Chapter XLVII: Appendix: II (4)

Elton, _J. A. I._, vol. xvii, p. 93.

Footnote 960:

Guppy, _Solomon Islands_, p. 42.

Footnote 961:

Elton, loc. cit., p. 93; Somerville, _J. A. I._, vol. xxvi, p. 393;
Parkinson, loc. cit., p. 8; Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 144.

Footnote 962:

Verguet, _Rev. d’Eth._, vol. iv, p. 206.

Footnote 963:

Brown, _Melanesians_, p. 36; Pfeil, loc. cit., p. 18.

Footnote 964:

Seligman, _Melanesians_, p. 568.

Footnote 965:

Ibid., p. 705.

Footnote 966:

Williamson, _Mafulu People_, p. 176.

Footnote 967:

Murray, loc. cit., p. 194.

Footnote 968:

Erdweg, _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_,
vol. xxxii, p. 281.

Footnote 969:

Newton, _New Guinea_, p. 189.

Footnote 970:

St. John, _Forests of the Far East_, vol. i, p. 48; Brooke, loc. cit.,
vol. ii, p. 337.

Footnote 971:

Ratzel, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 268; Romilly, _Western Pacific_, p. 68.

Footnote 972:

Moerenhaut, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 30, says that ‘Tous ces peuples
étaient très fréquemment en guerre’.

Footnote 973:

Dieffenbach, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 16; Tregear, _J. A. I._, vol. xix,
p. 110.

Footnote 974:

Hunt, loc. cit., p. 10.

Footnote 975:

_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. iv, p. 6; vol. v, p. 229;
and vol. vi, p. 189.

Footnote 976:

Ibid., vol. v, p. 298.

Footnote 977:

Ellis, _Narrative_, p. 4; Dumas, loc. cit., p. 19.

Footnote 978:

Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, p. 293; Lutteroth, loc. cit., p. 17.

Footnote 979:

Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, p. 294.

Footnote 980:

Turner, _Samoa_, p. 189; Pritchard, loc. cit., p. 55; Angas,
_Polynesia_, p. 270.

Footnote 981:

Brown, _Melanesians_, p. 173.

Footnote 982:

Gardiner, _J. A. I._, vol. xxvii, p. 470.

Footnote 983:

Ibid., p. 474.

Footnote 984:

Gill, _Coral Islands_, vol. ii, p. 12.

Footnote 985:

Jenkins, loc. cit., p. 407.

Footnote 986:

Kubary, _Journal des Museum Godeffroy_, vol. i, p. 62; Wilson, _Pelew
Islands_, p. 334.

Footnote 987:

Seligman, _Melanesians_, p. 671.

Footnote 988:

Williams, _Fiji_, p. 43.

Footnote 989:

Ibid., p. 203. He calculates the annual loss as from 1,500 to 2,000,
and adds that this should be increased in order to include widows
strangled on the death of their husbands (p. 53).

Footnote 990:

Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 86.

Footnote 991:

Hagen and Pineau, loc. cit., p. 336.

Footnote 992:

Lambert, loc. cit., pp. 173 ff.; Moncelon, loc. cit., p. 358; de
Rochas, p. 304; Brainne, loc. cit., pp. 244 ff.

Footnote 993:

Guppy, loc. cit., p. 33; Verguet, loc. cit., p. 215.

Footnote 994:

Romilly, _Western Pacific_, p. 69.

Footnote 995:

Seligman, _Melanesians_, p. 121.

Footnote 996:

Abel, _New Guinea_, pp. 129 ff.; Williamson, _Mafulu People_, p. 180;
Reche, _Südsee-Expedition_, 1908–10, p. 289.

Footnote 997:

Ling Roth, _Sarawak_, vol. ii, p. 117; Hose and McDougall, _Pagan
Tribes_, pp. 158 ff.

Footnote 998:

Ling Roth, _Sarawak_, vol. ii, p. 120.

Footnote 999:

Batchelor, loc. cit., p. 15.

Footnote 1000:

Chalmers, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxiii, p. 123.

Footnote 1001:

Thomson, _British New Guinea_, p. 23.

