Chapter III: Columbian Languages

THE HAIDAH, ITS CONSTRUCTION AND CONJUGATION -- THE NASS
LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS -- BELLACOOLA AND CHIMSYAN
COMPARISONS -- THE NOOTKA LANGUAGES OF VANCOUVER ISLAND --
NANAIMO TEN COMMANDMENTS AND LORD'S PRAYER -- AZTEC ANALOGIES
-- FRASER AND THOMPSON RIVER LANGUAGES -- THE NEETLAKAPAMUCK
GRAMMAR AND LORD'S PRAYER -- SOUND LANGUAGES -- THE SALISH
FAMILY -- FLATHEAD GRAMMAR AND LORD'S PRAYER -- THE KOOTENAI --
THE SAHAPTIN FAMILY -- NEZ PERCÉ GRAMMAR -- YAKIMA LORD'S
PRAYER -- SAHAPTIN STATE AND SLAVE LANGUAGES -- THE CHINOOK
FAMILY -- GRAMMAR OF THE CHINOOK LANGUAGE -- AZTEC AFFINITIES
-- THE CHINOOK JARGON.

Returned from the south, whither we were led by the Apache branch of the Tinneh family, let us examine the languages of our Columbian group. Next along the seaboard, south of the Thlinkeets, are the Haidahs and Kaiganies, whose language is spoken on the southern part of the Prince of Wales Archipelago, and on Queen Charlotte Island. This language is sometimes called Haidah, and sometimes Kaiganie,[III'-1] and although many tribes belong to these nations, I find among them no dialectic difference, except that between the Haidahs of Queen Charlotte Island and the Kaiganies of the Prince of Wales Archipelago.

Marchand claims that this language is understood by the Thlinkeets and other eastern tribes;[III'-2] Capt. Dixon thinks it is a distinct and separate tongue;[III'-3] Scouler makes one large northern family, which he says spreads "from the Arctic Circle to the northern extremity of Quadra and Vancouver's Island;"[III'-4] Radloff's comparative researches incline him to the opinion that, although there may be a few similarities in words between this and other idioms, as, for example, the Thlinkeet, they are yet insufficient to prove identity.[III'-5]

[Sidenote: THE HAIDAH AND KAIGANIE.]

Some of those who have heard the Haidahs speak, say that their language is uncouth and difficult to articulate, abounding in consonants, and with a labial and dental pronunciation;[III'-6] others affirm that it does not possess the hard aspirated consonants so frequently found in the Thlinkeet language, that it is richer in vowels and softer, though, like the Thlinkeet, it is wanting in labials, in the dental _r_, and in the guttural _l_, while the Haidah has the clear _l_.[III'-7] The Haidah language lacks the letters _b_, _p_, _f_, and the dental _r_; neither its substantives nor adjectives have any gender, and to express the feminine the word _dshetta_, woman, is added. _Itlk dshetta_, wife of the chief; _ha_, dog; _ha dshetta_, slut. Neither is there any particular expression for the plural. _Kjéganei_, my house; _kjeganei tljönxl lágun_, my three houses are good; _tön dsha_, thy wife; _tön dsha s'töng hána_, thy two wives are both pretty. Two exceptions have been mentioned;--_gjeà_, mast; _gjeàng hlöhnhl_, three masts; _hätä_, man (homo); _hátei_, men. Substantives are not declined, but remain unchanged in all cases. _Hantl_, water; _hall hantl_, bring water; _tlu_, boat; _tlu tön gistasa_, I give thee a boat; _katt_, deer; _katt hutsu ziggin_, I have a small deer; _slei_, hand; _hall tön slei_, give thy hand. Pronouns are either distinct words, or are prefixes to substantives and verbs. Prefixes also denote the possessive case. To the former class belong _htlä_, I; and _tonga_, thou. To the latter belong _te_, _ti_, _de_, _di_, _zi_, _kje_, _teea_, _tl_, _t_, mine, all of which are used in the first person singular. Second person singular, _töng_, _tön_, _ten_, thine; second person plural, _töllöng_, yours.

Of the conjugation of the verb, the following may serve as example: Present indicative--I am hungry, _tekutke_; thou art hungry, _töng khúttus_; he is hungry, _law khúttung_; we are hungry, _itl khúttung_; you are hungry, _töllöng khúttus_; they are hungry, _únnas khúttung_. Root words are not of great length. The larger part are words of one or two syllables; some are of three or four, but these are rare; nevertheless, words may be agglutinated to any length.[III'-8]

The Nass language is spoken with very slight differences by the Nass, Hailtzas, and Sebassas, who dwell around Observatory Inlet, Millbank Sound, and the islands of Pitt Archipelago, respectively. Harsh sounds and gutturals predominate.[III'-9] The personal pronouns are--_nookwa_, I; _cusho_, thou; _nesho_, mine; _cusho_, thine; _nookwintok_, we; _kycusko_, ye; _caigh qua_, he; _elee caigh qua_, they.[III'-10]

Dunn gives a few sentences, which I insert as specimens: _whealey lowels kussú_, where are you going? _howmithlem pooquialla iltsouk_, do you understand our language? _lowels, cah cúnter cah míllah_, go shoot deer.[III'-11]

[Sidenote: BELLACOOLA AND CHIMSYAN.]

In the immediate vicinity of the Nass are two other languages, the Bellacoola and Chimsyan, of which hardly anything is known. Tolmie supposes the Chimsyan to be related to the Tacully language, but Buschmann, on comparing the vocabularies, could not find the affinity. The Rev. Mr Good informs me that the Chimsyan tongue extends inland as far as Fraser and Stuart Lake.[III'-12] Compare the following words:

BELLACOOLA. CHIMSYAN.

I untsh newyo
Thou eno noone
Mine untshil nawhawae
We unshto neuhami
Ye enooh neumi
He teechtil taigh qua
They teech til tin no mo taight queet
Man tlimsdah tzib
Knife teech tah ilth-a-peesh
Water kull ah use
Stone quils tolomick loap
Sun skin nuch kium uk
Moon tlooki kium ugum aat uk
Good teeah aam
Bad ushee atuchk

The Hailtzas and the Bellacoolas have the following words in common;--_watz_, dog; _poe_, halibut; _tlah_, black bear; _nun_, grizzly bear.[III'-13]

[Sidenote: LANGUAGES OF VANCOUVER ISLAND.]

On Vancouver Island a multitude of dialects are spoken, and various and contradictory classifications have been made, none of which, in my opinion, are correct. From the evidence, dialetic diversity prevails to such an extent that almost every petty tribe has its idiom; so that, even if affinities do exist, sufficient to justify a classification into languages and dialects, so meagre is our knowledge that it is impossible in many instances to say which are languages and which dialects. Hence in my classification I cannot do better than to make of the Nootka one language, and give a list of the dialects on the island, with all the information concerning them at my command. Four languages of the island--the Quackoll in the north, the Cowichin on the east, the Clallam at the south, and the Makah on the west, are said to be "totally distinct from each other, both in sound, formation, and modes of expression." The one last mentioned is said to bear some affinity to the language spoken at the mouth of the Columbia River,[III'-14] and is called by Sproat the Aht language, for which he claims in like manner that it "can be traced through all the tribes on the ocean coast, as far south as the mouth of the Columbia." The Comux, which people he locates on the east coast between the Cowichins and Quackolls, migrated thither, he says, from the main land, and the tribes "do not readily understand one another's language;" from all of which we may infer that in reality there is only one language, of which these four are the chief dialects.[III'-15] Yet this is partially contradicted by Grant, who affirms that the Cowichins and Clallams can communicate with each other, though not very easily, but that the Makahs and Quackolls cannot converse with each other or with any of the other nations.[III'-16] Another authority, who certainly ought to be entitled to an opinion, having been a captive among these nations for some years, also intimates that in reality there was only one language dominant on the island. After enumerating the different tribes he concludes; "all of whom speak the same language. But the Newchemass who come from a great way Northward, and from some distance inland, speak quite a different language, although it is well understood by those of Nootka."[III'-17]

National differences appear to consist more in pronunciation than in grammatical construction. Thus the articulation of the Klaizzahts is hoarser and more guttural than that of the people of Nootka Sound.[III'-18] Dialectic differences sometimes go so far that the several bands of the same tribe find difficulty in making themselves understood; as for instance the Nitinaht tribes when conversing with one another, have frequently to repeat their sentences differently accented to make them intelligible. The chief peculiarity of the Nitinaht dialect is the transmutation of the letters _m_ and _n_, which are in universal use throughout the island, for which it substitutes _b_ and _d_. Thus for _mamook_, to work, the Nitinahts say _baboik_; _nismah_, country, they pronounce _dissibach_, and so on.[III'-19]

