Chapter XLIII: Appendix: I

There is presented below a summary of the evidence that in all parts of the world there existed among primitive races, before they had been subjected to European or other outside influence, customs the primary function of which was the restriction of increase. An ideal review of the matter would require a preliminary selection of certain areas where the conditions referred to could be thoroughly studied. After a mapping out of the races and tribes, in order that some idea might be obtained of the relative numerical importance of each, an exhaustive examination of the literature might be undertaken and the date of the observations noted. The credibility of the authors would have to be considered and some method of allowing for negative evidence elaborated. Nothing of the kind has been attempted here. It may be suggested that the problem should have been pursued at least somewhat further. Various attempts were made to analyse the evidence in other ways, but the difficulties met with were such that it seemed best to present the evidence as follows. Evidence of a reasonably credible nature as to the existence of these customs has been noted. In many of these cases other authors are silent as to these practices; in one or two cases the practices have been denied; but when the denial is either not apparently founded on careful observation or is of a distinctly later date, these instances have not been omitted. Where the weight of the evidence is against the existence of the practice, as in the case of the existence of infanticide among the Veddahs, any positive evidence is omitted. One author does record infanticide among the Veddahs, and it may be that it formerly existed.

It is submitted that the evidence as given below does show customs restrictive of increase to have been so widespread, in the form either of abortion, infanticide, or prolonged abstention from intercourse, as to have been practically universal. It is in fact submitted that, although for the many reasons set out in the text the evidence must be very incomplete, there is ample support for the theory which has been advanced.

In the following summary the letter ‘R’ stands for prolonged restriction of intercourse, ‘A’ for abortion, and ‘I’ for infanticide. Where the evidence records the practice to be rare, but there are reasons for thinking that the rarity may be recent, the reference has been included with the word ‘rare’ given in brackets.

AUSTRALIA

Group I.

[Sidenote: I.]

General References. Parker, _Aborigines_, p. 23; Lumholtz, _Among
Cannibals_, p. 134.

Victoria. Curr, _Recollections_, p. 252.

Victoria and Riverina. Beveridge, _Aborigines_, p. 26.

New South Wales and Victoria. Mathews, _Ethnological Notes_, p. 17.

Port Lincoln. Wilhelmi, _Transactions of the Royal Society of
Victoria_, vol. v, p. 180; Schürmann, _Aboriginal Tribes_, p. 223.

River Darling. Bonney, _J. A. I._, vol. xiii, p. 125.

Southern Australia. Palmer, _J. A. I._, vol. xiii, p. 280; Fison and
Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 190; Eylmann, _Kolonie
Südaustralien_, p. 261; Smyth, _Aborigines_, vol. i, p. 52.

Mining Tribe. Howitt, _Native Tribes_, p. 748.

Tongeranka. Ibid., p. 749.

Mukjarawaint. Ibid.

Wotjos. Ibid.

Tatuthi. Ibid.

Wadthaurung. Ibid.

Narrinyeri. Taplin, _Native Tribes_, p. 13.

Queensland. Mathew, _Two Tribes_, p. 165.

Port Darwin. Foelsche, _J. A. I._, vol. xxiv, p. 192.

Central Australia. Eyre, _Journals_, vol. ii, p. 376; Spencer and
Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 269.

Northern Tribes. Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes_, p. 608.

Western Australia. Grey, _Journals_, vol. ii, p. 251.

[Sidenote: A.]

North-west and Central Queensland. Roth, _Ethnological Studies_, p.
183.

Mythuggadi. Palmer, _J. A. I._, vol. xiii, p. 280.

Port Jackson. Collins, _Edinburgh Review_, vol. ii, p. 34.

TASMANIA

Group I.

[Sidenote: A.]

Bonwick, _Tasmanians_, p. 76.

[Sidenote: I.]

Ibid., pp. 79 and 85; Ling Roth, _Tasmania_, p. 167.

BUSHMEN

Group I.

[Sidenote: I.]

