Chapter XI: Combat--Attack and Defense (1)

_General observations._ Decisive results are obtained only by the offense. The attack leads, the defense must conform.

Do not contemplate a purely passive defense unless your mission requires it.

Raw, untrained troops are not suitable for active offensive operations; they are best utilized in defense, on the line of communications, or in a pivotal position supporting the maneuver of the first line troops.

A purely passive defense may be adopted in the following cases:

(a) With inferior troops.

(b) To contain a larger force of the enemy.

(c) When expecting reinforcements.

(d) In delaying actions.

It is by no means to be understood, however, that a purely passive defense should always be adopted in the above cases. This will depend on circumstances. At times a vigorous offensive may offer the only chance of success.

Fire superiority is the keynote of success.

Avoid too great dispersion of the front or separation of the troops in a decisive action. A regiment united has greater fighting strength than 3 separated battalions. All movements should be simple. Complicated maneuvers should never be attempted in battle. Make a conservative solution--never attempt anything grotesque.

Avoid half-hearted measures. If the decision is to attack, all available force should be thrown into the fight. This does not mean, however, that no reserves should be kept in hand at the opening of the attack.

Do not uncover the line of retreat unless the force is small and the country friendly. If, however, circumstances permit this to be done it will often force the enemy to also uncover _his_ line of retreat, and may thus increase the fruits of victory. An advance guard should usually not uncover the main body, though in a pursuit it may be justifiable to do so in order to prevent the delay of the main body.

Put into the main fight all available force, calling in all detachments within reach. The only detachments which are justifiable are (a) one which contains a _relatively_ stronger force of the enemy and keeps it out of the main combat, or (b) one which protects the flanks of the main force, secures it against surprise, or covers its communications, etc.

A detachment operating as a containing force separated by some distance from the main body, should if practicable be relatively strong in cavalry and artillery.

Night attacks are usually dangerous, and ordinarily practicable only for small forces. Night movements, however, may be advisable under certain conditions:

1. To seize a position prior to the enemy.

2. To gain ground over a fire swept zone.

3. To concentrate reserves for an assault, without detection
by the enemy.

4. To effect a withdrawal in safety.

5. In pursuit of a defeated force.

(See post for night attacks)

An attack order will be much more intelligently made when issued as a result of an examination of the ground rather than from the map alone. For small commands, some examination of the terrain by the commander in person, will usually be possible, but for commands the size of a division or larger, the examination may not be possible. Dependence must then be placed upon the map supplemented by such reports as are obtainable.

Attacks which offer no chance of tactical success should generally be avoided. Combats which have no bearing on the general plan should also be avoided, as a rule, even though they offer the chance of easy victory.

Never neglect reconnaissance at any time.

Avoid splitting or mixing tactical units as far as possible.

Aggressiveness wins battles. If in doubt it is generally better to attack. But _make sure_ that the advantage derived from victory will be well worth the cost.

_Form of attack._ A turning movement should seldom be undertaken by a force smaller than a division (except by cavalry, or in the attack of a river line, etc.)

The usual forms of attack for a small force are but two in number:

(a) A frontal attack.

(b) A frontal attack with envelopment of a flank of the enemy.

A frontal attack with envelopment of both flanks, (rare--).

The advantages of a frontal attack are simplicity, speed and directness. Its disadvantages are that it is usually very costly (due to difficulty of obtaining fire superiority) and generally less effective if successful than an enveloping attack. It is most commonly employed in advance guard actions (see post).

The object of an enveloping attack is fire superiority. It usually implies a considerable superiority of numbers and should ordinarily be preferred to a frontal attack when practicable.

In deciding as to whether to attack, the commander must consider what his mission requires, the nature and extent of the enemy’s defensive line, the relative numbers of his own command and that of the enemy, the strength and positions of the supporting troops of each and the enemy’s probable intentions.

An attack usually implies superior force either in numbers or quality of troops, hence if the enemy is equal or superior it would generally be disastrous to attack him in position unless expecting reinforcements. In such case an attack may be made in order to develop the enemy’s strength, location and intentions, and hold him in position until the arrival of reinforcements. The attack need not be pushed home until the reinforcements arrive. Such an attack would generally be frontal as this would be the safest procedure, usually least exposed to counter attack, and would allow the reinforcements to envelop either flank upon their arrival. In deciding on the method of attack, the position of the enemy’s reserves should also be considered. Moreover the enemy’s line might be too long to be enveloped after covering its front.

If the enemy occupies a line too long to be enveloped, but which is known to be lightly held, a frontal attack may be made with the object of piercing the attenuated line. Such an attack would, of course, be less costly than in the ordinary case, especially as the enemy almost certainly would not fight to a decision. If the enemy is known to be fighting a delaying action only, a frontal attack will as a general rule most promptly drive him from his position, although this of course depends to some extent on the nature of the terrain.

Finally if the enemy’s flanks rest on impassable obstacles, or if the attack is a local operation on an extended and continuous line of battle, a frontal attack is the only course open.

When practicable an enveloping attack is to be preferred and it becomes a question of which flank to envelop. The following considerations will be a guide to a decision on this point:

(a) Which flank allows the nearest approach under cover?