As compared with that of the Thlinkeets, the Nootka language is neither harsh nor disagreeable. Its most curious feature is the predominance of labials and dentals over gutturals. The Nootkas possess fine oratorical powers, lending assistance to their words by shaking their head, gesticulating forcibly, and even jumping at each other. A singular sound, and one which it is hardly possible to express by any combination of letters, happens in many of their words. Spreading the corners of the mouth to their widest extent, and raising the point of the tongue against the palate, they expel the air from the sides of the mouth, at the same time bringing the tongue down strongly, which obviously produces a sound altogether foreign to the English vocabulary. Captain Cook says of this sound, "it is formed, in a particular manner, by clashing the tongue partly against the roof of the mouth, with considerable force; and may be compared to a very coarse or harsh method of lisping," and he attempts to give the sound by the letters _lszthl_. Many words end with this sound, and also with a _tl_, _z_, or _ss_;--as _opulszthl_, sun; _onulszthl_, moon; _kahsheetl_, dead; _teeshcheetl_, to throw a stone; _kooomitz_, a human skull; _quahmiss_, fish-roe. Captain Cook further remarks upon their language that it "can only be inferred, from their method of speaking, which is very slow and distinct, that it has few prepositions or conjunctions; and, as far as we could discover, is destitute of even a single interjection, to express admiration or surprize."[III'-20]

Furthermore, I may add, there is no case, nor gender, nor tense, and number is expressed only in the personal pronoun and in the inflection of verbs. In the first persons singular and plural, verbs end in _a_ or _mah_; in the second persons, _huk_ or _ayts_; and in the third persons, in _mah_, _win_, or _utlma_. Sometimes these endings go over to the adverb which accompanies the verb, and they are subject to phonetic rules, according to which syllables are sometimes changed or left out altogether. We have _wik_, not; and _kumotop_, to understand; _wikahkumotop_ or _wimmutomah_, I do not understand; the latter mode being a change for the sake of euphony. Plurals, and particularly frequentative plurals, are expressed by duplication: as _mahte_ or _mahs_, house; _mahtmahs_, all the houses. Different classes of words appear to have different terminals: for example, instruments end with _ik_--_hukkaik_, a knife; _hissik_, a saw. Colors end in _uk_ or _ook_--_eyyohquk_, green; _kistokkuk_, blue; _klayhook_, purple; _kleesook_, white; _toopkook_, black. _Hissit_, red, forms an exception. Trees and plants end in _pt_--_kowwhipt_, _seewhipt_, _ootsmupt_, _klakkupt_, etc. Verbs end in _shitl_, _shetl_, and _chitl_, although some exceptions occur. Another distinctive ending is _up_--_châtayup_, to cut off with a knife; _kââsup_, to hurt or wound; _hyyusatyup_, to diminish; _ashsup_, to break a string or cord; _quoyup_, to break a stick, etc.[III'-21] As a specimen of the language, I give the first three of the Ten Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer, in the dialect of the Nanaimos.[III'-22]

[Sidenote: NANAIMO COMMANDMENTS.]

NUTSA.

Owa tonowa quinet ta eesaila tseetsel seeam, ohi tanca tseetsel
seeam.

EESAILA.

Owa tanowa seeise ta seeathl sta ta stem nay quo tseetsel, sta
ta stem aitna tomuck, e sta ta stem nay ta ka, kokoo taswa
tseetsel seeam owa tanowa cappausom e stayweeil ta sta, ohi
tanca tseetsel seeam. Towhat oyas kullstuck, tanca ouseete
tanca quaquat e towhat ighstuck tanca e oyas shatlm tanswan
squell oseete tanca igh lalamat.

TLEEUGH.

Owa tanowa heewaulim ta squish quo tseetsel seeam oseete
tseetsel seeam quaquasaum towhat oyas sta.

TA KALHEM TA JESUKIT.

Saulth man nay quo tseetsel igh telneemelth oyas stlay stuck ta
statsn squish. Tel-neemelth ohi stlay tanowa sthee seeam nay
toumuck tomuck. Igh taswa mestiu shatlm ta squell aitna tomuck
sta ta tseetsel mestiu. Tana quial e muck squial mistook ta
saulth saulthan. Igh tanowa nahi tataeuk whawa telneemelth e ta
saulth kull squiaxits sta telneemelth nahi tataeuk whunem
toumuck mestiu kull squiaxits whawa telneemelth. Igh
telneemelth owanam ethlkalth ta kull, igh tanowa awistuck etha
igh. Ohi tanowa oonans sthee seeam, tanowa ohi sthee quamqum
telneemelth ohi cappausom high quo tanowa oyas oyas. Amen.

From certain interpretations placed upon the ancient Aztec manuscripts, it was by some inferred that the origin of that people must be sought in the north; hence speculative philologists have, from time to time, discovered many fancied resemblances between the language of the aboriginal Mexicans and those of various northern nations. Thus, in the speech of the Nootkas, a distinct phonetic resemblance, and the frequent occurrence of the ending _tl_ were sufficient evidence to Vater and others that a relationship exists between the Aztecs and the Nootkas. Prescott, following his predecessors, fell into the same error. Humboldt, although struck with the similarities mentioned, yet pronounced them different tongues,[III'-23] while Buschmann, who has examined the subject more than all others combined, denies all such relationship.[III'-24]

* * * * *

Coming over to the main land we find, for the most part, in each of the many inlets and canals a separate language. Between these languages, from perpetual intertribal intercourse, it is impossible to determine, in some instances, what relationship, if any, exists. Several of the languages of the island we find also on the main land adjacent. The Clallams are found on both sides of Juan de Fuca Straits; and nearly related to the Cowichins, who are found as well on the main land near the mouth of Fraser River as on the island, are the Noosdalums of Hood Canal, one language being but a dialect of the other.

[Sidenote: LANGUAGES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.]

Respecting the languages spoken in the interior of British Columbia, the Rev. Mr Good, who has spent fifteen years among the inland nations, and who is fully conversant with their languages, gives me the following information: From Yale to Lillooet, on the Fraser River, thence from Bonaparte to Nicola River, the Neetlakapamuch, or Thompson River, language is spoken. From Douglas, along the Harrison River and lake, to its confluence with the Fraser, as far as Chilicothe, and again from Lillooet northward to Clinton, the Stlatelemuck, or Lillooet, language prevails. Next, from Bonaparte River northward to William Lake, to Shushwap Lake, around Lake Kamloops, and for some distance on the Thompson River, the Suwapamuck, or Shushwap, tongue prevails; and finally, from Nicola Lake to Kamloops, and southward as far as Columbia River, the Chitwout, or Similkameen, language is used. Mr Good further asserts that, although there are four distinct languages, they are nevertheless in some degree affiliated. From the same gentleman, I also obtained the following grammatical notes and specimens of the Neetlakapamuch tongue. Personal pronouns are--I, _ens_; thou, _awee_; he, _cheneelt_; we, _nemeemult_; you, _aweepeeaps_; they, _chinkoast_.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO GIVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I give, ens nahktinna | We give, nemeemult nahktam
Thou givest, awee nahktatta | You give, aweepeeaps nahktattose
He gives, cheneelt nahktass | They give, chinkvast nahkteeiks

IMPERFECT.

I gave, huinahktlam

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall give, huinahkchin

IMPERATIVE.

Give me, nahkchams | Give us, nahkteea

_Mamans_ inserted in a word, signifies a desire to do a thing; thus, _winaskin_ means to go; and _winasmamankin_, I am wishing to go. The syllable _weltin_, affixed to a word, expresses that a thing has been done effectively;--_tlokhtinnaweltin_, I have fastened it well, or thoroughly. _Tata_ is a negative preposition.

THE LORD'S PRAYER.

Takamote nemeemult skatzazact whohakn nil
Our Father who art in

kakhtomew. Axseeas chutam clas squest awee. Eyah
heaven. Good to be done the name thine. Good

huntohs stakums asait cunamah axclahaks swonakum
make haste all men come truly

eah tuksmite Jesu Cree huntoseamal. Awee kaseah
good children of Jesus Christ make haste. Thy will

eah ah chuwo naanatomew, clah seeatahah L'angels
good done on earth, as the angels

archkhwamo incheah nilkahtomew. Takamose nuk
do there heaven. All and

stakum a tseetlekut nahkteea nemeemult stakums as
every day give us all our

skhlayans. Altla quonquonstyea nemeenult takamote
food. And forgive us all

nemeemult outkest, tseeah nemeemult quonquonstama
our evil, as we forgive

takamote tooal saitcunama aks weetsikteese tekest whoa
all of men who accomplish any evil to

nemeemult. Atahmose tah hoshaman as masteel
us. Never let the evil one lead

nemeemult axkhokestumtum a quonteese akest. Kamult
us to wish to lay hold of any evil. But

akklokpistyip nemeemult takamote too a kest wilkakow.
deliver us all that is evil far from us.

