Chapter XI: The Maya-Quiché Languages

THE MAYA-QUICHÉ, THE LANGUAGES OF THE CIVILIZED NATIONS OF
CENTRAL AMERICA -- ENUMERATION OF THE MEMBERS OF THIS FAMILY --
HYPOTHETICAL ANALOGIES WITH LANGUAGES OF THE OLD WORLD --
LORD'S PRAYERS IN THE CHAÑABAL, CHIAPANEC, CHOL, TZENDAL,
ZOQUE, AND ZOTZIL -- POKONCHI GRAMMAR -- THE MAME OR
ZAKLOPAHKAP -- QUICHÉ GRAMMAR -- CAKCHIQUEL LORD'S PRAYER --
MAYA GRAMMAR -- TOTONAC GRAMMAR -- TOTONAC DIALECTS -- HUASTEC
GRAMMAR.

The languages of the civilized nations of Central America, being all more or less affiliated, may be not improperly classified as the Maya-Quiché family, the Maya constituting the mother tongue. Commencing in the neighborhood of the river Goazacoalco, thence extending over Tabasco, Chiapas, Yucatan, Guatemala, and portions of Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua, it occupies the same relatively important position in the south as the Aztec farther north. Besides spreading out over this immense area, there are two branches still farther north, isolated from the mother tongue, yet conterminous to each other, the Huastec and the Totonac of Tamaulipas and Vera Cruz. Without including the last mentioned, probably the fullest enumeration of all these languages, is given by the Licenciado Diego García de Palacio, in a letter addressed to the King of Spain, in the year 1576. Omitting the Aztec, which he includes in his catalogue, his summary is substantially as follows. In Chiapas, the Chiapanec, Tloque, Zotzil, and Zeldal-Quelen; in Soconusco, a tongue which he designates as the mother language and another called the Vebetlateca; in Suchitepec and Guatemala, the Mame, Achi, Guatemaltec, Chinantec, Hutatec, and Chirichota; in Vera Paz, the Pokonchi, and Caechicolchi; in the valleys of Acacebastla and Chiquimula, the Tlacacebastla, and Apay; and in the valley of San Miguel, the Poton, Taulepa, and Ulua. Other authors mention, in Guatemala the Quiché, the Cakchiquel, the Zutugil, the Chorti, the Alaguilac, the Caichi, the Ixil, the Zoque, the Coxoh, the Chañabal, the Chol, the Uzpanteca, the Aguacateca, the Quecchi; and in Yucatan, the stock language, the Maya. Among all these languages thus enumerated by different authors, it is not at all unlikely that some have been mentioned twice under different names.[XI'-1] Most, if not all of them, are related to, if indeed they did not spring from one mother tongue, the Maya, of which a dialect, called the Tzendal is said to be the oldest language spoken in any of these countries. In fact, they all appear to be dialects and variations of some few tongues of yet greater antiquity, which again have sprung from the oldest of all, the Maya. This latter, I may say, forms the linguistic centre, from which all the others radiate, decreasing in consanguinity according to the distance from this centre, losing, by intermixture, and the adoption of foreign words, their aboriginal forms, until on reaching the outer edge of the circle, it becomes difficult to trace their connection with the source from which they sprang.[XI'-2]

[Sidenote: THE MAYA LANGUAGE IN YUCATAN.]

The Maya, with its many affiliations, may be well compared in its grammatical construction and capacity to the Aztec. It has in this respect been likened to the ancient Greek which it is said to resemble in many points. Although monosyllabic words are of frequent occurrence, it has not, as is common to monosyllabic languages, many very harsh and guttural sounds, but is generally called soft and well-sounding. The dialects spoken on the coast of Yucatan and near Belize, are the purest and most elegant of the Maya family, and the greater the distance from this region, the greater are the variations from the pure Maya.[XI'-3] Some remarkable hypotheses, which, if proven, would revolutionize many existing theories, ethnologic and philologic, have latterly been brought forward by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg. This gentleman, who has devoted himself to the study of ancient Central America and Mexico for many years, and who is fully conversant with the languages of Yucatan and Guatemala, the Maya and Quiché, claims to have discovered a close connection between the Maya, Quiché, Cakchiquel, Zutugil, and others, with most of the chief languages of Europe; prominent among which he places the Greek, but mentions also Latin, French, English, German, Flemish, Danish, and others. Although on examination many of the abbé's so-called roots display similarities, both phonetic and in meaning, with some European words, still a large majority are evidently twisted to conform to the writer's ideas, and it will require not alone further investigations, but unprejudiced studies, such as are not made for the purpose of proving any particular hypothesis, to substantiate his theories. Until such impartial comparisons are made, and a clearer light thrown upon the subject, these Central American languages must remain content to be treated as strangers to those of the old world.[XI'-4] Of the languages previously enumerated I have the following specimens.

* * * * *

The Lord's Prayer in Chañabal, spoken in Comitan, in the state of Chiapas:

Tattic hayá culchahan tanlinubal á vihil jacué eg bagtic á
guajan acotuc á guabal hichuc ili luhum jastal culchahan. Yipil
caltzil eg güiniquil tic aquitic sva yabanhi soc culanperdon eg
multic hichuc qucj ganticon guazt culanticon perdon machá hay
smul sigilticon soc mi ztagua concoctic mulil mas lec
coltayotic scab pucuj jachuc.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: CHIAPANEC, CHOL, AND TZENDAL.]

Lord's Prayer in Chiapanec:

Pua manguemé nilumá cané nacapajó totomomo copamimé chambriomo
chalaya guipumutamu; gadilojá istanacupu cajilucá nacopajó:
cajilo baña yacameomo nuori may tarilu mindamu oguajime lla
copomimemo taguajime nambucamuñeme cuqueme gadiluca si memu
casimemu tagnagime nambucamuñeme copá tipusitumu bica
tipucapuimu mujarimimuñame mangueme. Diusi mutarilú nitangame
chacuillame caji Jesus.

* * * * *

Lord's Prayer in Chol:

Tiat te lojon, aué tipuchan utzat alvilacaval trictic tolejón
han gracia chulee viliç á pucical vafchec ti paniumil chee
tipanchan. Laa cual ti juun pel quin, de vennomelojón gualee
sutven lasvet baschee mue sutvenlaa y vetob laspibulob. Llastel
ti lolontecl cotanon melojon y chachan jaipel y tiué
nialoloion. Amen Jesus.