(b) Against which flank can an attack be more quickly launched consistent with due preparation and without undesirable separation of the attacking columns?

(c) Which flank has the better field of fire? (For the enemy).

(d) What bearing if any have the available artillery positions?

(e) Where is the enemy’s line of retreat and from whence will his reinforcements (if any are expected) probably arrive? (The enemy will withdraw more readily from an attack which threatens to separate him from his line of retreat or reinforcements, unless he has a small force and is in friendly country, in which case separation from his preferred line of retreat is not so serious a matter.)

(f) In view of the direction from which our own reinforcements may arrive, which flank is preferable?

(g) In view of the direction from which the enemy’s reinforcements may arrive, and the position of our own line of retreat, which flank may be more safely attacked? The possibility of a reverse must not be overlooked.

_The best disposition for the attacking infantry is the primary consideration in determining which flank to attack._

A consideration of these tactical questions will usually result in a preponderance in favor of one flank. Always envelop that flank which gives more promise of a tactical victory. If both flanks are promising, then consider which attack would give the greater strategical results if successful.

A simultaneous envelopment of _both_ hostile flanks would be rare, and would ordinarily imply great superiority of forces. It will almost invariably be better to concentrate on the enemy’s weaker flank.

The usual attack will then have two parts, the secondary or holding (frontal) attack and the main or enveloping attack. They are, however, never so called in orders as the expression, “secondary attack” is objectionable, tending to diminish the ardor of the troops engaged therein. Moreover, it is not always possible to foresee which attack will actually be pushed home. The “secondary” may become the decisive attack. There must be nothing either in the appearance or conduct of the frontal attack to indicate that it is not being made in earnest, for if the enemy perceives that this attack is not to be pushed, he will contain it with a _relatively_ smaller proportion of his force and concentrate against the main attack.

Generally the main attack is made stronger than the holding attack. The strength lies in its depth of deployment, it may or may not be stronger in total numbers according to circumstances. The difference of density per yard is not manifested in the firing lines, however. The enemy must not be permitted to judge the holding attack by any weakness in its firing line. The difference lies chiefly in the supports. The main attack must hold out stronger supports because usually it will have more gaps from casualties, fatigued men, skulkers, etc. The main attack is to be driven home at all costs. To do so the density of its firing line must be maintained to the last. It must be expected that an attack having a firing line density of 1 man per yard may need _supports_ of equal or greater numerical strength before it will be able to throw the enemy out of his trenches. The _firing line_ density of each attack should therefore be essentially the same, say about 1 man per yard of front. The main attack may hold out from each battalion say two companies in support where the holding attack retains one. (See also Chap. XVII).

Envelopment should generally be provided for in the first deployment, not afterward. The enveloping attack may be extended during the action by putting in the reserves. The defender also will probably extend his line during the fight to meet the enveloping attack.

The main attack should generally be made as strong as possible. The minimum number of troops should be assigned to the holding attack in order to have all possible strength in the main attack (and reserves). A usual disposition for a division would be: 1 brigade in the holding attack, 1 in the main attack, 1 in the reserve.

The advance guard regiment in a brigade action, would generally be assigned to the holding attack, covering the maneuver of the main body.

An enveloping movement must not expect to _enfilade_ the enemy’s line. He will echelon his line to the rear and throw in his reserves to meet it, so that it usually becomes merely a frontal attack in a different direction. The advantage of envelopment is the convergence of fire as against the divergence of the enemy’s fire. An enveloping attack should be separated sufficiently from the holding attack and directed well to the rear of the enemy, as it has strong tendency to join up with frontal attack and become merely an extension of the latter on the same line, thus sacrificing the advantage of converging fire. On the other hand the separation should not be so great as to sacrifice co-operation and mutual support. (For discussion of turning movements see Chap. XVII.)

_Advancing to the attack._ An attack should generally not be launched until the strength of the enemy and the position of his flanks are well established.

The attacking troops keep to the roads and remain in column as long as practicable, in advancing to their deploying positions. If subjected to artillery or long range rifle fire the advance should be made in some less vulnerable formation. (See Chap. XVI.)

The attack should advance under such cover as is available as close as possible to the enemy’s line before opening fire. It is desirable to obtain a first position within 800 yards and seldom beyond 1,000 yards. Fire superiority must be established in the first position. Otherwise an advance is not practicable.

The main and secondary attacks (in an enveloping action) should generally advance in conjunction with each other. Both should advance from cover _when practicable_ and (particularly for the main attack) have the element of surprise.

Cover for the advancing troops both before and after deployment is the most important consideration, but must not be allowed to outweigh _all other_ considerations. The best cover is fire superiority, as it encourages the attacker while natural cover tends to enervate him.

Adjacent organizations endeavor to maintain contact during the advance, but nobody waits for a laggard.

The various echelons of the attack generally move forward together--the supports and local reserves keeping their distances from the firing line as well as circumstances--especially cover for the advance--permit.

_Assignment of fronts._

_Every portion_ of the defender’s line must be covered by fire throughout the attack. This is accomplished by assigning a portion of his front to each organization in the attack. The front so assigned should be about equal to the deployed width of the attacking organization and opposite to it.