Footnote 1002:

Woodford, _Head Hunters_, p. 154; Guppy, loc. cit., p. 16; Romilly,
_Western Pacific_, p. 73.

Footnote 1003:

Hickson, _New Hebrides_, p. 275.

Footnote 1004:

Hose and McDougall, loc. cit., p. 187.

Footnote 1005:

Ibid., p. 187.

Footnote 1006:

Gomes, _Sea Dyaks_, p. 5.

Footnote 1007:

Brooke, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 121; Ling Roth, _Sarawak_, vol. ii, p.
143.

Footnote 1008:

Brooke, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 121; St. John, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 68.

Footnote 1009:

Jenks, loc. cit., p. 172.

Footnote 1010:

Ibid., p. 182.

Footnote 1011:

Romilly, _From my Verandah_, p. 52.

Footnote 1012:

Von der Sande, _Nova Guinea_, vol. iii, p. 270. Neuhaus, loc. cit.,
vol. i, p. 131, attributes considerable importance to this factor.

Footnote 1013:

It is again noticeable that in the accounts of the older observers the
general good health of these races is remarked upon. See, for
instance, Kotzebue, loc. cit., p. 129 (for the Sandwich Islands) and
p. 170 (for Radeck); Cheyne, _Western Pacific Ocean_, p. 9 (for Island
of Pines).

Footnote 1014:

Newton, loc. cit., p. 189. For New Ireland see Stephan and Graebner,
loc. cit., p. 18, where the high child mortality is attributed to
exposure.

Footnote 1015:

Kreutz, loc. cit., p. 202.

Footnote 1016:

Turner, _Samoa_, p. 135.

Footnote 1017:

Jenks, loc. cit., p. 61. For the whole question of child mortality
among primitive races see Gerland, _Über das Aussterben der
Naturvölker_, p. 24 to p. 39.

Footnote 1018:

Bogoras, _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, p. 690.

Footnote 1019:

Jochelson, ibid., vol. ix, p. 110.

Footnote 1020:

Ibid., vol. vi, p. 413.

Footnote 1021:

Ibid., vol. ix, p. 104.

Footnote 1022:

Sumner, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxi, p. 79.

Footnote 1023:

For instance, by Sumner, loc. cit., p. 79, for the Yakuts; by Jackson,
_Great Frozen Land_, p. 82, for the Samoyeds; and by Georgi,
_Bemerkungen_, vol. i, p. 265, for the Tunguses.

Footnote 1024:

Krasheninicoff, _History of Kamtchatka_, p. 216. De Lesseps
(_Travels_, vol. i, p. 133) puts the average at four to five children.
It may be noticed that according to Pallas (_Reise_, vol. iii, p. 77)
the Samoyeds do not cohabit for two months after the birth of a child.

Footnote 1025:

Sograff, _Arch. für Anth._, vol. xiv, p. 293.

Footnote 1026:

Jochelson, loc. cit., vol. vi, p. 414.

Footnote 1027:

Krasheninicoff, loc. cit., p. 217.

Footnote 1028:

Stellers, _Kamtchatka_, p. 349.

Footnote 1029:

Sarytschev, _Collection of Voyages_, vol. vi, p. 50; Bogoras, loc.
cit., p. 513.

Footnote 1030:

Finsch, _Reise_, p. 538. See Georgi, loc. cit., p. 263, for the
Tunguses and Bogoras, loc. cit., p. 33, for the Chuckee.

Footnote 1031:

See Finsch, loc. cit., p. 538, for the Ostyaks and Samoyeds;
Jochelson, loc. cit., vol. vi, p. 423, for the Koryak; and Sumner,
loc. cit., p. 79, for the Yakuts.

Footnote 1032:

On this subject see Cannan, _Theories of Production and Distribution_,
ch. v. Professor Cannan’s work has been used in this and in the two
following sections.

Footnote 1033:

Nicholson, _Political Economy_, vol. i, p. 182, note.

Footnote 1034:

Cannan, loc. cit., p. 143.