* * * * *

Lord's Prayer in Tzendal, as spoken near the celebrated ruins of Palenque:

Tatic, ta nacalat tachulchan: chulalviluc te ajalalvilé:
acatalúc te aguajualé: acapastayuc: te tuxacane tajich ta
chulchan jichucnix ta valumilal. Ecuctae jujhan acabeyaotic te
guag vixtum cuntic tajujun caal chaybeyaotic te multic achiotic
chaybetic ate hay smul cagtojoltique soyoc mameaguac yalucotic
ta mulil colta yaoticnax tastojol piscil te colae. Amen Jesus.

* * * * *

Lord's Prayer in Zoque, as spoken in Tabasco, Chiapas, and parts of Oajaca:

Theshata tzapguesmue itupue yavecotzamué mis nei, yaminé mis
yumihacui, ya tuque mis sunoycui, yecnasquesi tzapquesmuese.
Tesané hoimuepe homepe tzihete yshoy, yatocoyates mis hescova
hes jaziquet mis atocoipasé thesquesipue jatzi huitemistetzaeu
hocysete cuijomue ticomaye ya cotzocamisthe mumuyatzipue quesi,
tese yatuque. Amen Jesus.

* * * * *

Lord's Prayer in Zotzil:

Totit ot-te nacal oi ta vinagel-utzilaluc á vi-acotal
aguajualel-acopas huc á chul cano-echuc nox ta vinagel-eclusé
ta valumil-acbeotic e cham-llocom llocomutic-ech
xachaibeutic-cuie tag tojolic-ma á guae llalucuntic-ta
altajoltic-ech xacolta utic nox ta stojol ti coloc. Amen
Jesus.[XI'-5]

* * * * *

[Sidenote: POKONCHI GRAMMAR.]

Of the Pokonchi Language I have a short grammar, by Thomas Gage, which has also been used by Vater and Gallatin. Following are a few of its prominent features:

Nouns are declined by the aid of particles, of which there are two kinds, varying accordingly as the word to be declined commences with a consonant or with a vowel. For words commencing with a consonant the particles _nu_, _a_, _ru_, _ca_, _ata_, and _quitacque_ are used; and for those commencing with a vowel, _v_, _av_, _r_, _c_, or _q_, _ta_, _qu_, and _tacque_. These particles are partly prefixed and partly affixed, as will appear in the following examples. So the word _pat_, house, and _tat_, father, are by Gage declined in the following manner.

My house nupat | Our house capat
Thy house apat | Your house apatta
His house rupat | Their house quipattacque

My father nutat | Our father catat
Thy father atat | Your father atatta
His father rutat | Their father quitattacque

The declension of the word _acun_, son, and _ixim_, corn, are given by Gage, as follows:

My son vacun | Our son cacun
Thy son avacun | Your son avacunta
His son racun | Their son cacuntaque

My corn vixim | Our corn quixim
Thy corn avixim | Your corn avicimta
His corn rixim | Their corn quiximtacque

Verbs in like manner change the particles, by means of which they are conjugated, accordingly as the word commences with a consonant or a vowel. For those commencing with a consonant the particles are;--_nu_, _na_, _inru_, _inca_, _nata_, _inquitacque_. Thus the word _locoh_, to love, is conjugated as follows:

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOCOH, TO LOVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I love, nulocoh | We love, incalocoh
Thou lovest, nalocoh | You love, nalocohto
He loves, inrulucoh | They love, inquilocohtacque

PRESENT PASSIVE.

I am loved, quiloconhi | We are loved, coloconhi
Thou art loved, tiloconhi | You are loved, tiloconhita
He is loved, inroconhi | They are loved, quiloconhitacque

PERFECT PASSIVE.

I have been loved, xinloconhi
Thou hast been loved, ixtiloconhi
He has been loved, ixloconhi
We have been loved, xoloconhi
You have been loved, ixtiloconhita
They have been loved, xiloconhi tacque

IMPERATIVE.

Be thou loved, tiloconhi
Let him be loved, chiloconho
Let us be loved, chicaloconho
Be ye loved, tiloconhota
Let them be loved, chiquiloconho taque

I can love, inchoinulocoh
I will love, inranulocoh
I have been willing to love, ixnulocoh
I have been able to love, ixcholixnulocoh
I can love thee, tichol nulocoh
I will love thee, tira nulocoh

Sometimes the verb I will is added to express the future;--_inva_, I will; _nava_, thou wilt; _inra_, he will.

Verbs beginning with a vowel have the following particles;--_ino_, _nav_, _inr_, _inqu_, or _inc_, _nauta_, _inqu tacque_, or _inc tacque_. Thus the verb _eça_, to deliver, is conjugated.

I deliver, inveça | We deliver, inqueça
Thou deliverest, naveça | You deliver, naveçata
He delivers, inreça | They deliver, inqueça tacque

Adjectives are indeclinable, and the plural of nouns cannot be distinguished from the singular, as;--_kiro uinac_, good man; _kiro uinac_, good men.

The following Lord's Prayer comes from the same source:

Catat taxah vilcat; nimta incaharçihi avi; inchalita
avihauripau cana. Invanivita nava yahvir vacacal, he invataxab.
Chaye runa cahuhunta quih viic; naçachtamac, he inçachve quimac
ximacquivi chiquih; macoacana chipam catacchyhi, coaveçata
china unche tsiri, mani quiro, he inqui. Amen.[XI'-6]

* * * * *

[Sidenote: MAME CONJUGATION.]

Of the Mame, or Zaklohpakap, the following extract is from a grammar written by Diego de Reynoso. The letters used are: _a_, _b_, _ch_, _e_, _h_, _i_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _o_, _p_, _t_, _u_, _v_, _x_, _y_, _z_, _tz_. There are no special syllables or signs to express gender, but distinct words are used, as;--_mama_, old man; _ahkimikeia_, old woman; _mamail_, old age of a man; _keiail_, or _ahkimikil_, old age of a woman. The plural of animate beings is expressed by the particle _e_ prefixed to the word;--_vuinak_, person; _evuinak_, persons; but it is considered as elegant also to affix the same _e_;--_kiahol_, son; _ekiahole_, sons. For inanimate things, either numerals or adjectives expressing the plural are used;--_abah_, stone; _ikoh abah_, many stones. Personal pronouns are;--_ain_, I; _aia_, thou; _ahu_ or _ahi_, he; _ao_ or _aoio_, we; _ae_ or _aeie_, you; _aehu_ or _aehi_, they.