The brigade commander assigns fronts to the regiments, the regimental commanders to their battalions, the battalion commanders to their companies, etc.

These fronts should be assigned as accurately as the landmarks of the terrain allow. Often the enemy’s line is so poorly defined or so indefinitely located, that it is impossible to give an organization anything more definite than a guiding point or general direction for one flank. (See Chap. XVI.)

Great care should be exercised in the assignment of fronts. If the adjacent flanks of two organizations advancing from slightly different directions guide on the same point _in the enemy’s line_ during their advance, they will arrive in a continuous line upon his front. If the point is in advance of the line there will be crowding or overlapping, which is objectionable as it causes confusion and may subject a portion of one line to the fire of the other. Casualties during the advance may tend to reduce this difficulty. If the guiding point is in rear of the enemy’s line there will be a gap between the two organizations, which however, may be filled if that is desirable. If the two organizations are advancing in the same direction, contiguous to each other (as in a frontal attack) no difficulty is encountered and the arrangement is excellent.

The interior flank of the enveloping attack will usually be directed on the supposed position of the flank of the enemy, or on a point a little inside of it. Consequently, at the start, there may be no troops opposite the enveloping attack, but the enemy may be expected to extend his line promptly to meet it when he becomes aware of the envelopment. (See Fig. IX.)

Each column assigned to the first line in attack should be instructed (in orders) as to:

(a) The route to its deploying position, when necessary.

(b) Certain landmarks to guide it during the advance.

(c) The portion of the enemy’s line it is to cover--defined as
accurately as circumstances permit.

_Reserves._ Troops once committed to an attack can be withdrawn only with the greatest difficulty. When once in action they are usually beyond the control of the commander. It is by the judicious use of his reserves alone that the commander can influence the course of an action once he has launched his attack. Hence too many troops should not be committed to the action at the outset. Especially if the enemy’s strength and position are not yet fully developed should large reserves be kept in hand. The defense, as it must meet the attacker’s moves, usually employs larger _reserves_ than the attack.

The aim of all tactics, either in attack or defense, is the concentration of overwhelming force at the critical point. Numerical strength that furnished overwhelming force at the proper time may be inferior at a later time. Rapidity of maneuver is equivalent to increased numerical strength. Hence the value of motor cars in effecting tactical or strategic concentration of troops.

A company ordinarily deploys on one line. A battalion holds out one or two companies as local supports. These are used to replace losses in the firing line during the advance over the fire swept zone.

Each regiment holds out one or two battalions as regimental reserves. Their purpose is to carry the firing line into the assault.

Each brigade in attack ordinarily holds out a regiment as brigade reserve. It is employed to reinforce the decisive attack, to secure possession of the captured position, to meet the defender’s counter attack, or to take up the pursuit of the defeated force.

The defense is characterized by small local supports and reserves, and large general reserves, except in delaying actions. The reserves are almost always employed to protect the flanks, although not necessarily to furnish combat patrols. They should therefore generally be posted near the exposed flank or the one that will need reinforcement. If there be doubt as to which flank may need reinforcement the reserve is held in a central position from which it can conveniently reach either flank, or else divided.

If there is cover available the local supports may be within 50 yards of the firing line. If no cover is available they should be farther back. The general reserve seeks a convenient covered locality, behind a flank or opposite the center.

_Protection of the flanks._ On account of the difficulty of changing front during the action and the annihilating effect of enfilading fire, the flanks of a line are its most vulnerable parts, and the most _elaborate_ measures are habitually taken for their protection, both in offense and defense, as they are the cynosure of attack.

The best protection for the flanks of the defender is afforded by impassable obstacles, which render them absolutely secure from envelopment. Next in order come a good field of fire and fortifications.

The cavalry or mounted men provide a measure of security for the flanks by observation and if possible, resistance. It is also their duty to maintain communication with any friendly troops in the vicinity--and their orders should contain instructions to that effect. The supreme commander (both in attack and defense) usually retains in his own hand a few mounted men to act as messengers during the engagement. Artillery favorably posted may also protect the flanks with fire.

Irrespective of the protection afforded by the other arms, infantry patrols are placed to guard the flanks of a line. These are known as “combat patrols” and should never be omitted either in attack or defense during any stage of an action. Combat patrols are in the nature of covering detachments whose principal function is to give warning. Where resistance is needed in addition to warning, the patrol is strengthened accordingly, and, if of some size, may be called a covering detachment. Such a body accomplishes its purpose by taking station at some convenient point on the exposed flank and covering it. Here it halts in a defensive position or attitude, (it may intrench) sending a few men to nearby points of observation. The bulk however is held in hand ready to open fire on hostile reconnoitering patrols and fight them off or to give prompt warning of the approach of any large body toward the flank it is covering. It will open fire on the superior force and fight until forced back, thus securing all possible delay in order to permit of measures being taken to oppose the flank attack.