Moffat, _Missionary Labours_, p. 58; Stow, _Native Races_, p. 51.

AMERICA

Group I.

[Sidenote: R.]

General References. Weld, _Travels_, p. 373; Heriot, _Travels_, p.
339.

Yguazas. Cabeça da Vaca, _Narrative_, p. 62.

Abipones. Dobrizhoffer, _Abipones_, vol. ii, p. 97.

[Sidenote: A.]

General References. Weld. loc. cit., p. 373; Robertson, _History_,
vol. i, p. 297.

Eskimos. Wells and Kelly, _U.S.A. Bur. of Education_, 1890, p. 19;
Bessels, _Arch. für Anth._, vol. viii, p. 112.

Hudson Bay. Ellis, _Voyage_, p. 198.

Knisteneaux. Mackenzie, _Voyages_, vol. i, p. 148.

Haidahs. Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 169.

Puget Sound. Lord, _Naturalist_, vol. ii, p. 231.

Vancouver Island (Nootkas). Sproat, _Savage Life_, p. 94; Bancroft,
vol. i, p. 197.

Thompson Indians. (Rare.) Teit, _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_,
vol. i, p. 305, and vol. ii, p. 584.

Shushwap. (Rare.) Ibid.

Western Washington and North-western Oregon. Gibbs, _U.S. Geog. and
Geol. Survey_, vol. i, p. 199.

Chinooks. Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 242.

Inland Tribes Pacific Coast. Ibid.

Omahas. (Rare.) Dorsey, 3rd _A. R. B. E._, p. 263.

Californians. Powers, loc. cit., p. 207.

New Mexico. Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 590.

Guaycurus. Castelnau, _Expedition_, vol. ii, p. 450; Azara,
_Voyages_, p. 146.

Payaguas. Rengger, _Reise_, p. 329.

Fuegians. Cooper, _S. I. B. E._, No. 63, p. 171.

[Sidenote: I.]

Eskimos. Behring Straits. Nelson, 18th _A. R. B. E._, p. 289.

Central. (Rare.) Boas, 6th _A. R. B. E._, p. 580.

Smith Sound. Murdoch, 9th _A. R. B. E._, p. 417; Bessels, _Arch. für
Anth._, vol. viii, p. 112.

King William Land. Murdoch, loc. cit., p. 417.

Greenland. Nansen, _Greenland_, p. 330.

Aleuts. (Rare.) Dall, _Alaska_, p. 399.

Malemutes. Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 81.

Kutchins. Kirkby, _Church Missionary Intelligencer_, vol. xiv, p.
115; Hardisty, 21st _A. R. B. E._, p. 312; Mackenzie, _Voyages_,
vol. i, p. 148.

Copper River District. Woldt, _Reise_, p. 393.

Chinooks. Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 242; Lord, loc. cit., vol.
ii, p. 231.

Koniagas. Bancroft, vol. i, p. 81.

Nootkas. Bancroft, vol. i, p. 197.

Haidahs. Gibbs, loc. cit., p. 198; Bancroft, vol. i, p. 169.

Kwakiutl. Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 169.

Chepewayans. Keating, _Narrative_, p. 160.

Californians. Powers, loc. cit., p. 416; Bancroft, loc. cit., vol.
i, pp. 390 and 413.

Yguazas. Cabeça da Vaca, _Narrative_, p. 62.

Abipones. Dobrizhoffer, _Abipones_, vol. ii, p. 97; Charlevoix, loc.
cit., vol. i, p. 405.

Guaycurus. Church, _South America_, p. 248.

Puelches. Guinnard, _Patagonians_, p. 143.

Fuegians. (Rare.) Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, p. 313.

Group II.

[Sidenote: R.]

Iroquois. Le Beau, _Aventures_, vol. ii, p. 200.

Illinois. Charlevoix, loc. cit., vol. vi, p. 5.

Crows. Holder, _Am. Journ. Obstet._, vol. xxv, p. 44.

Mexico. Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 281.

