is usually not needed except on the march. It can generally defend itself. If so isolated as to need a support, generally place it in rear on the exposed flank.

Do not travel too far over fields in getting to a position. Look for a position which can be reached without too much cross-country traveling.

Use shrapnel for ranging. Make the first bracket 400 yards. Do not waste time over a small bracket. Under favorable conditions a first bracket of 200 yds. may sometimes be obtained. In firing on cavalry a 600 yd. bracket is usual.

A battery should not halt to await orders if it can be avoided, but should come on promptly if possible, while a position is being reconnoitered. A good position promptly occupied may be better than the best position tardily taken.

_Artillery with Advance Guard._ It should not occupy positions from which it cannot readily withdraw, and so risk bringing on a general action unless this has been authorized.

It should be so placed that it cannot be readily surprised in march formation by hostile fire, especially artillery fire.

Artillery is seldom assigned to the advance guard of a force not larger than a brigade.

If there is artillery with the main body an artillery reconnaissance officer usually accompanies the advance guard.

Do not as a rule use artillery with an advance guard in wooded or mountainous country. It is generally useless, and especially vulnerable to attack at close range. In open country it is useful except at night.

Horse artillery may accompany a cavalry force. (See also Chap. IV.)

In a small force of artillery, there would be no objection to the combat train marching immediately in rear of the firing batteries, as the total continuous length of the artillery column would not be objectionably great.

_With Rear Guard._ Artillery, especially horse artillery is particularly useful for delaying the enemy. Hence the proportion with a rear guard is generally large. (See also Chap. V.)

_With Outposts._ The use of artillery with an outpost is not usual, as it is very trying duty and rapidly wears out the men and horses. If so used it is generally to command important roads, bridges and defiles, and is placed with the reserve.

PROBLEM INVOLVING A BATTERY IN POSITION.

_Mission._ The mission is to take position promptly and support attack. Develop hostile artillery and later fire on hostile infantry.

Artillery commander accompanies supreme commander or latter will send for him. Artillery commander usually has with him the reconnaissance officer and scouts, the chief of 5th section with telescope, a musician, with tripod, two orderlies.

_He considers_ the orders of the supreme commander, especially as to limits of his position (on this point he may give advice) and general plan of attack, disposition of enemy as learned from his reconnaissance officer, etc. He takes the terrain under observation at once.

_He selects_ positions for battery, limbers, combat train, B. C. station, auxiliary observing stations, aiming point, routes for battery and combat train, etc.

_He sends word_ to battery to form and prepare for action (it may already be formed) gives stations of fractions and routes thereto and directs them to proceed, telephone detail to report at B. C. station. He sends word by orderlies who also guide battery, or the reconnaissance officer who is familiar with ground may be sent to do this. Or Captain himself may do it.

_He has chief of 5th section_ set up B. C. telescope. Meantime, assisted by the scouts, he selects exact position for the battery and lays it out.

_He next_ obtains the firing data.

_Auxiliary observing stations_ may be established when desirable, by B. C. or reconnaissance officer. They are occupied by the reconnaissance officer, scouts, agents, or other available personnel.

_The position_ of the battery should have a range near 3,000, indirect fire and flash defilade. It should be near a crest so that the guns may be moved forward later for direct fire, especially in defense. It should be concealed from view of observers on enemy’s flank.

_The limbers_ should be under cover preferably on a flank near the battery.

_The combat train_ should be under cover, about 600 yards away.

_The field trains_ generally join those of main body.

_The B. C. station_ should be within 200 yards of the battery, preferably in rear or on a flank. The battery should be visible and the location favorable for observation of fire by the Captain. Sta. should be to windward of battery.

_The auxiliary observing stations_ should generally be well to the front, and at least one on a flank, to observe errors of range and burst. The one on the flank also protects the battery from surprise.

_The aiming point_ should be a mile away preferably in rear, or else on a flank. If not more than 1,000 yards off, the flank is better.

_The telephones_, 3 in number, are placed at B. C. station, battery (if necessary) and at the observing station occupied by the reconnaissance officer.

_The approaches_ to the positions should be under cover. Exposure for a brief moment may not incur danger of fire, but may indicate where battery is going. Covered approach more desirable for battery than for combat train. If necessary for concealment dismount drivers in moving to position.

_Flank guards_ should be placed by the Captain unless provided for by an infantry support.

_In addition to the Captain_ the following artillery personnel, some or all, must be accounted for:

The reconnaissance officer: On the march usually with the advance guard, to select artillery positions and routes, learn enemy’s dispositions, etc. He has charge of the battery scouts. He may lead the battery over route to its position, or obtain firing data (usually not both). Establishes the auxiliary observing stations and may occupy one of them, supervises communications, watches battle for tactical developments, etc.

The senior lieutenant: Commands the battery up to the time it is unlimbered for action, and then commands one of the firing platoons.

Junior lieutenant, commands the combat train, (reserves) Q. M. Sergeant commands field train.