It is the duty of each organization on a flank to provide for the security thereof without special orders to that effect. But a small unit will not ordinarily detach any considerable portion of its strength to a great distance for this purpose. Thus a battalion in the first line may send out one or two squads or a platoon from its supports, a few hundred yards to the flank, as a combat patrol. If larger measures are necessary for security they should be taken by the regimental or brigade reserve. The flanks of a line are usually its most vulnerable parts and hence they demand special attention. The protection of the flanks (either in attack or defense) is of such vital importance that it should not devolve as a matter of course upon the commanders of the flank organizations. The supreme commander should make positive provision for flank protection in his attack (or defense) order. In the absence of such orders the regimental (or battalion) commanders on the flanks will take the ordinary precautions in the way of combat patrols.

During the early stages of an action and before the regular attack is launched, patrols should also be sent to the front (directly toward the enemy) to feel his position by drawing his fire, and to examine the ground over which the attack must be made. Such patrols may vary in strength from a few individuals to a firing line making a frontal attack. A reconnaissance in force therefore, may become a small attack. It is generally not intended to push home unless the situation developed as the reconnaissance in force proceeds, warrants a regular attack. Small patrols in front of the line, must generally seek cover before fire is opened. If necessary they withdraw to the rear or flanks. While a defensive position is being prepared or occupied, provisions should always be made for security to the front. Usually some regiment will be directed to provide for this. If no special instructions are given each organization watches its own front, and flank (if exposed).

A flank combat patrol, except when sent out for the special purpose of concerted participation in the defense (or attack) provides security primarily by observation. Nevertheless it should have _some_ power of resistance, at least enough to push back reconnoitering patrols of the enemy. Hence 3 to 4 men would usually be insufficient; 2 squads to a platoon is better unless the force is a very small one. From this the flank groups may vary in size up to a battalion, placed for the special purpose of active participation in the engagement during the later stages.

Troops withdrawing from battle to camp should not uncover the front they have been guarding until the outpost troops are in position.

_Ammunition._ The extra ammunition in the battalion combat trains is habitually issued before an attack or in the occupation of a defensive position, unless the orders expressly state that this will not be done. The issue of ammunition is ordered by the battalion commander when it becomes necessary for the battalion to separate from its combat train upon entering an engagement.

The regimental commanders will give orders as to whether or not packs are to be carried into action, and if not where they will be left. It takes about 10 minutes to issue ammunition after the arrival of the wagons. When the issue of ammunition is completed the wagons are assembled at some convenient point by order of the supreme commander. They may be sent to the rear to refill usually from the ammunition train, or retained temporarily to transport wounded.

During an action the ammunition _trains_, if likely to be required, should be brought well to front, and their positions marked by red flags or lanterns. The pack train may be ordered up to facilitate the distribution of ammunition. In our service pack outfits are carried in each wagon of the infantry combat trains, thus allowing the lead mules to be converted into pack animals.

The ammunition carried in the men’s belts is 100 rounds, and the extra ammunition in the combat trains, 120 rounds. Hence the engagement may open with 220 rounds on the men, if all the extra ammunition in the combat trains has been issued. The amount of ammunition expended at each firing position will be that sufficient to establish (or maintain) fire superiority. In first establishing fire superiority 25 to 100 rounds or even more may be expended. Usually at the succeeding halts a lesser expenditure will be required. If, however, the advance be checked by a loss of fire superiority the expenditure of ammunition before advancing must be sufficient to reëstablish that superiority without which a further advance is impracticable. Following are some examples of actual expenditures:

Russians at Plevna (attack) 160 in 4 hrs.
Turks at Plevna (defense) 120 to 360 per day.
English in Boer War, 150 to 200 per day.
9th U. S. Infantry at Tientsin, 150.
Cuba, Spanish American War, July 1. Cavalry less than 100,
Infantry 20 to 85.
Russo-Jap. War. Japanese, 120 to 160 in heavy engagements.

With improved modern weapons having far greater efficiency than those of former times, and modern facilities for the supply of ammunition it is certain that the figures given above will often be greatly exceeded. It is quite possible for an individual soldier to expend 1,000 rounds or more during a single period of daylight, and the average consumption of a body of troops in a protracted conflict may run to 500 rounds per day or even more. Under these conditions very heavy demands will be made on the ammunition supply service.

The defense, having better facilities for supplying ammunition, may expend more than the attacker. Its better facilities for resupply give the defense an advantage in this respect. Long range fire (beyond 1,200 yards), seldom advisable in attack, may be frequently employed in defense when the conditions are favorable. If the attacker can be brought under effective fire and forced to deploy beyond 1,200 yards, he will have great difficulty in pushing home the attack.

The ammunition of the dead and wounded should be removed from their persons, and advantage should be taken of cover, lulls in the action, and all other favorable conditions to distribute ammunition. All officers and non-commissioned officers are charged with the duty of preventing the waste of ammunition.