Footnote 1035:

Cannan, loc. cit., p. 144.

Footnote 1036:

Nicholson, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 163.

Footnote 1037:

Cannan, _Wealth_, p. 68. This is frequently misunderstood. Thus we
read that ‘occasionally, from accidental circumstances, England was
for a short time under-populated, and these were the periods when ...
the labourer was well off’ (Inge, loc. cit., p. 90). The evidence
alluded to would tend to show that there was previously a condition of
over-population. In any case a people as a whole is not better off
when under-population arises.

Footnote 1038:

Cannan, _Theories of Production and Distribution_, p. 181.

Footnote 1039:

See Leroy-Beaulieu, _Question de la Population_, ch. iii.

Footnote 1040:

Quoted by Nicholson, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 180.

Footnote 1041:

Ling Roth, _Tasmania_, p. 116.

Footnote 1042:

Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 83.

Footnote 1043:

Wheeler, _Tribe in Australia_, p. 35.

Footnote 1044:

Wheeler, loc. cit., p. 45. Malinowski (loc. cit., p. 152) comments on
this tribal over-right, which, he says, is shadowy.

Footnote 1045:

See, for instance, Brown, _J. A. I._, vol. xliii, p. 144, for Western
Australia; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 7, for Central
Australia; and Stanbridge, _Trans. Eth. Soc._, new series, vol. i, p.
286, for Victoria.

Footnote 1046:

Malinowski, loc. cit., p. 156.

Footnote 1047:

Brown, _J. A. I._, vol. xliii, p. 145. Spencer and Gillen describe the
ownership by local groups of quarries where stone suitable for making
instruments is found (_Native Tribes_, p. 590).

Footnote 1048:

Ibid., p. 146. See, too, Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes_, p. 27.

Footnote 1049:

Stanbridge, loc. cit., p. 286. See also Parker, _Aborigines_, p. 12.

Footnote 1050:

Brown, _Geog. Journ._, vol. i, p. 12.

Footnote 1051:

Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 297.

Footnote 1052:

Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 145.

Footnote 1053:

Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_, p. 147.

Footnote 1054:

See Grosse, _Die Formen der Familie_, p. 35.

Footnote 1055:

Stow, loc. cit., p. 35.

Footnote 1056:

Ibid., p. 86.

Footnote 1057:

Klutschak, loc. cit., p. 227.

Footnote 1058:

Rink, loc. cit., p. 31.

Footnote 1059:

‘Captain Cook found among the Ahts “very strict notions of their
having a right to the exclusive property of everything that their
country produces”, so that they claimed pay for even wood, water, and
grass. The limits of their tribal property are very clearly defined,
but individuals rarely claim any property in land’ (Bancroft, loc.
cit., vol. i, p. 191). See also Dellenbaugh, _North Americans_, pp.
410 ff.

Footnote 1060:

_Handbook of American Indians_, Article ‘Land Tenure’.

Footnote 1061:

Harmon, loc. cit., p. 255.

Footnote 1062:

Hill Tout, _British North America_, p. 147. See also Bancroft, loc.
cit., vol. i, p. 118.

Footnote 1063:

Ibid., p. 157.

Footnote 1064:

Ibid., p. 159.

Footnote 1065:

_Handbook of American Indians_, Article ‘Property’. See Teit, loc.
cit., vol. ii, p. 255, for a description of this among the Lillooet
Indians; also Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 230, and Niblack, loc.
cit., pp. 298 and 337.

Footnote 1066:

Swanton, _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. v, p. 71.

Footnote 1067:

Elliot, _Arctic Province_, p. 54.

Footnote 1068:

Krause, loc. cit., p. 167. Before leaving the Indians it is worth
noticing that each family had, as a rule, its own store of food. Many
different methods of storing food are known; the more migratory tribes
of the Salish and the Tinneh stored food either in detached sheds
elevated on posts several feet from the ground, or where the soil was
unusually dry in well-like holes. See Hill Tout, _British North
America_, p. 108.

Footnote 1069:

Sarasins, loc. cit., vol. iii, pp. 475 ff. See also Seligman, loc.
cit., p. 106.