Shutenmeenwawee takamose atomew. Shutenmeenwawee
Thine all the world. Thine

takamose azozoht. Shutenmeenwawee takamose
all strength. Thine all

asyameet. Taeah asklakameemus astinansouse,
worship. Good evermore to come,

asklakameemus astinansouse. Axseahs.
evermore to come. Amen.

[Sidenote: PUGET SOUND DIALECTS.]

Proceeding southward to Puget Sound, we have the Shimiahmoo, Nooksak, Lummi, Samish, Snohomish, and others; and around Cape Flattery, the Classet. The Makah, Classet, or Klaizzaht, I have spoken of already, in connection with the language of Vancouver Island, and it also appears that the Clallam, S'klalum, or as they call themselves, Nusklaiyum, is also connected with the Vancouver Island language.[III'-25] It is probably the same which Dr Scouler has called the Noosdalum. The Lummi, or Nukhlumi, and the Shimiahmoo have also some affinity with the Sanetch dialect of Vancouver Island, and the languages of the Skagits and Samish approach that of the Nisquallies. Yet while the Clallam and Lummi show certain affinities to the Nootka dialect, they nevertheless clearly belong to the Salish, or Flathead family.[III'-26]

* * * * *

[Sidenote: SALISH DIALECTS.]

We now come to the great interior Salish family, although I shall have occasion again to refer to the coast language in this vicinity. The northernmost Salish language is the Shushwap, or Atnah, which approaches near to its neighbor the Salish proper;[III'-27] then there are the Kullespelm, or Pend d'Oreille, the Spokane, the Soaiatlpi, and the Okanagan, which with others spoken on the Columbia show close affinities.

The Salish proper, or Flathead, is harsh and guttural. The letters _b_, _d_, _f_, _r_, _v_, do not exist in this language. The plural of substantives is formed in different ways: first, by duplicating the root--_skoi_, mother; _skoikoi_, mothers: second by duplicating and dropping a vowel from the root--_skaltmigu_, man; _sklkaltmigu_, men; _esmòck_, mountain; _esmòkmck_, mountains: third, by duplicating a consonant in the middle of the word--_skòlchemùs_, eyelid; _skòlchammùs_, eyelids: fourth, by prefixing the syllable _ul_--_nackoèmen_, thief; _ulnakoèmen_, thieves: and lastly there are divers formations, as _es´schíte_, tree; _szlzlíl_, trees, forest; _s´m´èm_, woman (mulier); _pèlplgui_, women. Diminutives are expressed by placing _l_ before the root, as, _s´m´èm_, woman; _slm´èm_, small woman; _lùk_, wood; _llùl´lk_, a small piece of wood. Augmentatives are formed by prefixing the syllable _kutn_, or _kuti_, when the word commences with an _s_ or _l_, thus, _skagae_, horse; _kuti-skagae_, a great horse; _sm´ot_, smoke; _kuti-sm´ot_, a great smoke. There are pronouns, personal, possessive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and indefinite. According to Mengarini the personal pronoun has two forms, absolute and copulative, the exact meaning attached to these terms not being explained.

ABSOLUTE. COPULATIVE.

I koie ko
Thou anúi ku
He zuilz
We kaémpile kae
You mpilèpstemp p, or mp
They zni´ilz

As examples of the others there are possessives--mine, _in_; thine, _an_; his, _s_; ours, _kao_; yours, _mp_; theirs, _s_: demonstratives--this, _iè_; that, _zi_: interrogative--who, _suèt_: and indefinite--some one, _chnáksi_.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE ANGRY.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I am angry, tnes aimt-i | We are angry, kaes aimt-i
Thou art angry, kues aimt-i | You are angry, pes aimt-i
He is angry, es aimt-i | They are angry, es afimt-i

PERFECT.

I have been angry, tn-aimt or tnes aimt

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall be angry, nem tn aimt

IMPERATIVE.

Be angry, aimt sch

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I be angry, tiks aimt-i | If we be angry, kaeks aímt-i
If thou be angry, kuks aimt-i | If you be angry, pks aimt-i
If he be angry, ks aimt-i | If they be angry, ks aíimt-i

IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I were angry, k neu tn aimt

OPTATIVE.

If I might be angry, komi tn aimt

Following is a Lord's Prayer, the nationality not given:

Kae l'eu l's'chichmáskat u ku l'zii, asku èst kuks
Our father in heaven who liveth, thy name of thee

gamènchltm; ku kl chèltich s esià sp'us; aszntèls ks
be loved; thou be Lord of all hearts; thy will

kólli iè l stóligu, ezgail l's'chichmáskat. Kae guizlilt
be done this on earth, as in heaven. Us give to-day

iè tlgoa lu kaesiapzínm. Kaelkolgoèllilt lu kae gulguílt
what we need. Us forgive our debts,

ezgail lu tkaempilè kaes kolgoelltm, lu e épl gulguílt l
as we forgive (those) who have debts with

kaempilè. Kae olkschílilt ta ka keskuèstm lu tèie; u kai
us. Us assist not at any time receive evil; but us

gulguillilt lu tel teié. Komi ezgail.
preserve uninjured from evil. Be it so.[III'-28]

The above is taken from the grammar of Mengarini, written in Latin; following is a Lord's Prayer of the Pend d'Oreilles, from Father De Smet, who wrote in French:

Kyleeyou, Itchitchemask, askwees kowaaskshamenshem
Our father of heaven, that your name be respected

ailetzemilkou yeelskyloog; ntziezie telletzia spoo
by all the earth; reign in all the

oez. Assinteels astskole, yelstoloeg etzageel
hearts. That your will be done on earth as also

Itchichemask. Hoogwitzilt yettilgwa lokaitssia petzim.
in heaven. Give us now all our necessaries.

Knwaasksmeemiltem klotayie kloitskeyen etzageel
Forgive us the evil which we have done, as

kaitsskolgwelem klotoiye kloitskwen klielskyloog.
we forgive (the evil) to those who us have offended.

Koaxalock shitem takaakskwentem klotaiye;
Accord to us assistance to evade evil;

kowaaksgweeltem klotaiye. Komieetzegeel.
but deliver us from evil. So be it.[III'-29]

Also belonging to this family are the languages spoken by the Skitsuish, Pisquouse, Nsietshaws, Nisquallies, and Chehalis. The Nsietshaw differs more than the others from the Salish proper, which is the stock language of this family, and particularly in not possessing any labials; the letters _m_ and _b_ being changed to _w_, and _p_ to _h_. Thus, in the Chehalis and Nisqually languages, we have, _numan_, son; _tomokh_, earth; _pansototsi_, winter; which, in the Nsietshaw, are pronounced respectively, _nuwon_, _tawekh_ and _hansototsi_. The Chehalis is spoken in three dialects, the Chehalis proper, the Quaiantl, and the Queniauitl.[III'-30]

The languages of the Salish Family, particularly that of the Chehalis, are rich in words, by means of which everything coming within their knowledge may find expression; they are not easily acquired by strangers; it is difficult for the different nations and tribes to make themselves understood to one another. This is owing principally to the many localisms in vogue among them, of which there is a good specimen in the Chehalis language. Thus, _tolneuch_ means west-wind, off shore, toward the sea, or to the west. Now, if the Chehalis are leaving the shore in a canoe, and one of them wants to tell his mate to put her head off shore, he will say _tolneuch_, but if in a hurry, _neuch neuch_. _Claathlum_ signifies east-wind, also ashore; this they transpose into _clath clath_.[III'-31] The Clallum and Lummi languages have another peculiarity, which is a certain nasal sound at the commencement and ending of words like a strong nasal _ns_; also a broad _a_ sound as in far, path. The sounds of the letters _v_, _r_, _z_, are wanting.[III'-32] The frequently occurring ending _tl_ has also led to speculation, and to a search for Aztec affinities among these languages, but nothing except this phonetic similarity has been discovered. This _tl_ ending is very common. Swan says that, "sometimes they will, as if for amusement, end all their words with _tl_; and the effect is ludicrous to hear three or four talking at the same time, with this singular sound, like so many sitting hens.'[III'-33] East of the Salish, the Kitunaha, Kootenai, or Coutanie language is spoken. Authorities differ widely in describing this language. Parker calls it "open and sonorous, and free from gutturals, which are common in the language of the surrounding tribes;" while Capt. Palliser affirms that it is "most guttural and unpronounceable by a European, every word appearing to be brought from their lowest extremities with difficulty."[III'-34] The following Lord's Prayer, taken by a Frenchman will give a better idea of the language than any description:

Katitoe naitle naite, akiklenais zedabitskinne
Our father, who art in heaven, may thy name be great

wilkane. Ninshalinne oshemake kapaik akaitlainam.
and honored. Be thou the master of all hearts.