Moxos and Chiquitos. D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, vol. i, p. 47.

[Sidenote: A.]

Sioux. Keating, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 394; Schoolcraft, loc. cit.,
vol. i, p. 204.

Crows. Holder, loc. cit., p. 44.

Apaches, Navahos, Pueblos, Pimas, Nahua, Otommi, and Aztec.
Hrdlicka, _S. I. B. E._, Bull. 34, p. 163.

Menomini. Stevenson, 23rd _A. R. B. E._, p. 296.

Zuni. (Rare.) Ibid.

Mexico. Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. ii, pp. 183 and 269.

Brazil and the Chaco. Ehrenreich, _Königliches Museum zu Berlin_,
vol. i, Heft 2, p. 27; Azara, vol. ii, p. 116.

Bakairi. Von den Steinen, _Brazilien_, p. 123.

[Sidenote: I.]

Pimas. Yarrow, _A. R. B. E._, vol. i, p. 99.

Sioux. Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 243.

Creeks. Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 272.

Guanas. Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 93.

Mbayas. Ibid., p. 116.

Lenguas. Hawtrey, _J. A. I._, vol. xxi, p. 295.

Guaranis. Rengger, _Reise_, p. 329.

AFRICA

[Sidenote: R.]

Yoruba-speaking. Ellis, _Yoruba-Speaking Peoples_, p. 185.

Ewe-speaking. Ellis, _Ewe-Speaking Peoples_, p. 206.

Kagero. Tremearne, _J. A. I._, vol. xlii, p. 174.

Hausa. Ibid., vol. xxxvi, p. 93.

Benin. Ling Roth, _Benin_, p. 39.

Niger District. Mungo Park, _Travels_, p. 402.

Warri District. Granville, _J. A. I._, vol. xxvii, p. 106.

Moioa. Tremearne, _Nigeria_, p. 239.

Gallinas. Harris, _Darkest Africa_, p. 36.

Hobbés. Desplagnes, _Plateau Nigérien_, p. 227.

Cameroon. Nassau, _West Africa_, p. 11.

Ashanti. Reade, _South Africa_, p. 45.

Congo District. Cureau, _Sociétés primitives_, p. 378; Johnston,
_George Grenfell_, p. 671; Ward, _J. A. I._, vol. xxiv, p. 289.

Bangala. Weeks, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxix, p. 418; Overbergh and
Jonghe, _Coll. Mon. Eth._, No. 1, p. 199.

Mayombe. Overbergh and Jonghe, _Coll. Mon. Eth._, No. 2, p. 219.

Ababua. Halkin, _Coll. Mon. Eth._, No. 7, p. 260.

Bayaka. Torday and Joyce, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxvi, p. 51.

Mandja. Gaud, _Coll. Mon. Eth._, No. 8, p. 154.

Warega. Delhaise, ibid., No. 5, p. 154.

Uganda. Wilson and Felkin, _Uganda_, vol. i, p. 187.

Baganda. Roscoe, _Baganda_, p. 55.

Rovuma River. Thomson, _Geog. Journ._, vol. iv, p. 73.

Swaheli. Velten, _Suaheli_, p. 73.

Baringo District. Dundas, _J. A. I._, vol. xl, p. 60.

Wanjamuesi. Reichard, _Z. G. E._, vol. xxiv, p. 257.

British Central Africa. Stannus, _J. A. I._, vol. xl, p. 311.

Miri District. Felkin, _Trans. Edin. Obstet. Soc._, vol. ix, p. 31.

Atonga. Johnston, _British Central Africa_, p. 415.

South Africa. Junod, _Baronga_, p. 490; Kidd, _Essential Kaffir_, p.
19.

Baronga. Junod, _Baronga_, p. 490.

Loango. Pechuel-Loesche, _Loango-Expedition_, p. 31.

[Sidenote: A.]

Tenda. Delacour, _Rev. d’Eth._, 1912, p. 45.

Nigeria. Tremearne, _J. A. I._, vol. xlii, p. 171.