Footnote 1070:

Cooper, loc. cit., p. 178.

Footnote 1071:

Hobhouse, Wheeler, and Ginsberg, _Institutions of the Simpler
Peoples_, pp. 243 ff.

Footnote 1072:

_Handbook of American Indians_, Article ‘Property’.

Footnote 1073:

Ibid., Article ‘Land Tenure’.

Footnote 1074:

Fletcher and La Flesche, 27th _A. R. B. E._, p. 269. Dorsey (loc.
cit., p. 366) gives further details.

Footnote 1075:

Joyce, _Mexican Archaeology_, p. 116.

Footnote 1076:

Spix and Martius, vol. i, p. 83.

Footnote 1077:

Bartle Frere, _J. A. I._, vol. xii, p. 260.

Footnote 1078:

Ellis, _Ewe-Speaking People_, p. 217.

Footnote 1079:

Ibid., _Yoruba-Speaking People_, p. 188.

Footnote 1080:

Talbot, loc. cit., p. 262.

Footnote 1081:

Scott Elliot, _J. A. I._, vol. xxiii, p. 82.

Footnote 1082:

Tremearne, _J. A. I._, vol. xlii, p. 187.

Footnote 1083:

Weeks, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxix, p. 123.

Footnote 1084:

Ibid., p. 129.

Footnote 1085:

Torday and Joyce, _Ann. Mus. Congo Belge_, sér. 3, tome ii, p. 91.

Footnote 1086:

Van Overbergh, loc. cit., No. 2, p. 465.

Footnote 1087:

Hobley, _Akamba_, pp. 82 and 136 ff.

Footnote 1088:

Halkin, loc. cit., p. 493.

Footnote 1089:

Roscoe, _Baganda_, p. 15.

Footnote 1090:

Routledge, _Prehistoric People_, p. 39.

Footnote 1091:

Werner, loc. cit., p. 179.

Footnote 1092:

Johnston, _British Central Africa_, p. 471.

Footnote 1093:

Junod, _South African Tribe_, vol. i, p. 307.

Footnote 1094:

Theal, _Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People_, p. 230.

Footnote 1095:

Conder, _J. A. I._, vol. xvi, p. 86.

Footnote 1096:

Hahn, _Z. G. E._, vol. iii, p. 255. For Madagascar, where conditions
are much the same, see Parker, _J. A. I._, vol. xii.

Footnote 1097:

Wilson, _Pelew Islands_, p. 297.

Footnote 1098:

Tregear, loc. cit., p. 106.

Footnote 1099:

Ling Roth, loc. cit., p. 419.

Footnote 1100:

Thomson, _British New Guinea_, p. 194.

Footnote 1101:

Müller, _Unter Tungusen_, p. 46.

Footnote 1102:

Howitt, _Native Tribes_, p. 759.

Footnote 1103:

Howitt, _Native Tribes_, p. 765.

Footnote 1104:

Ibid., p. 767.

Footnote 1105:

Stow, loc. cit., p. 41. See also Theal, _Yellow- and Dark-Skinned
People_, p. 48.

Footnote 1106:

Nansen, _Eskimo Life_, p. 113.

Footnote 1107:

See, for instance, Klutschak, pp. 231 ff., and Whymper, _Voyages et
Aventures_, p. 346.

Footnote 1108:

Rink, loc. cit., p. 31.

Footnote 1109:

Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 121.

Footnote 1110:

Teit, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 256.

Footnote 1111:

MacGee, 17th _A. R. B. E._, p. 273.

Footnote 1112:

Hill Tout (_British North America_, p. 159) describes an exceptional
case of a Salish tribe in which ‘even the food was held and the meals
taken in common, the presiding elder or headsman calling a certain
family each day to provide the meals for all the rest, every one
taking it in turn to discharge this social duty’.

Footnote 1113:

Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 229.

Footnote 1114:

Angas, loc. cit., p. 373.

Footnote 1115:

Haseman, _Am. Anth._, vol. xiv, p. 338.