Inshazetluité younoamake yekakaekinaitte.
May thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven.

Komnakaike logenie niggenawaishne naiosaem miaitéke.
Grant us this day all our wants.

Kekepaime nekoetjekoetleaitle ixzeai, iyakaikakaaike
Forgive us all the evil we have done, as we forgive

iyazeaikinawash kokakipaimenaitle. Amatikezawes
all the evil done unto us. Strengthen us

itchkestshimmekakkowêlle akatakzen. Shaeykiakakaaike.
against all evil, and deliver us from it. May it be so.[III'-35]

[Sidenote: SAHAPTIN LANGUAGES.]

The languages of the Sahaptin family are spoken along the Lewis and Snake Rivers and their tributaries, as far as the foot of the Rocky Mountains. The Walla Walla, Palouse, Yakima, Kliketat, and Sahaptin proper, some of them widely divergent from the mother tongue, are of this family.[III'-36] The Walla Walla differs from the Sahaptin proper not more than the Portuguese from the Spanish. Father Pandosy made a grammar of the Yakima language, under which he ranges the whole Sahaptin family, dividing it into dialects, as the Walla Walla, the Tairtla, the Roilroilpam, or Kliketat, and the Palouse.[III'-37]

In the Nez Percé language, the following letters only are found: _h_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _p_, _s_, _t_, _w_, _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, but the missionaries having introduced some new words, it was found necessary to add _b_, _d_, _f_, _g_, _v_, _z_. Agglutination is carried to a great length, and long words are very frequent. In fact, wherever a sentence can be expressed by joining one word to another, it is done, leaving out letters in places, for the sake of euphony. The following is a fair illustration: _hitautualawihnankauna_, he traveled past in a rainy night. Analysed, _hi_ expresses the third person singular; _tau_ a thing done at night; _tuala_, something done in the rain; _wihnan_, to travel on foot; _kau_ is derived from the verb _kokauna_, to pass by; _na_ expresses the indicative mood, aorist tense, direction from the speaker. The plural of substantives is formed by duplicating the first syllable: _pitin_, girl; _pipitin_, girls. Or when the word commences with a vowel, the vowel is sometimes repeated: _atwai_, old woman; _aatwai_, old women. Exceptions to this rule are made in words expressing family relations, the prefix _ma_ being employed in such cases, as _pika_, mother; _pikama_, mothers. If _p_ terminates the word, it is omitted, as _askap_, plural _askama_. To express gender, the words _hama_, male, and _aiat_, female, are employed, but the substantive remains unchanged. Nouns are declined either by changing their terminals, or by affixes:

Nom. a house init
Gen. of a house ininm
Acc. house inina

1st Dat. to or for a house initph
2d Dat. in on, or upon a house initpa

1st Abl. with a house initki
2d Abl. from a house initpkinih
3d Abl. for the purpose of a house initain

Comparison--_tahs_, good; _tahs kanmakanm_, better; _tahsni_, best. Personal prounouns--_in_, I; _im_, thou; _ipi_, he, or she; _nun_, we; _ima_, ye; _imma_, they. Of the verb numerous variations are made. They are divided into three classes, neuter, active transitive, and active intransitive. The two neuter verbs are _wash_, to be; and _witsasha_, to become. Active intransitive verbs cannot be followed by any accusative.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

DIRECTION FROM. DIRECTION TOWARDS.

I am, in wash
Thou art, im a wash im a wam
He is, it is his, ipi hiwash, ipnim ush ipi hiwam
We are, nun washih
You are, ima ath washih ima ath washinm
They are, it is theirs, imma hiushih, imman aushih imma hiushinm

RECENT PAST TENSE.

I have just been, waka wamka
Thou hast just been, a waka a wamka
He has just been,
it has just been his, hiwaka, awaka hiwamka
We have just been, washeka washinmka
You have just been, ath washeka ath washinmka
They have just been,
it has just been theirs, kinsheka, ausheka hiushinmka
[III'-38]

[Sidenote: YAKIMA, WALLA WALLA, AND PALOUSE.]

The following grammatical notes will serve to illustrate the Yakima and some of the other languages of the Sahaptin family.

SINGULAR.

Nom. the horse kussi-nan
Gen. of the horse kussi-nmi
Dat. to the horse kussi-ow
Acc. the horse kussi-nan
Voc. O horse na-kussi
Abl. for the horse kussi-ei

PLURAL.

Nom. the horses kussi-ma
Gen. of the horses kussi-ma mi
Dat. to the horses kussi-ma-miow
Acc. the horses kussi ma-man
Voc. O horses na-kussi-ma
Abl. for the horses kussi-ma-miei

In the Palouse and Walla Walla languages the affix _nan_ is changed into _na_. Personal pronouns--I, _ink_, _nes_, _nesh_, or _sh_; of me, _enmi_; to me, _enmiow_; me, _inak_; for me, _enmiei_; we, _namak_, _natés_, _nanam_, _aatés_, or _namtk_; of us, _néémi_; to us _néémiow_; us, _némanak_; for us, _néémiei_. The Walla Wallas leaves off the _k_ from the affix _ak_; thus, instead of _inak_, me, they say _ina_, and instead of _namak_, we, _nama_.

YAKIMA. WALLA WALLA AND PALOUSE.

He penk penk
Of him pin-mink pinmin
To him pin-miwk pinmiow
Him pin-nim pinminnan
For Him pin-mikaiei pinmiei
They pmak pma
Of Them pe-mink pamin
To them pe-miwk pamiwk
Them pe-minak pamanak
For them pe-mikaiei pamikaiei

In one dialect the terminal _ak_ is changed into _ei_.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO HAVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I have, nesh wa, or wash nesh
Thou hast, mesh wa, or wash mesh
He has, penk awa, or pinmink awa
We have, natesh wa, or wash natesh
You have, matesh wa, or wash matesh.
They have, pa wa, or pemink awa

PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT.

I had, or have had, nesh wacha

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall have, nesh wata

As a specimen of agglutination there is the word _ipinashapatawtrahliktamawarsha_, he himself makes night disagreeably tiresome long wait; that is, he keeps one long waiting for him at night.

YAKIMA LORD'S PRAYER.

Neemi Psht, imk nam wamsh Roiemich-nik;
Our Father, thou who art high on the side (heaven);

shir nam 'manak p'a t-maknani tarnei wanicht; shir
well thou they (indef.) should respect the name; well

ewianawitarnei emink miawarwit; shir nammanak pa
should arrive thy chieftainship; well thee they

twanenitarnei, ichinak techampa, tenma, prw,
should follow here earth (on) inhabitants (the) will

amakwsrimmanak pa twanenishamsh roiemipama
thou as thyself they follow high of the (heaven)

tenma. Nemanak nim t-kwatak kwalissim maisr
inhabitants (the). Our (us) give us food always to-morrow

maisr. Nemanak laknanim chélwitit: aateskwsri
to-morrow. Our (us) forget sins: us as

namak t'normaman laknánisha chélwitit anakwnkink
we others forget sins have by which

neémiow pa chelwitia. R-t-to anianim nemanak
us have offended. Strong make our (us)

temna; t-kraw krial. Nemanak eikrenkem chelwitknik
heart; that it fall not. Us snatch bad from the side.

Ekws iwa neemi temna.
So it is our heart.[III'-39]

The Nez Percés make use of two languages, one the native language proper, or, as a European might say, the court language, and the other a slave language, or jargon. They differ so much, that a stranger fully conversant with one cannot understand the other. This jargon originated, probably, from intermixing prisoners of war of different nationalities who were enslaved, and their languages mingled with each other, and with that of their conquerors. The pure-blooded Nez Percés all understand the jargon, learning it when children, together with their own proper language. Nor is this all. The jargon is more or less modified by each of the several languages, or dialects, in which it is spoken. The employés of the fur companies, who first came in contact with the Sahaptins, were greatly annoyed by this multiformity; as, for example, one Nez Percé coming to sell a beaver skin would say, _tammecess taxpool_, I wish to sell a beaver; another would say, _towèyou weespoose_, I wish to trade a beaver; and a third would say, _e'towpa e'yechcoe_, I wish to trade a beaver.