Me, to me, in me vuih
Thee, to thee, in thee tiha
Him, to him, in him tihu
Us, to us, in us kiho
You, to you, in you kihae
Them, to them, in them kihaehu
Of me, by me vuxm
By thee tuma
By him tumhi
By us kumo
By you kume
By them kumhu
By myself tipa
By himself tiphi
By ourselves kibo
By yourselves kibe
By themselves kibaehu or kibhu

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I am, ain in, or ain inen
Thou art, aia
He is, ahu
We are, ao, or aoia
You are, ae, or aeie
They are, aehu

IMPERFECT.

I was, ain took

PERFECT.

I have been, ain hi

PLUPERFECT.

I had been, ain tokem

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall be, in abenelem, or ain loiem

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have been, ain lohi

IMPERATIVE.

Be, a u ia

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB XTALEM, TO LOVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I love, ain tzum chim xtalem
Thou lovest, tzum xtalem a
He loves, tzum xtalem hu
We love, tzum ko xtalem o
You love, tzum che xtalem e
They love, tzum che xtalem hu

IMPERFECT.

I loved, tzum tok chim xtalem

PERFECT.

I have loved, ini xtalim, uni xtale, ma chim xtalim,
ma ni xtale, or ma uni xtale

PLUPERFECT.

I had loved, ixtok chim xtalim

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall love, uni xtalibetz, or ain chim xtalem

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have loved, ain lo in xtalem

IMPERATIVE.

Love thou, ixtalin o ia
Let him love, ixtalin o hu
Let us love, ko ixtalin o
Love you, ixtalin ke ie
Let them love, ixtalin ke hu[XI'-7]

Of the Quiché, there is an abundance of material. The letters used are;--_a_, _b_, _c_, _e_, _g_, _h_, _i_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _o_, _p_, _q_, _r_, _t_, _u_, _v_, _x_, _y_, _z_, _tz_, _tch_. Gender is expressed by prefixing the noun _ixok_, woman, to the word, as;--_coh_, lion; _ixok coh_, lioness; _mun_, slave; _ixok mun_, female slave. The sound _ish_ expressed by the letter _x_ denotes inferiority, and is therefore frequently used to express the feminine of inferior beings. _U_ in the Quichè and _ru_ in the Cakchiquel are either possessive pronouns or denote the possession of the word which follows. The particles _re_ and _ri_ are at times used for the same purpose;--_u chuch ahpop_, the mother of the prince; _qui quoxtum tinanit_, the ramparts of the town. Before the vowels _a_, _o_, and _u_, they are changed to _c_; and before _e_ and _i_, to _qu_. Derivatives are formed with the preposition _ah_, either prefixed or affixed to the primitive noun;--_car_, fish; _ahcar_, the fisherman; _tzih_, word; _ahtzih_, the speaker; etc. No positive rule can be given for the formation of the plural, as there are several different methods in use. The most common appears to be by the affixes _ab_, _eb_, _ib_, _ob_, _ub_;--_beom_, merchant; plural, _beomab_; _ixok_, woman; plural, _ixokib_; _ahau_, lord; plural, _ahauab_. In the Cakchiquel language the last letter _b_ is omitted, as;--_ixokib_, women, in Quiché, is _ixoki_ in Cakchiquel. With adjectives the syllables _ak_, _tak_, _ic_, _tic_, etc., are used instead;--_nim_, great; _nimak ha_, great houses; _rihi_, old; _rihitak vinak_, old people; _utz_, good; _utzic va_, good eatables. Adjectives are always placed before the substantives;--_zak_, white; _zaki ha_, white house. Substantives are formed from adjectives by adding one of the particles, _al_, _el_, _il_, _ol_, _ul_;--_nim_, great; _nimal_, the greatness; _zak_, white; _zakil_, the whiteness; _utz_, good; _utzil_, the goodness. These same substantives can be turned into adjectives again by adding the particle _ah_;--_nimalah mak_, great sin; _utzilah achi_, good man. In the same manner all substantives may be turned into adjectives by adding one of the particles _alah_, _elah_, _ilah_, _olah_, _ulah_, etc.; _ahau_, king or lord; _ahaualah_, royal.

To express the comparative, the present participle of the verb _iqou_, to surpass, which is _iqouinak_, is used, and sometimes also the word _yalacuhinak_, from _yalacuh_, to exceed. For example;--_nim_, great, comparative, _iqouinak chi nim_, he who surpasses in greatness; _iqouinak chi nim u hebeliquiil ka xokahau Gapoh maria chiqui vi conohel ixokib_, (literally) surpasses in great beauty our Lady the Virgin Mary all other women. The superlative is expressed by the syllable _maih_, very great or much; _nim_, great or greatly; _tih_, _xoo_, _quï_, much; all of which are placed before the word and are followed by the syllable _chi_;--_maih chi nim_, very great; _maih chi hebel_, very fine; _maih chi tinamit_, very great city; _xoo qatan_, very great heat; _tih nima ha_, very great house. The adverb _lavolo_ or _lolo_ is also used for the same purpose--_lavolo_ or _lolo cou ch' a bana_, hold it strong.

The names of colors are duplicated to express the superlative, as;--_rax rax_, very green; _zak zak_, very white.

The reverential syllables in use are _lal_ and _la_--_lal nu cahau_, your excellency is my father; _in alcual la_, I am the son of your excellency.

[Sidenote: QUICHÉ PRONOUNS.]

PRONOUNS.

I, or me in, nu, nuv
Thou at, a
He are, ri, r'
Myself xavi in
Thyself xavi at
Himself xavi are
We oh
You yx
They e, he
Ourselves xavi oh
Yourselves xavi yx
Themselves xavi e, he

When a noun commences with a consonant, _nu_, _a_, _u_, in the singular, and _ka_, _y_, _qui_, in the plural are used as possessive pronouns, but if it commences with a vowel, _v_, _av'_, _r_, are employed in the singular, and _k'_, _yv'_, _c'_, or _qu'_, in the plural.