_Intrenchments, obstacles, etc._ Intrenchments are habitually employed by the defense, and when practicable may be utilized also by the attack. Ground once gained by the assailant should be held tenaciously, thus only can success be assured. Moreover a retreat under fire would ordinarily result in greater losses than if the position were held. If necessary to hold their position the attackers should dig themselves into the ground. With the portable tools trenches may be dug in a prone position, part of the line intrenching while the rest maintains the fire. The attacker may also intrench under cover of darkness. Shelter trenches providing considerable security against rifle fire may be dug in 30 mins, or even less in favorable ground, with the portable intrenching tool. These trenches afford only slight protection against shrapnel fire and if they are to be occupied for any considerable time, they should be enlarged to the kneeling or standing type. Greater protection from shrapnel fire can be gained by the use of head or overhead cover. Such cover requires several hours to construct and would seldom be employed by the attack. (See table Chapter XII.)

The _invariable_ use of intrenchments in the attack, however, is not advisable. The best means of gaining fire superiority and the best protection against hostile fire is the attacker’s own fire. The habit of intrenching tends to diminish the ardor of attacking troops. Therefore the decision in this matter should not habitually be left to the soldiers or the company officers. The order for intrenching should generally emanate from the battalion or other superior commanders.

The object of intrenchments in defense is to economize men on the firing line in order to hold a longer line, or permit the retention of large general reserves for the decisive stages of the action. (See “The organization of a defensive position,” post.)

Trenches should preferably be located and constructed by the troops who are to occupy them. If there be time, communicating trenches and shelters for supports and reserves may be constructed. The Engineers perform the more difficult work, such as obstacles, heavy clearing, communications, etc., works of general interest not properly part of the task assigned to any line unit, and any works for which infantry are not equipped or specially trained.

Obstacles along the front of a position may favor either the attacker or defender. If they afford shelter from view while allowing easy passage (like an open wood), they of course favor the attack and can hardly be called obstacles, but must be classed as cover for the advance. If, on the other hand, they hinder progress without affording concealment (like a marsh or bog) they naturally favor the defense. All artificial obstacles are of this latter kind.

Between these two extremes are many obstacles which according to conditions may favor one side or the other. In general anything which affords concealment, to that extent favors the attacker, and anything that delays progress, to that extent favors the defender.

Obstacles tend to confuse and break up the attacker’s formations, especially if they run obliquely to his line of advance.

An absolutely impenetrable obstacle along a portion of the defender’s front, even if it conceals the attacker, is generally an advantage if not too close (within about 300 yards) as it limits the attacker’s advance to the open spaces. It is to be remarked, however, that few obstacles are absolutely impenetrable. If such there be, however, as for instance an unfordable stream, they give rise to special forms of attack. (See “Attack of a River Line.”) If the defender contemplates assuming the offensive a continuous obstacle in his front may be a positive disadvantage. It may also entirely discourage the attacker and cause him to turn the position instead of assaulting it. This may or may not be an advantage to the defense, depending on its mission.

Artificial obstacles, usually constructed by the Engineers, may be placed in front of a defensive position at effective ranges. The most practicable forms are abatis, slashing and wire entanglements, or a combination of these. Ordinary fences are obstacles serious to cavalry, but less so to infantry. Barbed wire entanglements are the most effective form of obstacles.

It is to be noted that obstacles _not covered by the fire of the defender_ fall short of the full measure of usefulness, as the enemy can remove then with comparatively little difficulty or loss.

The greatest obstacle to the attacker’s advance is a clear field of fire. The defense, therefore, will usually take steps to clear the front of the position, measure and mark ranges beyond 600 yds. (battle sight range), etc. The infantry is provided with tools for light clearing. The heavier work should be done by the engineers if any are available. (See “The organization of a defensive position.”)

_Frontage in attack and defense._ A company (unless acting alone) goes complete into the firing line. All larger units hold out a part of their strength (usually from one-fourth to one-half) as supports and reserves. Avoid splitting or mixing units.

The density of the _firing line_ in attack and defense is about 1 man per yard. A 16 squad company can place 128 rifles (8 x 16) in the firing line. Hence the frontage of any line will be equal to about 128 yards multiplied by number of companies in the firing line, plus or minus about 20 per cent. Thus the front of a battalion with 3 companies in the firing line would be from 300 to 450 yards. (But see also Chap. XII.)

The expressions “1 man per yard” and “at one yard intervals,” are usually intended to mean that each yard of the front is to be occupied by one man. Actually, the interval or open space between the shoulders of adjacent men in this case is about ½ pace (15 inches).

In defense or in the holding or secondary attack a battalion may place 3 companies in the firing line. In the main (enveloping) attack it would more commonly place 2 companies in the line. The companies (of the leading battalions) not in the firing line are called local or battalion supports. Each regiment may hold out 1 battalion as regimental reserve, each brigade 1 regiment as brigade reserve, and each division 1 brigade (and auxiliary troops) as general reserve. Circumstances might cause the strength of these reserves to be greater at the beginning of an action, but they seldom should be less. The defense usually has weaker supports and local reserves, but stronger _general reserves_ than the attack. As the defense must play to the attacker’s move ample reserves must be held for the purpose. The density of a defensive line is not subject to arbitrary rule, so greatly does it depend on the mission and other conditions. In a delaying action a greater extension is permissible than in a fight to a decision. (See also Chaps. XII and XVII.)