[Sidenote: COURT LANGUAGE OF THE SAHAPTINS.]

The following short vocabulary will show some of the differences between the Nez Percé language and the jargon:

NEZ PERCÉ JARGON.

Man kewas winch
Woman eyatt tealacky
Boy tachnutsem tuchnoot
Girl tochanough peten
No waatown, tsya
Knife waltz whapallmeh,
Horse she came koosy
Hair tootanick kookoo
Eyes shelaw Atchass.[III'-40]

Professor Rafinesque, out of twenty-four Sahaptin words, claims to have found six bearing close affinities to the English, but Buschmann says that of these twenty-four, many are not Sahaptin at all.[III'-41] The Waiilatpu language, conterminous with the Sahaptin, is spoken in two dialects, the Cayuse and Mollale. The Cayuses mingle frequently with the Sahaptins, and therefore many words of the latter have been adopted into their tongue. They mostly understand and speak the Sahaptin, and frequently the Walla Walla, and this not from any relationship in the several languages, but from intercourse.[III'-42]

Like their neighbors, the Cayuses employ two languages; one in the transaction of the common affairs of life, and the other on high state occasions, such as when making speeches round the council fire, to determine questions of war and peace, as well as all other intertribal affairs. That is to say, the Sahaptins use their court language on all ordinary, as well as extraordinary occasions, keeping the jargon for their servants, while the Cayuses employ the baser tongue for common, and the higher for state occasions.

The Cayuses were eloquent speakers; their language abounded in elegant expressions, and they well knew how to make the most of it. When first known to Europeans, it was fast fading away, and subsequently merged into the Sahaptin; so fleeting are these native idioms.[III'-43]

[Sidenote: DIFFICULTIES OF THE CHINOOK.]

The Chinook language is spoken by the different tribes inhabiting the banks of the Lower Columbia and adjacent country. This family is divided into many dialects, which diverge from the mother tongue as we ascend the river; in fact, the upper tribes have mostly to employ an interpreter, when they communicate with those on the lower part of the river. The chief diversities of this language are the Chinook proper, the Wakiakum, Cathlamet, and Clatsop, and the various dialects mentioned by Lewis and Clarke as belonging to those inhabiting this region at the time of their expedition, but which cannot now be positively identified with any of the languages known to us. Two of the last-mentioned dialects, the Multnomah and the Skilloot, the explorers describe as belonging to the Chinook.[III'-44] Among all the languages of north-western America, except perhaps that of the Thlinkeets, the Chinook is considered in its construction the most intricate; and in its pronunciation the most difficult. No words are to be found in the English vocabulary which can accurately describe it. To say that it is guttural, clucking, spluttering, and the like conveys but a faint conception of the sound produced by a Chinook in his frantic effort to unburden his mind of an idea. He does not appear to have yet discovered the use of the lips and tongue in speaking, but struggles with the lower part of the throat to produce sounds for the expression of his thoughts. Some declare that the speech of the Thlinkeets, whose language like that of the Chinook contains no labials, is melody in comparison to the croakings of the Chinooks. Ross says, that "to speak the Chinook dialect, you must be a Chinook."[III'-45] Indeed, they appear to have become tired of their own language and to have voluntarily abandoned it, for, to-day, the youthful Chinook speaks almost wholly Chehalis and the jargon. The employés of the fur companies, voyageurs, trappers and traders, who were accustomed to master with little difficulty the aboriginal tongues which they encountered, were completely nonplussed by the Chinook. A Canadian of Astor's company is the only person known to have acquired it so as to speak it fluently. During a long illness he was nursed by the Chinooks, and during his convalescence devoted his entire time to perfecting himself in their tongue.[III'-46]

Here the sounds of the letters _f_, _r_, _v_, and _z_ do not exist, the pronunciation is generally very indistinct, and _ç_ and _s_, _k_ and _g_, _d_ and _t_, are almost always confounded.

In the first person of the dual and plural of pronouns, the person present and addressed is either included or excluded according to the form used.

Personal pronouns in the Watlala dialect are:

SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL.

I naika | We (two) (exc.) ndaika | We (ex.) nçtaika
| We (two) (incl.) tkhaika | We (incl.) olkhaika
Thou maika | You (two) mdaika | You miçaika
He iakhka | They (two) içtakhka | They tkhlaitçka

Of the possessive pronouns the following will serve as examples. They are joined to the noun _itukutkhle_, or _itukwutkhle_, house.

SINGULAR.

My house kukwutkhl
Thy house meokwitkhl
His house iakwitkhl

DUAL. PLURAL.

Our house (exc.) ndakwitkhl ntçakwitkhl (exc.)
Our house (incl.) tkhakwitkhl olkhakwitkhl (incl.)
Your house mdakwitkhl mçakwitkhl
Their house içtakwitkhl tkhlakwitkhl

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE COLD.

PRESENT INDICATIVE, SINGULAR.

I am cold, naika tçinokhkeakh
Thou art cold, maika tçiçomkeakh
He is cold, iakhka tçikeakh

DUAL.

We (two) are cold (exc.), ndaika tçiçontkeakh
We (two) are cold (incl.), tkhaika tçiçtkeakh
You (two) are cold, mdaika tçimokeakh
They (two) are cold, ictakhka tçiçtkeakh

PLURAL.

We are cold (exc.), ntçaika tçicontçkeakh
We are cold (incl.), olkhaika tçilokeakh
You are cold, mçaika tçiçomçkeakh
They are cold, tkhlaitçka tçiçotkhlkeakh

IMPERFECT.

Yesterday I was cold, takotkhl naika tçinotkeakh

FIRST FUTURE.

By and bye I shall be cold, atkhlke naika tçiçonkhatka
I shall be cold, naika onçkhatka tçiç

THE VERB TO KILL.

I kill thee, aminowagua
I kill him, tçinowagua
I kill you (dual), omtkinowagua
I kill them (dual), oçtkinowagua
I kill you (pl.), omçkinowagua
I kill them, otkhlkinowngua
You kill him, omçkiwagua
You kill them, otkhlkiwagua

Dialectic differences particularly among the upper Chinooks, or Watlalas, are found principally in words; grammatical forms being alike in both.[III'-47] Kane remarks as a peculiarity that this language contains "no oaths, or any words conveying gratitude or thanks."[III'-48]

Moving again southward to the Willamette Valley, I find the Calapooya language, and for the first time a soft and harmonious idiom. Although the guttural _kh_ sometimes occurs, it is more frequently softened to _h_. The consonants are _ç_, or _s_, _f_, _j_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _ng_, _p_, or _b_, _t_, or _d_, _q_, and _w_. Unlike the Sahaptin and Chinook there are neither dual nor plural forms in the Calapooya language.

[Sidenote: CALAPOOYA PRONOUNS.]

The personal pronouns are:

I tsi, or tsii
Thou maha, or maa
He koka, or kak
We soto
You miti
They kinuk

My father tsi simna
Thy father maha kaham
His father kok inifam
Our father soto tufam
Your father miti tifam
Their father kinuk inifam

My mother tsi sinni
Thy mother maha kanni
His mother kok ininnim
Our mother soto tunnim
Your mother miti tinnim
Their mother kinuk ininnim

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE SICK, ILFATIN.

PRESENT NEUTER.

I am sick, tsi ilfatin
Thou art sick, intsi ilfatin
He is sick, ilfatin
We are sick, tsiti ilfaf
You are sick, intsip ilfaf
They are sick, kinuk in ilfaf

NEGATIVE.

I am not sick, wangk tsik ilfatit

IMPERFECT.

I was sick yesterday, ilfatin tsi kuyi
Thou wast sick yesterday, imku ilfatin
He was sick yesterday, hu ilfatin

FIRST FUTURE.

To-morrow I shall be sick, midji taïlfit tsii

The following example will serve to illustrate the great changes verbs undergo in their conjugations;--_ksitapatsitup maha_, I love thee; _tsitapintsuo kok_, I love him; _himtapintsiwata tsii kak_, he loves me; _hintsitapintsiwata tsii_, dost thou love me?[III'-49]

The Yamkally is spoken at the sources of the Willamette River. A comparison of the Yamkally and Calapooya vocabularies shows a certain relationship between them.[III'-50]

[Sidenote: COLUMBIAN AND MEXICAN COMPARISONS.]