My slave nu mun
Thy slave a mun
His slave u mun
Our slaves ka munib
Your slaves y munib
Their slaves oui munib

My wrath v' oyoual
Thy wrath av' oyoual
His wrath r' oyoual
Our wrath k' oyoual
Your wrath yv' oyoual
Their wrath c' oyoual

INTERROGATIVES.

Who naki, achinak, apachinak
Who am I apa-in-chinak
Who art thou apa-at-chinak
Who is this apachinak-ri
Who is it naki-la
Who would it be naki-lalo
Who are we apa-oh-chinak
Who are you apa-yx-chinak
Who are they apa-e-chinak

The verb, to be, is expressed by either _ux_, or _qo_, or _qohe_. As an example of its conjugation I insert the indicative present.

I am, in ux or in qolic
Thou art, at ux " at qolic
He is, are ux " are qolic
We are, oh ux " oh qolic
You are, yx ux " yx qolic
They are, e, or he ux " e, or he qolic

Four different kinds of verbs are given in the grammar compiled by the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, which he calls active, absolute, passive, and neuter. The following sentences are given as specimens of each kind. Active;--_can nu logoh v' ahtih_, I love my master. Absolute;--_qu' i logon_, or _logonic_, I love; _qu' i tzibanic_, I write. Passive;--_ta x-e tzonox rumal ahtzak_, then they were interrogated by the creator. Neuter;--_qu' i cam_, or _qui cam_, I die; _qu' in ul_, I come; _qu' i be_, I go; _qu' i var_, I sleep.

[Sidenote: QUICHÉ CONJUGATIONS.]

Following I insert the conjugation of the active verb to love, in which the word _logoh_, love, commences with a consonant, and also the conjugation of the active verb _oyohbeh_, to wait, which commences with a vowel, thus showing the different particles used.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO LOVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I love, ca nu logoh
We love, ca ka logoh
Thou lovest, c' a logoh
You love, qu' y logoh
He loves, c' u logoh
They love, ca que logoh

PERFECT.

I have loved, x-in, xi-nu, or x-nu logoh, or nu logom

PLUPERFECT.

I had loved, nu, or x-nu logom-chic

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall love, ch' in, x-ch'in chi nu, or x-chi nu logoh

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I love, ca nu logoh-tah
If I had loved, nu logom-chi-tah

PARTICIPLE.

Loving, logonel

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB OYOBEH, TO WAIT.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I wait, ca v'oyobeh
Thou waitest, c' av' oyobeh
He waits, ca r' oyobeh
We wait, ca k' oyobeh
You wait, qu' yv' oyobeh
They wait, ca c' oyobeh

PERFECT.

I have waited, xi-v' oyobeh, or av' oyobem

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have waited, chi v', or xchi v oyobeh

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I wait, ca v' oyobeh-tah

In the following three columns I give a specimen of the conjugation of the absolute, passive, and neuter verb.

ABSOLUTE.

I love, qu'i logon
Thou lovest, c'at logon
He loves, ca logon
We love, koh logon
You love, qu'y logon
They love, que logon

PASSIVE.

I am loved, qu'i logox
Thou art loved, c'at logox
He is loved, ca legox
We are loved, koh logox
You are loved, qu'ix logox
They are loved, que logox

NEUTER.

I roll, qu'i bol
Thou rollest, c'at bol
He rolls, ca bol
We roll, koh bol
You roll, qu' yx bol
They roll, que bol

ABSOLUTE.

I have loved, x-i logon, or in logoninak

PASSIVE.

I was loved, x-i logox, or in logoxinak

NEUTER.

I have arrived, x-in ul, or in ulinak

FIRST FUTURE.

ABSOLUTE.

I shall love, x-qui logon

PASSIVE.

I shall be loved, x-qui logox

NEUTER.

I shall arrive, x-qu'in ul

There are further mentioned a reciprocal and a distributive verb.

Of the former the following is an example.

I love myself, ca nu logoh uib
Thou lovest thyself, c'a logoh rib
He loves himself, c'u logoh rib
We love ourselves, ca ka logoh kib
You love yourselves, qu'y logoh yvib
They love themselves, ca qui logoh quib

Of the second form this is an example.

Thee I love, cat nu logoh
He loves his father, cu ri, or are logoh a cahau
You love us, koh y logoh
Thee they love, cat que logoh

The prepositions--_ma_, _man_, or _mana_, and _mave_, are negatives. When _man_, or _mana_, is used with a verb, the particle _tah_ must be added;--_man ca v' il-tah_, I do not see. Father Ximenez calls the following irregular verbs, _qo_, _qoh_, or _qolic_, _pa_, _ux_, or _uxic_; _qaz_, to live, and _oh_, or _ho_, to go.

The conjugation of the last mentioned is as follows.

INDICATIVE PRESENT.

I go, h'in | We go, o'ho
Thou goest, h'at | You go, h'yx
He goes, oh, or ho | They go, h'e

The Zutugil and Cakchiquel appear to bear a closer relationship to each other, than the Cakchiquel and Quiché. Some of the principal differences between the three are the following. The plural of nouns which in the Quiché is formed by the affixes _ab_, _eb_, _ob_, _ib_, _ub_, is in the Cakchiquel designated by simply affixing the vowels of the above syllables, and in the Zutugil by the affixes _ay_, or _i_. The pronouns which in the Quiché and Cakchiquel are _in_, I, etc., are in the Zutugil doubled, as;--_in-in_, I, etc. The possessive pronouns differ in all three of the languages. The Quiché has _vech_, mine; _avecha_, thine; _rech_, his; _kech_, ours; _yvech_, yours; _quech_, theirs. In the Cakchiquel these are;--_vichin_, _avichin_, _richin_, _kichin_, _yvichin_, _quichin_, and the Zutugil changes the _ch_ of the Cakchiquel into _n_;--_vixin_, _avixin_, _rixin_, _kixin_, _yvixin_, _quixin_. The dative in the Quiché is _chuvech_, to me, in the Cakchiquel _chuvichin_, and in the Zutugil, _chuvixin_. Reciprocal pronouns in the Quiché are _vib_, _avib_, _rib_, _kib_, _yvib_, and _quib_, and in the Zutugil they are _vi_, _avi_, _ri_, _ki_, _yvi_, _qui_. The verb _ganeh_, which also means to love, is in the Cakchiquel and Zutugil conjugated as follows.