Chief of 5th Section on entering action, sets up B. C. telescope (which he brings forward) and assists in obtaining firing data.

Scouts. During march in advance guard with reconnaissance officer. Scout the ground and locate routes, seek information of enemy. May conduct battery to position. Assist Captain to lay out exact position of battery. Act as auxiliary observers. Guard flanks of battery.

Telephone detail set up and operate the 3 telephones. Usually report to Captain at B. C. Station.

An agent is usually with the supreme commander to transmit information to the artillery.

Route markers, placed to mark routes and guide battery along them.

Musicians, one carries tripod of B. C. telescope. With Captain to act as messengers.

REMARKS CONCERNING A BATTALION OR LARGER UNIT IN ACTION.

The Major will usually be with the supreme commander during the march. Having received orders to place the artillery in position, he rides to the designated locality with his staff, etc., to reconnoiter, observe the terrain, and select positions for his batteries. When ready for the batteries to come forward he sends the battery agents (who are with him) to direct the Captains to join him. The battery agents may also take word as to the route or routes by which the batteries are to advance. Word is also sent back as to the disposition to be made of the combat trains, the entire combat train of the battalion being usually consolidated at one place. The batteries form for action and are brought forward as directed by the senior officer of each, or all together by the senior officer present.

The battery commanders, on receiving word, ride forward to join the Major, usually taking with them their reconnaissance officers, scouts, musicians, chiefs of the 5th section (with B. C. telescopes), etc. The Major instructs the battery commanders as to the general situation, and the orders he has received. He then indicates the approximate stations of the different batteries, the exact positions being marked out by the battery commanders, or by their orders. If posted for immediate action the Major may now designate the target for each battery, and give instructions as to opening fire. Otherwise he may indicate the localities for which firing data are to be prepared, or give such other instructions as the situation may demand. He designates a direction point and sectors of observation. He informs the battery commanders where his own station will be, and where the battalion telephone line will be laid, so they may connect with same.

The Major instructs the Sergeant Major to bring up the reel cart, tells him where his station will be, and where the cable is to be laid.

If the position of the hostile artillery is not known the Major may send his adjutant, or one of the battery reconnaissance officers, with some scouts to try to locate same. Aero reconnaissance will be especially useful in locating hostile positions. Fire may be directed by aeroplane and visual or wireless signaling, unless the enemy be well provided with anti-aircraft guns and skillful in their use.

When practicable the artillery commander should be with the supreme commander during the engagement, the same station being ordinarily suitable for both. If not with the supreme commander the artillery commander should place an agent, preferably an officer with some orderlies, with the supreme commander, unless his station (artillery) is connected with that of the supreme commander by telephone. For this latter purpose the apparatus of the Signal Corps will generally be used.

If the batteries are close together, the Major may place a single auxiliary observing station (consisting of a couple of scouts, or one of the battery reconnaissance officers and a scout) for all. Or each battery will be allowed to place its own observing station in the judgment of its commander.

Each battery places its own limbers, usually about 100 to 150 yds. from the battery, preferably on a flank. The combat trains are combined at a locality designated by the Major unless there be some special reason for keeping them separated. Ordinarily they should be some 600 yds. or so from the fighting batteries, if cover is available.

An ammunition company from the division train (if there be one) on taking station will send an agent to the artillery commander. The latter informs his subordinates as to the location of the ammunition company, when necessary.

The Major directs in a general way the fire of his battalion.

The duties of a Colonel commanding a regiment, or of a General commanding an Artillery Brigade, are quite similar to those of the Major commanding a battalion, but in less detail. The higher the commander the more general his duties and the less detailed his orders. The Brigade Commander outlines to his regimental commanders the general situation, designates the approximate positions of the regiments, and assigns general targets, etc.

The duties of a Major in the regiment are the same as when commanding a separate battalion, except that he receives his orders through the Colonel of his regiment instead of direct from the supreme commander. (See ante.)

HEAVY FIELD ARTILLERY.

Heavy field artillery includes all ordnance heavier than the 3" field gun, but still mobile enough to accompany an army in the field. It would be used (if present) in practically every battle.

The field artillery adopted for U. S. service is the following:

--------------+----------+--------------+-------------+-------------
| | | Approximate |Slope of fall
Designation |Weight of | Assumed |weight behind|of projectile
of piece. |projectile|limiting range| teams | at limiting
| (lbs.) | (yds.) | (lbs.) | range.
--------------+----------+--------------+-------------+-------------
3" gun | 15 | 8,500[6] | 4,300 |
3.8" howitzer | 30 | 6,600 | 4,300 | 1/1.2
4.7" howitzer | 60 | 6,640 | 5,300 | 1/1.1
4.7" gun | 60 | 11,000 | 8,800 | 1/1.3
6" howitzer | 120 | 6,700 | 8,600 | 1/1
--------------+----------+--------------+-------------+-------------

[Footnote 6: For shrapnel by fuse, 6,500 yds.]