Congo District. Johnston, _George Grenfell_, p. 671.

Bangala. Weeks, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxix, p. 449; Overbergh and
Jonghe, _Coll. Mon. Eth._, No. 1, p. 201.

Bahuana. Torday and Joyce, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxvi, p. 228.

Warega. Delhaise, loc. cit., p. 147.

Ababua. Halkin, loc. cit., p. 259.

Onolove. de Rochebrune, _Rev. d’Anth._, vol. iv, p. 283.

Mangbetu. (Rare.) Van Overbergh, _Coll. Mon. Eth._, No. 4, p. 298.

Bushongo. (Rare.) Torday and Joyce, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxvi, p. 111.

Akamba. Hobley, _Akamba_, p. 58.

Swaheli. Velten, loc. cit., p. 29.

Nyassa District. Fülleborn, _Nyassa-Gebiet_, p. 352.

British Central Africa. Johnston, _British Central Africa_, p. 417;
Angus, _Azimba and Chipitaland_, p. 324.

Zambezi Valley. Maugham, _Zambezia_, p. 339.

South Africa. Maclean, _Kaffir Laws_, p. 62.

Wadschagga. Gutmann, _Wadschagga_, p. 3.

Madagascar. Ellis, _Madagascar_, vol. i, p. 55.

[Sidenote: I.]

Hottentots. Kolben, _Cape of Good Hope_, vol. i, p. 144.

Madagascar. Ellis, _Madagascar_, vol. i, p. 155; Little,
_Madagascar_, p. 60.

OCEANIA

[Sidenote: R.]

New Zealand. Tregear, _J. A. I._, vol. xix, p. 103.

Torres Straits. _Cambridge Expedition_, vol. v, p. 199.

Savage Island (Niue). Thomson, _Savage Island_, p. 141.

Pelew Islands. Kubary, _Journal des Museum Godeffroy_, vol. i, p.
54.

Samoa. Krämer, _Samoa-Inseln_, vol. i, p. 38.

New Guinea. Seligman, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxii, p. 302 (Sinaugola);
Schellong, _Zeit. für Eth._, vol. xxviii, p. 19 (Finschafen).

Solomon Islands. Ribbe, _Zwei Jahre_, p. 144; Glaumond, _Rev.
d’Eth._, vol. vii, p. 80.

Bismarck Archipelago (New Britain Group). Brown, _Melanesians_, p.
37.

New Caledonia. Glaumond, loc. cit., p. 80; Lambert,
_Néo-Calédoniens_, p. 104.

Fiji. Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 176; Seeman, _Viti_, p. 191.

Tonga. Thomson, loc. cit., p. 178.

Gilbert Islands (Kingsmill or Line Islands). Thomson, loc. cit., p.
178.

[Sidenote: A.]

New Zealand. Dieffenbach, _New Zealand_, vol. ii, p. 12; Goldie,
_Trans. and Proc. N. Z. Inst._, vol. xxxvii, p. 110; Tuke, _Edin.
Med. Journ._, vol. ix, p. 735.

Torres Straits. Hunt, _J. A. I._, vol. xxviii, p. 9; Haddon, _J. A.
I._, vol. xix, p. 359; _Cambridge Expedition_, vol. vi, p. 197.

Hawaii. Dumas, _Îles Hawaï_, p. 18.

Gilbert Islands. Jenkins, _Voyage_, p. 404; Krämer, loc. cit., vol.
ii, p. 53; Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 211.

Samoa. Krämer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 53; Turner, _Samoa_, p. 79.

Rotuma. Gardiner, _J. A. I._, vol. xxvii, p. 480.

Savage Island. Thomson, loc. cit., p. 141.

Fiji. Pritchard, _Polynesian Reminiscences_, p. 423; Waterhouse,
_Fiji_, p. 327.

New Hebrides. Hagen and Pineau, _Rev. d’Eth._, vol. vii, p. 332;
Jamieson, _Aust. Med. Journ._, vol. vii, p. 53.