PROBLEMS INVOLVING THE ATTACK OF A POSITION BY A SMALL INFANTRY FORCE

(Regiment or battalion.)

(See also “The Rifle in War,” Chap. XVI.)

The first stage of the action, which will be given in the problem, opens generally with a report from the cavalry or by the advance guard being fired upon, or some such occurrence to the front. If it is certain that there will be an attack the commander will usually order extra ammunition to be issued. The field trains are halted off the road or sent to a safe place. The commander then rides forward to the most advanced position possible where he can obtain a view of the terrain and the enemy’s dispositions and receive reports from cavalry or mounted patrols. The adjutant is usually with him and he sends word for the column to continue its march or to halt at a certain point and await orders. He directs his subordinate commanders to accompany him or to follow him to the advanced position. If these subordinates are not mounted make due allowance for that fact, considering the time it will take them to get up. The circumstances may be such that it is not advisable to separate all of his subordinates from their commands, but generally he will direct them to proceed to the advance lookout point. These subordinates will include the company (or battalion) commanders, the adjutant, and the commander of the machine gun company (or platoon). The quartermaster and surgeon are usually not called to the front. Having reached the advance point, he directs his efforts particularly toward ascertaining the location of the hostile flanks and examines the ground from which he may launch his attack. Having estimated the situation and his subordinates being assembled he issues his orders. He must be very sure that every subordinate who has a task to perform receives his orders. If any of these are not present the orders must be sent to them, and the commander will usually direct his adjutant to see that his orders are transmitted to any subordinates who are not present. His actual orders will invariably be verbal. Sometimes the problem will ask for his combined order. This means the order for all parts of the force as it would be dictated to his adjutant subsequent to the action. The actual orders may be issued piece-meal, but generally try to issue the combined order and then direct the adjutant to see that those not present are advised.

The order must cover the following points:

1. Information of the enemy, particularly his strength and the position of his flanks. Information of our own and the enemy’s supporting troops.

2. This command (or We) will attack the enemy at once, making a frontal attack (or enveloping his right flank). Former march conditions now cease.

3. Cos. A and B will constitute the firing line, and will move via ---- under cover to ______ (edge of woods, ravine, crest, or other cover), and will deploy, perpendicular to (or parallel to) ______ at one yard intervals, Co. A on the left with its left flank ______ yds. from ______. Co. A will attack that section of the enemy’s line from ______ to ______ (inclusive or exclusive); Co. B, that section from ______ to ______ (inclusive or exclusive.) (Indicate clearly visible landmarks, or give definite distances. Be sure that every part of the enemy’s line is covered.) I will give the order for the advance (or to open fire).

The foregoing paragraph is for frontal attack. In case the attack is enveloping, the order would be:

Cos. A and B will constitute the firing line. Co. A will move via ______ under cover to ______, and will deploy perpendicular to ______, at 1 yard intervals with its left flank at ______ (or -- yards from ______) and when ordered to do so will advance and attack the enemy’s line from ______ to ______ (inclusive or exclusive) directing its right on ______, and moving to attack in conjunction with Co. B.

Co. B will move via ______ under cover to ______, deploying when necessary perpendicular to ______, at 1 yard intervals with its left flank on ______, (or -- yards from ______) and when ordered to do so will advance and attack the enemy’s line north of ______ directing its left on ______ (or will advance and attack the enemy’s left, etc.)

(No definite limits are assigned to the outside flank. The enemy may not be opposite the enveloping attack when it is launched, but will likely extend his line to meet it. If the two companies are separated at the start and converge on the enemy’s line the orders would be similar to those for an enveloping attack. Sometimes the enveloping attack will be directed on an interior part of the enemy’s original line in which case it will cover part of his front and also envelop him. Instead of being ordered to deploy at 1 yard intervals, a company may be ordered to deploy on a front of ______ yds.)

I will give the order to advance.

Lieut. Y, with your machine gun platoon and one platoon of Co. C, which will report to you as escort, move via ______ to ______ (usually some hill or crest). As soon as the attack is well developed open fire on the enemy and assist the advance. You will provide protection for our left flank (if he is on a flank).

The mounted orderlies under Lt. G (the adjutant or some officer especially detailed) will patrol to ______ and ______, covering our flanks and observing, etc.

Co. C will send one platoon (or such force) to report to Lieut. Y, commander of the machine gun platoon, as escort. It will also send a sergeant and ______ men (or such force) well to the right (or via ______ to ______) as right flank patrol (or to cover our right flank).

Note. It would generally be inadvisable to assign any considerable portion of a _small_ force as an escort to the machine guns unless it was necessary for effective fire, to place them in a very exposed position (on a flank). It may be better to place the machine guns where they will need no escort. In the actions of larger forces, however, machine guns may often be employed with decisive effect against the flanks of the enemy. In such cases they should be used in larger masses, not by platoon. They are very effective in repelling surprise attacks and are often employed in exposed positions without an escort.

The remainder of Co. C and Co. D, under my command (or under command of ______) will constitute the support (or reserve) and will move via ______ under cover to ______ and there await my orders (or follow Co. ______ at ______ yards distance, or ______ yards in rear of the right flank, or center, etc.)