I have said that certain affinities are discovered between the Waiilatpu and Mollale, and also between the Watlala and Chinook; in these, as well as in the Calapooya and Yamkally, Buschmann discovers faint traces of the Aztec language. Others have discovered a fancied relationship between the language of the Mexicans and those of more northern nations, but Mr Buschmann believes that, descending from the north, the peoples mentioned, whose lands are drained by the Columbia, are the first in which the Aztec, in dim shadows, makes its appearance. These similarities, he discovered not alone by direct comparisons with the Aztec, but also by detecting resemblances between these Columbian dialects and those of certain nations which he calls his Sonora group and its affiliations, all of which contain elements of the Aztec tongue. Yet Mr Buschmann does not therefrom claim any relationship between the Aztecs and Columbians, but only notices these few slight assimilations.[III'-51]

Herewith is a comparative table, containing a few similar words:

COMPARATIVE TABLE, SHOWING SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE COLUMBIAN AND
MEXICAN TONGUES.

ENGLISH. WAIILATPU. MOLLALE. WATLALA. CHINOOK. CALA- AZTEC. SONORA
POOYA. FAMILY.
Yes i ia a ah he, aw e, ha
Tooth tenif tanti tlantli
Red tkhlpal tkhlpolpol tlapalli
Wind ikkhala itskhakh ikhala ehecatl heicala
Black tkhlol tkhlalukh tlilli
Water wematkhl webatkhl atl
I naika nëe ne
Chief iatoiang iakant iout,
iauta

The Chinook jargon is employed by the white people in their intercourse with the natives, as well as by the natives among themselves. It is spoken throughout Oregon, Washington Territory, on Vancouver Island, and extends inland into Idaho and some parts of Montana. It is more than probable that, like other languages _de convenance_, it formed itself gradually, first among the natives themselves, and that in the course of time, in order to facilitate their intercourse with the aborigines, trappers and traders adopted and improved it, until it was finally brought into its present state. Indeed, so great was the diversity of languages in this vicinity, and so intricate were they, that without something of this kind there could have been but little intercourse between the people.

A somewhat similar mixture I have already mentioned as existing in Alaska. Father Paul Le Jeune gives a short account of a jargon in use between the French and the Indians, in the north-eastern part of America, as early as the year 1633.[III'-52] In Europe a similar mixture, or patois, prevails to this day, the lingua franca, used by the many nationalities that congregate upon the shores of the Mediterranean. In China, and in the East Indies, the so-called pigeon English occupies the same place; and in various parts of Central and Southern America, neutral languages may be found. To show how languages spring up and grow, Vancouver, when visiting the coast in 1792, found in various places along the shores of Oregon, Washington, and Vancouver Island, nations that now and then understood words and sentences of the Nootka and other tongues, some of which had been adopted into their own language.

When Lewis and Clarke, in 1806, reached the coast, the jargon seems to have already assumed a fixed shape, as may be seen from the sentences quoted by the explorers. But not until the arrival of the expedition sent out by John Jacob Astor does it appear that either English or French words, of which it contains a large percentage, were incorporated. Very few, if any, of the words of which the jargon is composed, retain their original shape. The harsh, guttural, and unpronounceable native cackling was softened or omitted, thus forming a speech suited to all. In the same manner, some of the English sounds, like _f_ and _r_, unpronounceable by the native, were dropped, or transferred into _p_ and _l_, while all grammatical forms were reduced to the fewest and plainest rules possible.[III'-53] But even in this jargon, there are what may be called dialectic differences; for instance, many words used at the Dalles, are quite unintelligible at the mouth of the Columbia and at Puget Sound. It has often been asserted that the jargon was invented or originated by the Hudson's Bay Company, but although the fur company undoubtedly greatly aided its development, and assisted in perfecting it, it is well known, first, that this jargon existed before the advent of Europeans, and secondly, that languages are not made in this way.

[Sidenote: ANALYSIS OF THE CHINOOK JARGON.]

Mr Gibbs states the number of words to be nearly five hundred, and after a careful analysis of the language, has arrived at the following conclusion as to the number contributed by the several nationalities:

Chinook and Clatsop 200 words
Chinook, having analogies with other languages 21 "
Interjections common to several 8 "
Nootka, including dialects 24 "
Chehalis, 32, and Nisqually, 7 39 "
Kliketat and Yakima 2 "
Cree 2 "
Chippeway (Ojibway) 1 "
Wasco (probably) 4 "
Calapooya (probably) 4 "
By direct onomatopoeia 6 "
Derivation unknown, or undetermined 18 "
French, 90, Canadian, 4 94 "
English 67 "[III'-54]

As before mentioned, foreign words adopted into the jargon vocabulary are changed to suit the taste of the speaker, as in the word Français, being unable to pronounce the _f_, _r_, and _n_, for Frenchman they say _pasaiuks_, and for French, _pasai_. The few words formed by onomatopoeia, are after this fashion;--_tumtum_, heart, an imitation of its beating; _tintin_, bell; _tiktik_, watch; _liplip_, to boil, from the sound of boiling water, and so on.

Neither article nor inflections are employed. _Okok_, this, at times takes the place of the English the. As a rule, plurals are not distinguished, but sometimes the word _haiu_, many, is used. Adjectives precede nouns, as in English--_lasuai hakatshum_, silk handkerchief; _masatsi tilikum_, bad people. The comparative is expressed, for example, in the sentence, I am stronger than thou, by _wek maika skukum kakwa naika_, thou not strong as I. Superlative--_haias oluman okok kanem_, very old that canoe. There are only two conjunctions, _pi_, derived from the French _puis_, which denotes and or then; and _pos_, from _suppose_, meaning if, in case that, provided that. The particle _na_ is at times used as an interrogative.[III'-55]

The Lord's Prayer in the Chinook jargon is as follows:

Nesika papa klaksta mitlite kopa saghalie, kloshe
Our Father who stayeth in the above, good

kopa nesika tumtum mika nem; kloshe mika tyee
in our hearts (be) thy name; good thou chief

kopa konoway tilikum; kloshe mika tumtum kopa
among all people; good thy will upon

illahie, kahkwe kopa saghalie. Potlatch konaway sun
earth, as in the above. Give every day

nesika muckamuck. Spose nesika mamook masahchie,
our food. If we do ill,

wake mika hyas solleks, pe spose klaksta masahchie
(be) not thou very angry, and if any one evil

kopa nesika, wake nesika solleks kopa klaska. Mahsh
towards us, not we angry towards them. Send away

siah kopa nesaika konaway masahchie. Kloshe kahkwa.
far from us. all evil.[III'-56]

FOOTNOTES:

[III'-1] 'Die Kaigan-Sprache wird auf der Insel Kaigan und den Charlotten Inseln ... gesprochen.' _Veniaminoff_, in _Erman_, _Archiv_, tom. vii., No. 1., p. 128.

[III'-2] 'En parlant du langage de _Tchinkîtâiné_, j'ai rapporté d'avance les termes numériques employés aux îles de _Queen-Charlotte_, tels que le capitaine _Chanal_ a pu les recueillir _á Cloak-Bay_; il observe que quelques-uns de ces termes sont communs aux autres parties de ces îsles qu'il a visitées, ainsi que quelques autres termes qu'il a pu saisir, et par lesquels les Naturels expriment les objets suivanes.... Cette similitude des termes numériques et d'autres termes, employés également par les diverses Tribus, séparées les unes des autres, qui occupent la partie de côtes des îles de _Queen-Charlotte_ que le Capitaine _Chanal_ a visitée, me semble démontrer, contre l'opinion hasardée du Rédacteur du Journal de _Dixon_, que ces Tribus communiquent habituellement entre elles: cette identité du langage pourroit encore prouver que les Peuplades qui habitent ces îles ont une origine commune.' _Marchand_, _Voyage_, tom. ii., p. 216.

[III'-3] 'There are at least two or three different languages spoken on the coast, and yet probably they are all pretty generally understood; though if we may credit the old Chief at Queen Charlotte's Islands, his people were totally ignorant of that spoken by the inhabitants to the Eastward.' _Dixon's Voy._, p. 240.

[III'-4] _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. ii., pp. 218, 220.

[III'-5] _Radloff_, _Sprache der Kaiganen_, in _Mél. Russes._ tom. iii., liv. v., p. 575; _Green_, in _Amer. Antiq. Soc., Transact._, vol. iii., p. 302.

[III'-6] _Dixon's Voy._, p. 240.