I love, tin ganeh | We love, ti ka ganeh
Thou lovest, tah ganeh | You love, ty ganeh
He loves, tu ganeh | They love, ti qui ganeh

There are also many other words which differ in one or more letters in the three languages, but it appears that they are nevertheless so much alike that the different people speaking them can understand one another.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: QUICHÉ AND CAKCHIQUEL LORD'S PRAYERS.]

Lord's Prayer in the Quiché:

Ka cachau chi cab lal qo-vi, r'auazirizaxic-tah bi la. Chi
pe-tah ahauarem la. Chi ban-ta ahauam la, varal chuvi uleu
queheri ca ban chi cah. Yah la chikech ka hutagihil va. Zacha
la ka mak, queheri ca ka zacho qui mak rii x-e makun chike ruq
m'oh ocotah la pa takchiibal mak, xata noh col-ta la pa itzel.
Quehe ch'uxoc.

* * * * *

Lord's Prayer in Cakchiquel:

Ka tata r'at qoh chi cah, r'auazirizaxic-tah a bi. Ti pe-ta-ok
av' ahauarem. Ti ban-tah av'ahoom vave chuvi uleu, quereri
tan-ti ban chi cah. Ta yata-ok chike vacamic ka hutagihil vay.
Ta zach-ta-qa-ok ka mak, quereri tan-ti ka zach qui mak riy x-e
makun chike. Ruquin qa maqui-tah koh av'ocotah pa takchiibal
mak, xatah koh a colo pan itzel. Quere ok t'ux.[XI'-8]

* * * * *

Of the Maya Grammar, the following is a brief compendium:

The following alphabet is used to write the Maya language: _a_, _b_, _c_, _ç_, _z_, _tz_, [_c_], _cti_, _ch_, _e_, _h_, _i_, _y_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _o_, _p_, _pp_, _t_, _th_, _u_, _x_.

The letter _ç_ is pronounced like the English _z_, or as if for example the word _cambeç_, were spelled _cambez_. The [_c_] is pronounced as if spelled _dj_, [_c_]ib_ is pronounced as if written _djib_, to write; _h_, not aspirated, and very frequently omitted; _k_, rather guttural; _pp_ and _p_, sharp and with force; _th_, hard, at the same time approximating slightly the English _tt_. The gender of rational beings is denoted by the prefixes _ah_, for masculine, and _ix_, for feminine;--_ah cambezah_, master; _ix cambezah_, mistress. With animals the particles _xibil_, for males, and _chupul_, for females, is prefixed. An exception to this rule is the word _pal_;--_xibil pal_, the boy; and _chupal pal_, the girl. Nouns form the plural by adding the particle _ob_;--_ich_, eye; _ich ob_, eyes. Adjectives ending in _nac_, in the plural lose their two last syllables and substitute for them the syllable _lac_;--_kakatnác_, an idle thing; _kaklác_, idle things. When an adjective and substantive are joined together, the adjective is always placed before the substantive, but the plural is expressed only in the substantive;--man, _uinic_; good, _utzul_; _utzúl uinicob_, good men. To form the comparative, the last vowel of the adjective with the letter _l_ added to it is affixed; frequently, the particle _il_ is simply affixed;--further, the pronoun of the third person _u_ or _y_ is always prefixed, in the comparative;--_tibil_, a good thing; _ú tibilil_, a better thing; _utz_, good; _yutzil_, or _yutzul_, better; _lob_, bad; _ulobol_, or _ulobil_, worse; _kaz_, ugly; _ukazal_, or _ukazil_, uglier. The superlative is expressed by the particle _hach_, which is prefixed;--_lob_, bad; _hachlob_, very bad. _Il_ added to nouns and adjectives serves to make them abstracts, _uinic_, man; _uinicil_, humanity.

There are four kinds of pronouns used in the Maya, all of which are used in conjugating verbs. But the two last are also used, united with nouns, or as possessive pronouns, and never alone, or as absolute pronouns.

PRONOUNS.

I ten | We tóon
Thou tech | You téex
He lay | They lóob

I en | We on
Thou ech | You ex
He laylo | They ob

I, mine in | We, ours ca
Thou, thine a | You, yours a-ex
He, his ú | They, theirs ú-ob

Mine u | Ours ca
Thine au | Yours au-ex
His y | Theirs y-ob

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.

Myself in-ba | Ourselves ca-ba
Thyself a-ba | Yourselves a-ba-ex
Himself ú-ba | Themselves ú-ba-ob

[Sidenote: MAYA CONJUGATIONS.]

CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILLARY VERB TENI, TO BE.

INDICATIVE PRESENT.

I am, ten
We are, tóon
Thou art, tech
You are, téex
He is, lay
They are, lóob

IMPERFECT.

I was, ten cuchi

PERFECT.

I have been, ten hi

PLUPERFECT.

I had been, ten hi-ili cuchi

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall be, bin ten-ac

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have been, ten hi-ili coshom

IMPERATIVE.

Be, ten-ac

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I be, ten-ac en

IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I were, hi ten-ac

FIRST CONJUGATION OF THE VERB NACAL, TO ASCEND.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I ascend, nacal in cah
Thou ascendest, nacal a cah
He ascends, nacal ú cah
We ascend, nacal ca cah
You ascend, nacal a-cau-ex
They ascend, nacal ú-cah-ob

IMPERFECT.

I ascended, nacal in cah-cuchi

PERFECT.

I have ascended, nac-en

PLUPERFECT.

I had ascended, nac-eu ili-cuehi

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall ascend, bin nacac-en

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have ascended, nac-en ili-cuchom

IMPERATIVE.