4. When issue of ammunition is completed the empty ammunition wagons will proceed to ______ and park off the road (return to ______ and refill, or join field train.)

(Empty ammunition wagons may be used to transport wounded.)

A regt. aid station will be established at ______ (or location of regt. aid station will be announced later.) The band will report to the regimental surgeon (in a regimental action).

The company wagons (or field train) will halt off the road where they now are (or proceed to ______, or take station on such road with head at such crossroad, etc.)

(If no dressing station is to be established at first the order may direct the sanitary troops to join the field trains or halt at some other locality “in readiness.”)

5. Messages may be sent to ______ (generally name a definite point) (or I shall be at ______, or with ______).

Explain how and to whom this order is delivered.

Make report to superior commander, by telegraph or telephone, mounted messengers, or other available means. Sometimes it may not be possible to report until after the action, but a report should always be sent as soon as practicable.

The foregoing order applies to any force up to a regiment. A regiment is assigned by battalions, each battalion being given its section of the attack. Each battalion holds out its own support. The orders, while covering all necessary points, must be so drawn as not to hamper subordinates by invading their province, nor to destroy their initiative by usurping their prerogatives. In the actual case the commander will regulate his orders to suit the experience, capacity and personal characteristics of the subordinate. In tactical problems the assumption will be made that all subordinates are fully instructed and competent, each within his own sphere and according to his rank.

Give the route to position for individual companies or battalions especially when trouble might ensue from interference of organizations. Thus to a battalion or lower commander say--“Move under cover via ______ to ______.” Be sure that available cover is utilized to the utmost extent practicable in the special case. In a regimental action the Colonel may direct that the packs be left in a convenient place on going into action. The Majors always give the orders about issue of ammunition, and see to the sending of combat patrols either as result of the colonel’s orders or without special orders. But if no extra ammunition is to be issued, or a portion of it only, the orders of the superior commander should so state. In some cases it may be inadvisable to issue _all_ the extra ammunition. In any case extra ammunition is issued when the troops are compelled to separate from their combat trains on going into action.

_Be sure_ that localities and dispositions are so described as to be perfectly plain not only to your imaginary subordinates but also to the _instructor_ who is to review your problem. Great care should be taken to designate localities beyond the possibility of misunderstanding. Use landmarks, not map-marks, in fixing a locality. In describing a point by its reference number make sure there is no other point having the same reference, or else say “Hill 622, 600 yds. NW. of SMITH F. H.,” etc., etc.

Be very sure that none of the troops come under hostile artillery fire in moving to their deploying position if it can be avoided.

_Before deciding on an attack_ the commander should satisfy himself as to whether any reinforcements are on their way to the enemy, and throughout the action he must be constantly on the lookout for such. This is the special duty of the cavalry, or other mounted men.

_The enemy’s line_ and the portion assigned to each unit should be designated as clearly as possible, preferably by landmarks, if there are such. If there are no landmarks an organization may be directed to attack the enemy’s front or his right wing, or for enveloping attack, his right flank, etc., distances and other means of orientation being given.

The attack orders for larger bodies, so far as the infantry is concerned, are similar to the foregoing, but in much less detail.

The engineers in attack may remove obstacles, improve communications, repair bridges or construct additional crossings. On the completion of their tasks they usually join reserves. They may be used also as an escort to the artillery.

Signal troops usually connect the position of the supreme commander with the commanders of the main and secondary attacks, artillery commander and reserves (if he is not with the reserve). Do not exceed the limit of their capacity in wire and telephones. (See “Organization of the U. S. Army,” ante.)

The sanitary troops establish the usual collecting, aid and dressing stations, and take charge of the evacuation of the wounded.

There is ordinarily a dressing station established for each brigade, and in addition a slightly wounded station for each division. The dressing station should be near fuel and water, preferably in a village or at least near some houses. It should be near the main attack but not too close to an artillery position. It should be on the main road to the rear and in a conspicuous place easily discovered. The slightly wounded station should fulfill as far as possible the same requirements, usually somewhat farther to the rear. For a force less than a brigade a single dressing station serving also as a slightly wounded station, would be established.

The supreme commander gives the orders to the sanitary troops, usually after consultation with and upon the recommendation of the senior medical officer. The location of the dressing station and, in a division action, of the slightly wounded station, should be announced to the command in orders. But in case of attack where developments cannot be foreseen the order may say “location of dressing station will be announced later.” In this case the sanitary troops halt off the road at a designated place in rear, or remain with the trains. Usually they will be at a place somewhat forward of the trains. (See also “Sanitary tactics,” Chap. XV.)

The employment of small units in combat (except as part of a larger force) will be exceptional in systematic warfare. For combat tactics of small units see I. D. R., Part II, and F. S. R.

_Remarks concerning an attack by a reinforced brigade._ If an attack is imminent the supreme commander should march with the advance guard.

When the enemy is reported the supreme commander, accompanied by the colonel of the advance guard regiment, rides rapidly ahead to some point from which the enemy’s line can be seen. If the messages received indicate that an attack is probable the brigade commander sends an aide to the rear with such of the following orders as the situation may seem to justify:

1. Infantry in main body to continue the march, closing up on the advance guard, and halting when head of column reaches a point beyond which it would be exposed to artillery fire.