Footnote 1116:

Some authors have assumed without producing any evidence that these
practices—especially infanticide—have increased, if they have not been
initiated, after contact with Europeans. It is, therefore, of interest
to note that according to Rivers there is definite genealogical
evidence from Tikopia of the disappearance of infanticide (_Melanesian
Society_, vol. i, p. 352).

Footnote 1117:

According to Neuhauss for instance, both abortion and infanticide were
formerly prevalent in parts of New Guinea where they are now rare
owing to missionary teaching. No accurate account has been given of
these tribes in their former state, and thus quite possibly a modern
observer might well merely record the practices as being ‘rare’—a
statement which would be misleading for our present purpose but which
is of the kind likely to be relied on by those who do not admit the
wide prevalence of these customs (_Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, vol. i, p.
31).

Footnote 1118:

As will be pointed out later, this statement of Tacitus is undoubtedly
incorrect.

Footnote 1119:

Curr, _Recollections_, p. 252.

Footnote 1120:

Curr, _Recollections_, p. 263.

Footnote 1121:

Taplin, loc. cit., p. 14.

Footnote 1122:

Howitt, _Native Tribes_, p. 748.

Footnote 1123:

Howitt, _Native Tribes_, p. 749.

Footnote 1124:

Bonney, _J. A. I._, vol. xiii, p. 125.

Footnote 1125:

Beveridge, loc. cit., p. 26.

Footnote 1126:

Wilhelmi, loc. cit., p. 181. See also Eylmann, loc. cit., p. 261.

Footnote 1127:

Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 608.

Footnote 1128:

Foelsche, loc. cit., p. 192.

Footnote 1129:

Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 264.

Footnote 1130:

Curr, _Australian Race_, vol. i, p. 76. In another work, however, the
same author says that he often spoke to the natives on this subject,
and is ‘sure that the idea of over-population never entered their
heads’ (_Recollections_, p. 263). Smyth (loc. cit., vol. i, p. 52)
thinks that there may be some fear of over-population.

Footnote 1131:

Schürmann, loc. cit., p. 223.

Footnote 1132:

Gason, loc. cit., p. 8.

Footnote 1133:

Foelsche, loc. cit., p. 192.

Footnote 1134:

Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 376.

Footnote 1135:

Mathew, _Two Representative Tribes_, p. 165.

Footnote 1136:

Guinnard, loc. cit., p. 143.

Footnote 1137:

Charlevoix, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 405.

Footnote 1138:

Edgeworth David, _Funafuti_, p. 195.

Footnote 1139:

Rivers, _Melanesian Society_, vol. i, p. 313.

Footnote 1140:

Neuhaus, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 150.

Footnote 1141:

Jenkins, loc. cit., p. 404. See also Krämer, loc. cit., p. 335.

Footnote 1142:

Ellis, _Narrative_, p. 324.

Footnote 1143:

Ibid., p. 327.

Footnote 1144:

Tuituila, loc. cit., p. 267.

Footnote 1145:

Waterhouse, loc. cit., p. 327.

Footnote 1146:

Hunt, _J. A. I._, vol. xxviii, p. 9.

Footnote 1147:

Codrington, loc. cit., p. 229.

Footnote 1148:

Williamson, _Mafulu People_, p. 177.

Footnote 1149:

_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. v, p. 198.

Footnote 1150:

Ibid., vol. vi, p. 107.

Footnote 1151:

Rengger, loc. cit., p. 329.

Footnote 1152:

Hawtrey, loc. cit., p. 295.

Footnote 1153:

Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. v, p. 272.

Footnote 1154:

Grinnell, loc. cit., p. 15.

Footnote 1155:

Keating, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 394.

Footnote 1156:

Ehrenreich, loc. cit., p. 27.

Footnote 1157:

Russell, 26th _A. R. B. E._, p. 186.

Footnote 1158:

Blyth, loc. cit., p. 181.

Footnote 1159:

Seeman, _Viti_, p. 191.

Footnote 1160:

Gutmann, loc. cit., p. 3.

Footnote 1161:

Krieger, loc. cit., p. 165. See also Parkinson, loc. cit., p. 22.