Ascend, nacac-en

SECOND CONJUGATION CAMBEZAH, TO INSTRUCT.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I instruct, cambezah in cah, or ten cambezic
Thou instructest, cambezah á cah, " tech cambezic
He instructs, cambezah ú cah, " lay cambezic
We instruct, cambezah ca cah, " tóon cambezic
You instruct, cambezah á cah-ez, " téex cambezic
They instruct, cambezah ú cah-ob, " lóob cambezic

IMPERFECT.

I instructed, cambezah in cah cuchi

PERFECT.

I have instructed, in cambezah

PLUPERFECT.

I had instructed, in cambezah ili-cuchi

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall instruct, bin in cambez

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have instructed, in cambezah ili-cochom

IMPERATIVE.

Let me instruct, in cambez
Instruct thou, cambez
Let him instruct, ú cambez
Let us instruct, ca cambez
Instruct you, á cambez ex
Let them instruct, ú cambez ob

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I instruct, ten in cambez

The third and fourth conjugations not differing from the above, I do not insert them.

THE LORD'S PRAYER.

Cayum ianeeh ti càannob cilichthantabac akaba:
Our father who art in heaven blessed be thy name;

tac a ahaulil c' okol. Mencahac a uolah uai
it may come thy kingdom us over. Be done thine will as

ti luun bai ti caanè. Zanzamal uah ca azotoon
on earth as in heaven. Daily bread us give

heleae caazaatez c' ziipil he bik c' zaatzic uziipil
to-day us forgive our sins as we forgive their sins

ahziipiloobtoone ma ix appatic c' lubul ti tuntah,
to sinners not also let us fall in temptation

caatocoon ti lob.[XI'-9]
us deliver from evil.

To the two languages the Huaztec and Totonac spoken respectively in the states of Tamaulipas and Vera Cruz, great antiquity is ascribed. I include them both in this chapter, and classify them with the Maya family; the Huaztec because its relationship has already been satisfactorily established by Vater and his successors, and the Totonac on the statements of Sahagun and other good authorities.[XI'-10] Of both of these languages I insert some grammatical notes. The Totonac is divided into four principal dialects, named respectively that of the Sierra Alta or Tetikilhati, that of Xalpan y Pontepec, or Chakahuaxti, the Ipapana and the Naolingo or Tatimolo. The following grammar refers specially to the last dialect.

[Sidenote: TOTONAC GRAMMAR.]

The letters used are _a_, _ch_, _e_, _g_, _h_, _i_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _o_, _p_, _t_, _u_, _v_, _x_, _y_, _z_, _tz_, _lh_. Compounded or agglutinated words are of frequent occurrence; they seem to be joined without any particular system, although it appears that the last letter is oftentimes omitted. The following shows the composition of a word;--_lioxilhmagatlakachalikihuin_, to go prophesying; composed of the particle _li_, the verb _oxilha_, the adverb _magat_, the substantive _lakatin_, and the verbs _chaan_ and _likihuin_. There are no particular signs or letters to express the gender, but in most cases the words _huixkana_, male, and _pozkat_, female, are prefixed to words.

The plural for animated beings is formed by one of the following terminations;--_n_, _in_, _nin_, _itni_, _nitni_, _an_, _na_, _ne_, _ni_, _no_, _nu_;--_oxga_, youth; _oxgan_, youths; _agapon_, heaven; _agaponin_, heavens; _pulana_, captain; _pulananin_, captains; _makan_, hand; _makanitni_, hands; _ztako_, star; _ztakonitni_, stars; _xanat_, flower; _xanatna_, flowers; etc., etc.; _in_ and _itni_ are used when the word ends with a consonant, and _nin_ and _nitni_ when it ends with a vowel.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

I akit
Me kin
Thou huix
He amah, or huata
We akin
Us kila, or kinka
You huixin
They huatonin

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB IK-PAXKI-Y, I LOVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I love, ik-paxki-y | We love, ik-paxki-yauh
Thou lovest, paxki-a | You love, paxki-yatit
He loves, paxki-y | They love, paxki-goy

IMPERFECT.

I loved, xak-paxki-y

PERFECT.

I have loved, ik-paxki-lh, or ik-paxki-nit

PLUPERFECT.

I had loved, xah-paxki-nit

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall love, nak-paxki-y

SECOND FUTURE.

I shall have loved, ik-paxki lh nahuan, or ik-paxki-nit nahuan

IMPERATIVE.

Love, ka-paxki

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I love, kak-paxki-lh

IMPERFECT.

If I loved, xax-paxki-lh

The difference between the three dialects may be seen:

Heart nako alkonoko lakatzin
World kiltamako katoxahuat tankilatzon
Moon malkoyo papa laxkipap
Maize koxi tapaxni kizpa
Good tzey tlaan kolhana
Truth ztonkua loloto tikxliana
To believe akaeniy kanalay katayahuay

The Lord's Prayer in the dialect of Naolingo:

Kintlatkane nak tiayan huil takollalihuakahuanli ó
Our father in heaven art sanctified be

mimaokxot nikiminanin ó mintakakchi tacholakahuanla
thy name come thy kingdom be done

ó minpahuat cholei kaknitiet chalchix nak tiayan. O
thy name as world as in heaven.

kinchouhkan lakalliya nikilaixkiuh yanohue kakilamatzankaniuh
Our bread daily give us to-day forgive us

kintakallitkan chonlei ó kitnan lamatzankaniyauh
our faults as we ourselves we forgive

ó kintalakallaniyan ka ala kilamaktaxtoyauh
our debtors and not us lead

nali yoyauh naka liyogni. Chon tacholakahuanla.
that we be in temptation. So be it done.

The descriptions or grammatical remarks of Vater and Pimentel, vary in many points. For instance, Vater says that the letters _k_ and _v_ are not used in this language, while Pimentel mentions them both as being used. The expression of the plural is also given differently by both, as are also several other points.[XI'-11]

* * * * *

[Sidenote: HUAZTEC GRAMMAR.]