2. Colonels of the infantry regiments in the main body, and the artillery, engineer and signal commanders to join the supreme commander or assemble at the head of the main body to await his return from the front.

3. Disposition of the emptied ammunition wagons.

4. Artillery firing batteries to move promptly to the fore, passing the infantry in front of them and taking post off the main road in the vicinity of their combat position.

5. Field trains and sanitary troops to halt off the road at designated localities in rear.

6. Any detachments within reach to rejoin as promptly as possible.

It may not always be practicable to carry out all of the above measures until the supreme commander has estimated the situation and fully decided to attack. As many as possible should be attended to in advance, in order to save time.

Having reached the lookout point to the front the commander endeavors to locate or verify reports concerning the location of the enemy’s flanks, what intrenching he is doing, etc.

He then considers:

1. Does the mission of the command require an attack, or will an attack best accomplish the mission?

2. Is there a reasonable prospect of success?

3. Shall the attack be frontal? Is the enemy’s line so attenuated that it can probably be pierced by a frontal attack, or is such an attack safer or for other reasons desirable? (Such as undue extension necessitated by an enveloping attack.)

4. Shall the attack be enveloping; if so against which flank? (For consideration of choice of flank see ante.)

5. From what locality can the friendly artillery best support the attack? Between the main and secondary attacks or behind the secondary is a good place, as here the artillery will be well protected, will need no escort, can support both attacks and, in the latter case (from behind secondary attack), can support the main attack with its oblique fire up to the last possible instant. Probable positions of the hostile artillery should be considered in connection with the selection.

6. Are there any strong positions, such as knolls or ridges which should be occupied by infantry (and possibly machine guns) for the protection of a flank (or both flanks)?

7. Where should the main and secondary attacks deploy? Can they reach their deploying positions in concealment, or with very little exposure?

8. Where should the reserve be held? Generally in rear of the inner flank of the main attack is a good place at first.

Having estimated the situation and made his decision the commander waits for his subordinates to join him, or returns to the head of the column, halting it when necessary (if not already halted) and issues his orders verbally, using the map to orient and direct his subordinates. It is necessary to note the positions of all elements of the command before issuing orders.

The advance guard regiment will usually be assigned to the secondary or holding attack, and the next regiment in rear to the main or enveloping attack, the rear regiment constituting the reserve.

A front for each regiment in the fighting line is defined as accurately as conditions permit, and the approximate deploying position of each regiment is indicated. Ordinarily the regimental commanders are permitted to conduct their regiments to the deploying positions and deploy when necessary. But if there is any danger of confusion, interference or unnecessary exposure the supreme commander may designate routes to the deploying positions, which should be approached as promptly as possible under cover.

The secondary attack may be ordered to “attack in conjunction” with the main attack, or the commander may say, “I will give the order (or signal) to attack.” In some cases however, the secondary attack may be launched before the main attack, to divert the enemy’s attention from the latter, etc. The main attack may be launched at once, or may await a subsequent command or signal, pending completion of preparations.

Any _special_ provisions necessary for the protection of the flanks (such as posting infantry and machine guns in commanding positions on the flanks) should be ordered by the brigade commander. If not ordered the regimental commanders will make such provisions as they deem necessary for the protection of their flanks. If no arrangements appear to have been made for this matter, the duty devolves upon the commanders of the flank battalions in the firing line.

The cavalry, prior to the attack, feels for the enemy’s line and drives in his cavalry. During the attack it operates on and covers the flanks, while threatening those of the enemy. The bulk of the cavalry should be placed on the flank where the enemy’s cavalry is known to be, or on that flank which is more exposed. A smaller body of cavalry, or a detachment of mounted men under an officer, covers the other flank. The duties of the cavalry during an action are to force back the enemy’s cavalry, to guard the flanks and threaten those of the enemy, and to watch for and give timely notice of the approach of reinforcements for the enemy, delaying their advance when practicable.

The artillery of the attack should be placed in one or more positions from which it can support the infantry throughout the action. Ordinarily it is best to hold the artillery in large masses, but a division is permissible if the tactical situation demands. The artillery of the attack usually directs its fire on that element of the defense which is at the time the most threatening to the attacking infantry. In the assault it supports the infantry to the last practicable moment and then switches its fire to search the ground occupied by the defender’s reserves, or that over which they must pass in delivering a counter-stroke, etc. The artillery combat trains are at the disposal of the artillery commander unless otherwise specially ordered.

The reserve follows the main attack at a certain distance, or proceeds to a convenient locality designated and awaits orders. Usually the reserve will follow or be posted conveniently near the main attack, as it is on this flank that it will ordinarily be used. Exceptionally it may be posted in a more central position.

The engineers may be used to remove obstacles, improve communications, etc. They then join the reserve.

The signal troops connect the commander with the main and secondary attacks, the reserve and the artillery, to the limit of their capacity.

The field trains and sanitary troops are halted well to the rear. A dressing station may be established by the first order, or announced later.