New Caledonia. Codrington, _Melanesians_, p. 33; Ribbe, loc. cit.,
p. 144; Parkinson, _Int. Arch. Eth._, vol. xiii, p. 8; Elton, _J. A.
I._, vol. xvii, p. 93.

Solomon Islands. Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 144.

Bismarck Archipelego. Brown, _Melanesians_, p. 33; Danks, _J. A.
I._, vol. xviii, p. 291; Pfeil, _Studien_, p. 313; Stephan and
Graebner, _Neu-Mecklenburg_, p. 18.

New Britain. Danks, _J. A. I._, vol. xviii, p. 291.

Aru Islands. Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 194.

Flores. Riedel, _Rev. Col. Inter._, vol. ii, p. 71.

New Guinea. Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_, pp. 165, 292, 390, and 392;
Murray, _Papua_, p. 194; Rosenberg, _Malayische Archipel_, p. 454;
Williamson, _Mafulu People_, p. 176; Seligman, _Melanesians_, pp.
135 and 568; Neuhaus, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, vol. ii, p. 150.

Nias. Modigliani, _Viaggio_, p. 554.

Celebes. Kreutz, _Zeit. Soc. Wiss._, Heft 11, p. 21.

Luzon. Jenks, _Ethnological Survey Publications_, vol. i, p. 60.

Mitchell Group. Turner, _Samoa_, p. 280.

[Sidenote: I.]

New Zealand. Angas, _Savage Life_, vol. i, p. 312; Taylor, _Te Ika a
Maui_, p. 338; Tuke, loc. cit., p. 312.

Torres Straits. Haddon, _J. A. I._, vol. xix, p. 359; _Cambridge
Expedition_, vol. vi, p. 107.

Gilbert Islands. Tuituila, _Journ. Pol. Soc._, vol. i, p. 267.

Savage Island. Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 141.

Rarotonga. Gill, _Coral Islands_, vol. ii, p. 13.

Tahiti. Lutteroth, _Insel Tahiti_, p. 12; Ellis, _Polynesian
Researches_, vol. i, p. 249.

Pelew Islands. Kotzebue, _Histoire_, vol. xvii, p. 211.

Sandwich Islands. Ellis, _Narrative_, p. 324; Angas, _Polynesia_, p.
144; Dumas, loc. cit., p. 19.

Fiji. Waterhouse, _Fiji_, p. 328.

New Caledonia. Glaumond, loc. cit., p. 79; Bernard,
_Nouvelle-Calédonie_, p. 288; Moncelin, _Bull. Soc. Anth._, vol. ix,
p. 357.

New Hebrides. Somerville, _J. A. I._, vol. xxiii, p. 4; Paton, _New
Hebrides_, p. 452.

Banks Island. Codrington, _Melanesians_, p. 229.

Solomon Islands (Ugi). Elton, _J. A. I._, vol. xvii, p. 93; Guppy,
_Solomon Islands_, p. 42.

Bismarck Archipelago. Brown, _Melanesians_, p. 36; Pfeil, loc. cit.,
p. 18.

New Guinea. Seligman, _Melanesians_, pp. 568 and 705; Williamson,
_Mafulu People_, p. 176; Newton, _New Guinea_, p. 189.

Funafuti. Edgeworth David, _Funafuti_, p. 195.

Tikopia (Barwell Island). Rivers, _Melanesian Society_, vol. i, p.
313.

Nissau. Thurmwald, _Zeit. für Eth._, vol. xl, 1908, p. 111.

Radeck. Kotzebue, _Voyages_, p. 173.

Vaitapu (Ellice Archipelago). Turner, _Samoa_, p. 284.

Marquesas. Hale, _U.S. Exploring Expedition_, vol. vi, p. 15.

Maupiti. Montgomery, _Journal_, vol. ii, p. 12.

Murray Islands. Hunt, _J. A. I._, vol. xxviii, p. 9.