From the grammar of Carlos de Tapia Zenteno, which was also used by Gallatin and Pimentel, I offer the following remarks on the Huaztec:

The letters used in writing this language are: _a_, _b_, _ch_, _d_, _e_, _g_, _h_, _i_, _j_, _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _o_, _p_, _t_, _u_, _v_, _x_, _y_, _z_, _tz_. The pronunciation is soft. Gender is denoted by the addition of the words _imik_, man, and _uxum_, woman;--_tzalle_, king; _uxumtzalle_, queen; _tzejelinik_, young man; _tzejeluxum_, young girl. The affix _chick_ is used to express the plural;--_atik_, son; _atikchick_, sons; but there are a few exceptions to this rule. Diminutives are expressed by the preposition _chichick_, as;--_te_, tree; _chichikte_, small tree. In some cases the preposition _tzakam_, or the affix _il_, is used for this purpose. In the superlative the syllable _le_ is used before the word, as;--_pullik_, great; _lepullik_, very great. Personal pronouns;--_nana_, I; _tata_, thou; _jaja_, he; _huahua_, we; _xaxa_, you; _baba_, they.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TAHJAL, TO HAVE.

INDICATIVE PRESENT.

I have, nana utahjal or intahjal
Thou hast, tata atahjal or ittahjal
He has, taja, intahjal
We have, huahua yatahjal
You have, xaxa yatahjal
They have, baba tahjal

IMPERFECT.

I had, nana utahjalitz or intahjalitz

PERFECT.

I have had, nana utahjaitz or utahjamal, or utahjamalitz

PLUPERFECT.

I had had, nana utahjalak or utahjamalak, or utahjamalakitz

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall have, nana ku or kin, or kiatajah

IMPERATIVE.

Have, tata katahja

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I have, nana kutahja or kiatahja

IMPERFECT.

If I had, nana kin or intahjalak

INFINITIVE.

To have, tahjal

Verbal nouns and participles are formed by adding _x_ or _chix_, to the infinitive, as;--_tzobnal_, to know; and _tzobnax_, he who knows. There are said to be several different dialects of this language in use. Following is the Pater Noster as given by Zenteno in his Doctrina, and as spoken in the mountains of the district of Tampico.

Pailomê anitquahat tiaeb, quaquauhlu anabi, cachich
Father art heaven holy said thy name come

anatzalletal. Katahan analenal têtitzabal, nuantiani huatahab
thy kingdom. Be done thy will on the earth as to have

tiaeb. Ani tacupiza xahue cailel yabacanil ani
heaven. And thou give to-day each day our bread and

tacupaculamchi antuhualabchic, antiani huahua tupaculamchial
thou forgive sins as we forgive

tutomnanchixlomchik, ani ib takuhila tincal
debtors and not lead that we

ib cucuallam tin exextalab. Timat taculouh timbâ ana ib
not fall us in temptation. But save us from no

cuacua. Anitz catahan.
holy (evil) so be it done.[XI'-12]

Lord's Prayer in the dialect spoken in the Department of San Luis Potosí:

Tatu puilom huahuá, itcuajat, ti eb chie pelit santo jajatz abi
cachic atzale tal ti eb al huahua: catajatz taculbetal hantzaná
titzabal hantini tiaeb ani cap ud patalaguicha tacubinanchi,
xoque ani tacupaculanchi; cal igualab, ani ela tegui
tacupalanchi cal y at guitzab ani il tacujila cugualan cal
junhi fataxtalb, maxibtaculohu cal ban atax mal tajana
guatalel.

[Sidenote: HUAZTEC LORD'S PRAYER.]

Lord's Prayer in the dialect spoken in another part of the district of Tampico:

Pailon qüa que cuajat tiá el: tu cab tajal hanchaná enta bi ca
chix hanti ca ilál cataja na aquiztal hanchana antich aval
quinitine tiá el. An pan abalgüa ti patás hüicha ha, tu piza
segue, tu placuanchi ni gualal anchaná jontinégüá y placuanchal
in at qualablom, il tú en gila cu cualan anti atás cha lablal,
tu en librari ti patas an ataz tabal, anchaná juntam. Anchanan
catajan.[XI'-13]

FOOTNOTES:

[XI'-1] _Palacio_, _Carta_, p. 20; _Juarros_, _Hist. Guat._, p. 198; _Registro Yucateco_, tom. i., p. 166; _Galindo_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. iii., pp. 95, 63; _Gallatin_, in _Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact._, vol. i., pp. 4-7; _Mühlenpfordt_, _Mejico_, tom. ii., pp. 8, 17; _Wappäus_, _Geog. u. Stat._, p. 245; _Herrera_, _Hist. Gen._, dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii-xiv.; _Laet_, _Novus Orbis_, pp. 277, 317, 325; _Humboldt_, _Essai Pol._, tom. i., p. 267; _Heller_, _Reisen_, p. 380; _Galindo_, in _Antiq. Mex._, p. 67; _Norman's Rambles_, p. 238; _Haefkens_, _Cent. Amer._, p. 412; _Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man_, vol. ii., p. 513; _Behrendt's Report_, in _Smithsonian Rept._, 1867, p. 425; _Squier's Monograph_, p. ix.; _Villagutierre_, _Hist. Conq. Itza_, p. 84.