[III'-7] 'Es fehlen dem Kaigáni (Haidah) jene harten aspirirten Consonanten, die dem Thlinkít so geläufig sind, es ist vocalreicher und weicher. Dagegen theilt es mit dem Thlinkít den Mangel der Labialen, des dentalen _r_, wie auch der Verbindung des _l_ mit Dentalen, Gutturalen und Sibilanten, während jenem dagegen das reine _l_ des Kaigani ganz fremd ist.' _Radloff_, _Sprache der Kaiganen_, in _Mél. Russes_, tom. iii., liv. v., pp. 575-6.

[III'-8] _Id._, pp. 569-607.

[III'-9] _Green_, in _Amer. Antiq. Soc., Transact._, vol. ii., p. 302. 'Náss ... in custom and language, resemble the Sabassa.' _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 279. _Buschmann_, _Spr. N. Mex. u. der Westseite des b. Nordamer._, p. 398, et seq.

[III'-10] _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. ix., p. 234.

[III'-11] _Dunn's Oregon_, p. 358.

[III'-12] _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. ix., p. 221.

[III'-13] _Id._, p. 230, et seq.

[III'-14] _Grant's Vanc. Isl._, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., pp. 295-6.

[III'-15] _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 311.

[III'-16] _Grant's Vanc. Isl._, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxvii., p. 295.

[III'-17] 'The inhabitants of Nootka Sound and the Tlaoquatch, who occupy the south-western points of the island, speak the same language.' _Scouler_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 224; _Jewitt's Nar._, pp. 74-77; _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 220; _Meares' Voy._, pp. 229-32; _Douglas' Report_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xxiv., p. 246. At Point Discovery, Vancouver met people some of whom 'understood a few words of the Nootka language.' _Voyage_, vol. i., p. 228. 'The distinct languages spoken by the Indians are few in number, but the dialects employed by the various tribes are so many, that, although the inhabitants of any particular district have no great difficulty in communicating with each other, ...' _Mayne's B. C._, p. 244; _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 311. The Rev. Mr Good divides and locates the languages of Vancouver Island and the opposite shore on the mainland as follows. The first language, he says, runs along the coast from Nitinaht to Nootka Sound; the second prevails from Sooke to Nanaimo, and across the Sound up to Bird Inlet on the main land, thence following up the Fraser River as far as Yale; this he names the Cowichin. On the island north of Cowichin he locates the Comux and adjoining it the Ucleta; finally starting at Fort Rupert and following the north coast of the island and also on the opposite shore of the main land is the Quackoll.

[III'-18] _Jewitt's Nar._, p. 75.

[III'-19] _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 132.

[III'-20] 'El idioma de estos naturales es tal vez el mas áspero y duro de los conocidos. Abundan mucho en él las consonantes, y las terminaciones en tl y tz, constando el intermedio y el principio de los vocablos de aspiraciones muy fuertes.' _Sutil y Mexicana_, _Viage_, p. 147. 'Their language is very guttural, and if it were possible to reduce it to our orthography, it would very much abound with consonants.' _Sparks' Life of Ledyard_, p. 72; _Cook's Voy. to Pac._, vol. ii., pp. 334-6.

[III'-21] _Sproat's Scenes_, p. 124, et seq.

[III'-22] For a copy of which I am indebted to the late proprietor of the _Overland Monthly_ of San Francisco.

[III'-23] 'En examinant avec soin des vocabulaires formés à Noutka et à Monterey, j'ai été frappé de l'homotonie et des désinences mexicaines de plusieurs mots, comme, par exemple, dans la langue des Noutkiens.... Cependant, en général, les langues de la Nouvelle-Californie et de l'île de Quadra, diffèrent essentiellement de l'aztèque.' _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 321. 'Sprachähnlichkeiten ... hat man, wie auch nachher bey der Betrachtung der Mexikanischen Sprache aus einander gesetzt werden soll, an dieser Nordwest-Küste am Nutka-Sunde und bey den Völkern in der Nähe der Russischen Colonien gefunden.' _Vater_, _Mithridates_, tom. iii., pt iii., p. 76. 'In the neighborhood of Nootka, tribes still exist whose dialects, both in the termination and general sound of the words, bear considerable resemblance to the Mexican.' _Prescott's Mex._, vol. iii., p. 399.

[III'-24] 'So gewinnt die Nutka-Sprache, durch eine reiche Zahl von Wörtern und durch grosse Züge ihres Lautwesens, einzig vor allen anderen fremden ... in einem bedeutenden Theile eine täuschende Ähnlichkeit mit der aztekischen oder mexicanischen; und so wird die ihr schon früher gewidmete Aufmerksamkeit vollständig gerechtfertigt. Ihrer mexicanischen Erscheinung fehlt aber, wie ich von meiner Seite hier ausspreche, jede Wirklichkeit.' _Buschmann_, _Spr. N. Mex. u. der Westküste des b. Nordamer._, p. 371.

[III'-25] They spoke the same language as the Nootkas. _Vancouver's Voy._, vol. i., p. 218.

[III'-26] 'The affinities of the Clallam and Lummi are too obvious to require demonstration.' _Gibbs' Clallam and Lummi Vocab._, p. vii. 'The Tsihaili-Selish languages reach the sea in the part opposite Vancouver's Island. Perhaps they touch it to the north also.' _Latham's Comp. Phil._, vol. viii., p. 401; _Gairdner_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 255.

[III'-27] 'Les Indiens de la côte ou de la Nouvelle Calédonie, les Tokalis, les Chargeurs (Carriers), les Schouchouaps, les Atnas appartiennent tous à la nation des Chipeouaïans.' _Mofras_, _Explor._, tom. ii., p. 337. 'The Atnah language has no affinity to any with which I am acquainted.' _Mackenzie's Voyages_, p. 258.

[III'-28] _Mengarini_, _Selish Gram._

[III'-29] 'Nationes que radicaliter linguam Selicam loquuntur sunt saltem decem: Calispelm, (vulgo) _Pends d'oreilles du Lac Inférieur_. Slkatkomlchi, _Pends d'oreilles du Lac Superieur_. Selish, _Têtes Plattes_. Sngomènei, Snpoilschi, Szk'eszilni, _Spokanes_. S´chizni, _Coeurs d'alène_. Sgoièlpi, _Chaudières_. Okinakein, Stlakam, _Okanagan_.' _Mengarini_, _Selish Gram._, p. 120. 'Their language is the same as the Spokeins' and Flatheads'.' _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 307. 'The Spokanes speak the same dialect as the Flatheads and Pend d'Oreilles.' _Chapman_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1866, p. 201; _De Smet_, _Voy._, p. 237. 'The Flatheads are divided into numerous tribes, each having its own peculiar locality, and differing more or less from the others in language, customs, and manners.' 'The Spokan Indians are a small tribe, differing very little from the Indians at Colville either in their appearance, habits, or language.' _Kane's Wand._, pp. 173, 307. 'The Pend' d'Oreilles are generally called the Flatheads, the two clans, in fact, being united.... Still, the two races are entirely distinct, their languages being fundamentally different. The variety of tongues on the west side of the (Rocky) mountains is almost infinite, so that scarcely any two tribes understand each other perfectly. They have all, however, the common character of being very guttural; and, in fact, the sentences often appear to be mere jumbles of grunts and croaks, such as no alphabet could express in writing.' _Simpson's Overland Jour._, vol. i., p. 146.

[III'-30] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 535-7.

[III'-31] _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p. 315.

[III'-32] _Gibbs' Clallam and Lummi Vocab._, p. 7.

[III'-33] 'In the northern districts of the great chain of Rocky Mountains which were visited by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, there are several nations of unknown language and origin. The Atnah nation is one of them. Their dialect appears, from the short vocabulary given by that traveller, to be one of those languages which, in the frequent recurrence of peculiar consonants, bears a certain resemblance to the Mexican.' _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 550; _Swan's N. W. Coast_, pp. 315-6.

[III'-34] 'Der Prinz bezeugt (Bd. ii., 511) dass der behauptete Mangel an Gurgellauten ein Irrthum ist; er bemerkt: dass die Sprache durch den ihr eignen "Zungenschnalz" für das Aussprechen schwierig werde, und dass sie eine Menge von Gutturaltönen habe. Man spreche die Wörter leise und undeutlich aus; dabei gebe es darin viele schnalzende Töne, indem man mit der Zungenspitze anstösst; auch gebe es darin viele dumpfe Kehllaute.' _Prinz Max zu Wied_, in _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 661. 'Their language bears no affinity whatever to that of any of the western nations. It is infinitely softer and more free from those unpronounceable gutturals so common among the lower tribes.' _Cox's Adven._, p. 233; _Blakiston's Rept._, in _Palliser's Explor._, p. 73; _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 307.

[III'-35] _De Smet's Oregon Miss._, p. 409.