[XI'-2] The languages of the Maya family are spoken in the old provinces of Soconusco, Chiapas, Suchitepec, Vera Paz, Honduras, Izalcos, Salvador, San Miguel, Nicaragua, Xerez de Choluteca, Tegucigalpa, and Costa Rica, says the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, _MS. Troano_, tom. ii., p. vi. 'La plupart des langues de cette contrée, si multiples au premier aspect, se réduisent en réalité à un petit nombre. Ce sont des dialectes qui ne diffèrent les uns des autres que par le mélange de quelques mots étrangers, une certaine variété dans les finales ou dans la prononciation.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1855, tom. cxlvii., p. 155. 'Il me paraît indubitable que la langue universelle des royaumes guatémaliens devait être, avant l'invasion des tribus que les Espagnols trouvèrent en possession de ces contrées, le maya d'Yucatan ou le tzendal qui lui ressemble beaucoup.' _Ib._ 'Lacandons ... les _Mames_, _Pocomames_, etc., qui parlent encore aujourd'hui une langue presqu'en tout semblable à celle des Yucatèques.' _Id._, p. 156. 'Le _Tzendal_ ou _Tzeldal_ et un dialecte de la langue _zotzile_ dont il diffère fort peu.' _Id._, _Palenqué_, p. 34. 'Toutes sont issues d'une seule souche, dont le _maya_ paraît avoir gardé le plus grand nombre d'éléments. Le _quiché_, le _cakchiquel_, le _mame_, le _tzendal_, sont marqués eux-mêmes au sceau d'une très-haute antiquité, amplement partagée par le _mexicain_ ou _nahuatl_ malgré les différences que comporte sa grammaire; car si ses formes et sa syntaxe sont très-distinctes de celles du _maya_, on peut dire, néanmoins, que tous ces vocables sont composés de racines communes à tout le groupe. _Id._, _MS. Troano_, tom. ii., pp. vii., viii. 'La langue primitive forme le centre; plus elle s'avance vers la circonférence, plus elle perd de son originalité la tangente, c'est-à-dire le point où elle rencontre un autre idiome, est l'endroit où elle s'altère pour former une langue mixte.' _Waldeck_, _Voy. Pitt._, pp. 24, 42. 'Les Taitzaes, les Cehatches, les Campims, les Chinamitas, les Locènes, les Ytzaes et les Lacandons. Toutes ces nations parlent la langue maya, excepté les Locènes, qui parlent la langue Chol.' _Ternaux-Compans_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1843, tom. xcvii., p. 50; _Id._, 1840, tom. lxxxviii., p. 6. 'La de Yucatan, y Tabasco, que es toda vna.' _Bernal Diaz_, _Hist. Conq._, fol. 25; _Solis_, _Hist. Mex._, tom. i., p. 89. 'Zoques, Celtales y Quèlenes, todos de lenguas diferentes.' _Remesal_, _Hist. Chyapa_, pp. 264, 299; also in _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 269; _Helps' Span. Conq._, tom. iii., p. 252; _Squier_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1855, tom. cxlviii., p. 275; _Id._, 1857, tom. cliii., pp. 175, 177-8. The natives of the island of Cozumel 'son de la lengua y costumbres de los de Yucatan.' _Landa_, _Relacion_, p. 12; _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 18-25, 55-56.

[XI'-3] 'La simplicité originale de cette langue et la régularité merveilleuse de ses formes grammaticales, c'est la facilité avec laquelle elle se prête à l'analyse de chacun de ces vocables et à la dissection des racines dont ils sont dérivés.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _MS. Troano_, tom. ii., pp. iii., vi., v. 'The _Maya_ tongue spoken in the northern parts of Yucatan, is remarkable for its extremely guttural pronunciation.' _Gordon's Hist. and Geog. Mem._, p. 73. 'The whole of the native languages are exceedingly guttural in their pronunciation.' _Dunn's Guatimala_, p. 265. 'Diese Sprache war wohlklingend und weich.' _Müller_, _Amerikanische Urreligionen_, p. 453; _Ternaux-Compans_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1843, tom. xcvii., p. 32; _Squier_, in _Id._, tom. cliii., p. 178.

[XI'-4] 'Dans ces langues kakchiquèle, kichée et zutugile, les mots qui n'appartiennent pas au Maya, m'ont tout l'air d'être d'origine germanique, saxons, danois, flamands, anglais même.' _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1855, tom. cxlvii., pp. 156-7. 'Je fus frappé, dès mon arrivée ... de la similitude qu'une quantité de mots de leur langue offrait avec celles du nord de l'Europe.' _Id._, _Lettre à M. Rafn_, in _Id._, tom. clx., 1858, pp. 263, 281-90. 'The fundamental forms and words of the languages of these regions (except the Mexican) are intimately connected with the Maya or Tzendal and that all the words, that are neither Mexican nor Maya, belong to our languages of Northern Europe, viz., English, Saxon, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Flemish and German, some even appear to belong to the French and Persian, and altogether they are really very numerous and astounding.' _Id._, _Letter in the New York Tribune_, November 21, 1855.

[XI'-5] _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., pp. 231-45.

[XI'-6] _Gage's New Survey_, pp. 465-477, et seq.

[XI'-7] _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., pp. 84-110.

[XI'-8] _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Grammaire de la Langue Quiché_; _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., pp. 126-47.

[XI'-9] _Beltran de Santa Rosa María_, _Arte_; _Ruz_, _Catecismo Historico_; _Id._, _Cartilla_; _Id._, _Gram. Yucateca_; _Gallatin_, in _Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact._, vol. i., pp. 252, et seq.; _Heller_, _Reisen_, p. 381, et seq.; _Vater_, _Mithridates_, tom. iii., pt iii., pp. 4-24; _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., pp. 5, 223, tom. ii., pp. 119, 229; _Brasseur de Bourbourg_, _Grammaire_, in _Landa_, _Relacion_, pp. 459-479; _Id._, in _MS. Troano_, tom. ii.

[XI'-10] 'Estos Totonaques ... decian ser ellas de _Guastelas_.' 'Otros hay, que entienden la lengua Guasteca.' _Sahagun_, _Hist. Gen._, tom. iii., lib. x., pp. 131-2. 'Im alten Centralamerika also waren die Sprachen der Totonaken, Otimier, Huasteken, Macahuer unter sich sowohl als auch mit der Sprache in Yucatan verwandt.' _Müller_, _Amerikanische Urreligionen_, p. 453; _Mexikanische Zustände_; tom. i., p. 143; _Montanus_, _Nieuwe Weereld_, p. 251; _Hassel_, _Mex. Guat._, p. 245; _Almaraz_, _Memorio_, pp. 18, 20; _Villa-Señor y Sanchez_, _Theatro_, tom. i., pp. 287-91; _Gallatin_, in _Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact._, vol. i., p. 4; _Ternaux-Compans_, in _Nouvelles Annales des Voy._, 1840, tom. lxxxviii., p. 7; _Vater_, _Mithridates_, tom. iii., pt iii., p. 106; _Orozco y Berra_, _Geografía_, pp. 18-20, 204.

[XI'-11] _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. ii., pp. 223-68; _Vater_, _Mithridates_, tom. iii., pt iii., pp. 44-60.

[XI'-12] _Zenteno_, _Lengua Huasteca_; _Gallatin_, in _Amer. Ethno. Soc., Transact._, vol. i., pp. 276-85; _Pimentel_, _Cuadro_, tom. i., pp. 5-34.

[XI'-13] _Col. Polidiómica Mex._, _Oracion Dominical_, p. 8-10.