[III'-36] Tribes speaking the Kliketat language: Whulwhypum, Tait-inapum, Yakima, Walla Wallapum, Kyoose, Umatilla, Peloose, Wyampam; the Yakimas and Kliketats or Whulwhypum ... speaking the Walla-Walla language, otherwise known as the Kliketat. _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 244, 232. 'The Kyeuse resemble the Walla-Wallas very much.... Their language and customs are almost identical.' _Kane's Wand._, p. 280. The Pend d'Oreilles 'speak the same language' (Nez Percé.) _Hutchins_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1863, p. 456. The Palouse Indians 'speak the same language.' _Cain_, in _Id._, 1860, p. 210. 'The Wallah-Wallahs, whose language belongs to the same family.' 'The Wallah-Wallahs and Nez Perces speak dialects of a common language, and the Cayuses have abandoned their own for that of the latter.' _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 416, 425; _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., pp. 213, 542. 'The nation among which we now are call themselves Sokulks; and with them are united a few of another nation, who reside on a western branch, emptying itself into the Columbia a few miles above the mouth of the latter river, and whose name is Chimnapum. The language of both these nations differs but little from each other, or from that of the Chopunnish who inhabit the Kooskooskee and Lewis's river.' _Lewis and Clarke's Trav._, p. 12. 'The language of the Walla-Wallas differs from the Nez Percés'. _Parker's Explor. Tour_, p. 137.

[III'-37] _Pandosy's Yakama Lang._, p. 9.

[III'-38] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 542, et seq.

[III'-39] _Pandosy's Yakama Lang._

[III'-40] _Ross' Fur Hunters_, vol. i., p. 313, et seq.

[III'-41] _Rafinesque_, _Atlantic Jour._, p. 133, quoted in _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 615. 'Ich habe diese Wörter Rafinesque's zu einem Theil ganz verschieden von den _Sahaptan_ gefunden.' _Ib._

[III'-42] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 561.

[III'-43] 'The Skyuse have two distinct languages: the one used in ordinary intercourse, the other on extraordinary occasions; as in war counsels, &c.' _Farnham's Travels_, p. 153. 'The Cayuses have abandoned their own for that of the Nez Percés.' _Gibbs_, in _Pac. R. R. Rept._, vol. i., pp. 416, 425. 'Their language bears some affinity to the Sahaptin or Nez-Percé language.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 199; _Coke's Rocky Mts._, p 295; _Kane's Wand._, p. 279. 'Their original language, now almost extinct ... having affinity to that of the Carriers, of North Caledonia, and the Umpqua Indians of Southern Oregon.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., pp. 249-50.

[III'-44] 'The language of the bands farther up the river departed more and more widely from the Chinook proper, so that the lower ones could not have understood the others without an interpreter.' _Gibbs' Chinook Vocab._, p. 4. 'The vocabulary given by Dr. Scouler as "Chenook" is almost altogether Chihalis. His "Cathlascon" ... is Chinook.' _Id._, p. 5. 'Des _Tchinooks_, d'où est sortie la langue-mère de ces sauvages.' _Saint-Amant_, _Voyages_, p. 381. 'Cathlamahs speak the same language as the Chinnooks and Clatsops.' _Lewis and Clarke's Travels_, p. 424. Chinooks 'in language ... resemble the Clatsops, Cathlamahs, and indeed all the people near the mouth of the Columbia.' _Id._, p. 426. 'The Chinooks, Clatsops, Wahkiacums and Cathlamahs ... resembled each other in person, dress, language.' _Irving's Astoria_, pp. 85, 336. Chinooks, Clatsops, Cathlamux, Wakicums, Wacalamus, Cattleputles, Clatscanias, Killimux, Moltnomas, Chickelis, ... resemble one another in language. _Ross' Adven._, pp. 87-88. 'The _Chinook_ language is spoken by all the nations from the mouth of the Columbia to the falls.' _Franchère's Nar._, p. 262.

[III'-45] 'The language spoken by these people is guttural, very difficult for a foreigner to learn, and equally hard to pronounce.' _Ross' Adven._, p. 101. 'Decidedly the most unpronounceable compound of gutturals ever formed for the communication of human thoughts, or the expression of human wants.' _Cox's Adven._, vol. ii., p. 133. 'I would willingly give a specimen of the barbarous language of this people, were it possible to represent by any combination of our alphabet the horrible, harsh, spluttering sounds which proceed from their throats apparently unguided either by the tongue or lip.' _Kane's Wand._, p. 182. 'It is hard and difficult to pronounce, for strangers; being full of gutturals, like the Gaelic. The combinations _thl_, or _tl_, and _lt_, are as frequent in the Chinook as in the Mexican.' _Franchère's Nar._, p. 262. 'After the soft languages and rapid enunciation of the islanders, the Chinooks presented a singular contrast in the slow, deliberate manner in which they seemed to choke out their words; giving utterance to sounds, some of which could scarcely be represented by combinations of known letters.' _Pickering's Races_, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. ix., p. 23. 'It abounds with gutturals and "clucking" sounds, almost as difficult to analyse as to utter.' _Gibbs' Chinook Vocab._, p. 5.

[III'-46] 'The ancient Chenook is such a guttural, difficult tongue, that many of the young Chenook Indians can not speak it, but have been taught by their parents the Chehalis language and the Jargon.' _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p. 306; _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 562. 'The very difficult pronunciation and excessively complicated form of the Chinook has effectually prevented its acquisition, even by missionaries and fur traders.' _Gibbs' Chinook Vocab._, p. 5.

[III'-47] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol., vi., p. 562, et seq.

[III'-48] _Kane's Wand._, p. 183.

[III'-49] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 566, et seq.

[III'-50] 'Yamkallie, Kallapuiah. Oregon Indians of the plains of the Wallamette, speaking a language related to that of the Cathlascons and Haeeltzuk.' _Ludewig's Ab. Lang._, p. 202. 'Gross die Verwandtschaft der Kalapuya und des Yamkallie; aber an verschiedenen Wörtern fehlt es nicht.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 628.

[III'-51] 'Höchst merkwürdig sind einzelne unläugbare aztekische und zweitens einzelne sonorische Wörter, welche ich in diesen Sprachen aufgefunden habe.' _Buschmann_, _Spuren der Aztek. Spr._, p. 629.

[III'-52] 'This system of jargons began very early, and has, doubtless, led to many errors. As early as 1633, the Jesuit Father Paul Le Jeune wrote: "I have remarked, in the study of their language, that there is a certain jargon between the French and Indians, which is neither French nor Indian; and yet, when the French use it, they think they are speaking Indian, and the Indians using it, think they speak good French."' _Hist. Mag._, vol. v., p. 345.

[III'-53] _Gibbs' Chinook Dic._, p. 6; _San Francisco Evening Bulletin_, June 15, 1866. 'Chinook is a jargon which was invented by the Hudson's Bay Company for the purpose of facilitating communication with the different Indian tribes. These were so numerous, and their languages so various, that the traders found it impossible to learn them all, and adopted the device of a judicious mixture of English, French, Russian, and several Indian tongues, which has a very limited vocabulary; but which, by the help of signs, is readily understood by all the natives, and serves as a common language.' _Milton and Cheadle's N. W. Passage_, p. 344. 'The jargon so much in use all over the North Pacific Coast, among both whites and Indians, as a verbal medium of communicating with each other, was originally invented by the Hudson's Bay Company, in order to facilitate the progress of their commerce with Indians.' _Stuart's Dictionary of Chinook Jargon_, p. 161. 'Chinook is a jargon, consisting of not more than three or four hundred words, drawn from the French, English, Spanish, Indian, and the fancy of the inventor. It was contrived by the Hudson's Bay Company for the convenience of trade.' _Brunot_, in _Ind. Aff. Rept._, 1871, p. 124. Sproat disputes the invention of the jargon, and says: 'Such an achievement as the invention of a language, is beyond the capabilities of even a chief factor.' _Scenes_, p. 139. 'I think that, among the Coast Indians in particular, the Indian part of the language has been in use for years.' _Swan's N. W. Coast_, p. 307. _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 635, et seq.

[III'-54] _Gibbs' Chinook Dic._, pp. vii.-viii. 'All the words thus brought together and combined in this singularly constructed speech are about two hundred and fifty in number.' _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 636. 'Words undoubtedly of Japanese origin are still used in the jargon spoken on the coast called Chinook.' _Lord's Nat._, vol. ii., p. 217.

[III'-55] _Hale's Ethnog._, in _U. S. Ex. Ex._, vol. vi., p. 636, et seq.

[III'-56] _Gibbs' Chinook Dic._, p. 44.