Footnote 1162:

Kotzebue, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 173.

Footnote 1163:

Turner, _Samoa_, p. 284.

Footnote 1164:

Seligman, _Melanesians_, p. 270.

Footnote 1165:

Turner, _Samoa_, p. 333. According to Paton, loc. cit., p. 452,
infanticide was ‘systematically practised’.

Footnote 1166:

Danks, loc. cit., p. 291.

Footnote 1167:

Rivers, _Todas_, p. 401.

Footnote 1168:

Malinowski, loc. cit., p. 48.

Footnote 1169:

Curr, _Australian Race_, vol. i, p. 110; Dawson, loc. cit., p. 35;
Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 291; Malinowski, loc. cit., p. 259;
Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_, p. 184.

Footnote 1170:

Crantz, loc. cit., p. 158; Boas, 6th _A. R. B. E._, p. 579.

Footnote 1171:

Crantz, loc. cit., p. 158; Boas, 6th _A. R. B. E._, p. 579; Klutschak,
loc. cit., p. 233; Nansen, _Greenland_, vol. ii, p. 230; id., _Eskimo
Life_, p. 139; Murdoch, 9th _A. R. B. E._, p. 104. ‘There is a
superstition’, says Dall, speaking of the Eskimos of Alaska, ‘that a
youth must not marry until he has killed a deer, otherwise he will
have no children’ (loc. cit., p. 196).

Footnote 1172:

_Handbook of American Indians_, Article ‘Marriage’.

Footnote 1173:

Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 134. For the Kutchins see Richardson,
_Arctic Searching Expedition_, vol. i, p. 407, and for the inhabitants
of Cadiack, Lisiansky, _Voyage_, p. 198.

Footnote 1174:

Swanton, _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. v, p. 50.

Footnote 1175:

MacGee, 17th _A. R. B. E._, p. 280. For further details of marriage by
service among the Indians see Carver, loc. cit., p. 373, and Domenech,
loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 300.

Footnote 1176:

Skeat and Blagden, _Malays_, vol. ii, p. 70.

Footnote 1177:

King and Fitzroy, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 182. See also Bridges, loc.
cit., p. 201.

Footnote 1178:

See Carpenter, _Intermediate Types_, _passim_.

Footnote 1179:

Richardson, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 383.

Footnote 1180:

Crantz, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 163.

Footnote 1181:

Teit, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 321.

Footnote 1182:

Ibid., vol. ii, p. 265.

Footnote 1183:

Ratzel, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 124. According to Man (loc. cit., p.
81) men among the Andamanese marry at from eighteen to twenty-three
years of age; Portman (loc. cit., p. 369) says twenty-six. Deniker
(_Rev. d’Eth._, p. 301) says that the Ghiliaks do not marry until
between twenty and twenty-five years old. The Aetas of the province of
Cagayan have to pass a bow and arrow shooting test before marriage
(Blumentritt, _Z. G. E._, vol. xxvii, p. 65). The custom of wrestling
for wives has been recorded for various races (Lubbock, _Primitive
Man_, p. 106).

Footnote 1184:

Kreutz, loc. cit., p. 202.

Footnote 1185:

Jenks, loc. cit., p. 68.

Footnote 1186:

Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 172.

Footnote 1187:

Ibid., p. 202.

Footnote 1188:

Rosset, _J. A. I._, vol. xvi, p. 168.

Footnote 1189:

Christian, _Geog. Journ._, vol. xiii, p. 114.

Footnote 1190:

Krieger, loc. cit., pp. 172, 297.

Footnote 1191:

Danks, loc. cit., p. 288.

Footnote 1192:

Marsden, _Sumatra_, pp. 218, 219; Brenner, _Besuch bei den
Kannibalen_, p. 247.

Footnote 1193:

Reed, loc. cit., p. 56.

Footnote 1194:

_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. v, p. 247.

Footnote 1195:

Ibid., p. 230.

Footnote 1196:

Hickson, loc. cit., p. 275 (of the New Hebrides).

Footnote 1197:

Bock, _Head Hunters_, p. 216.

Footnote 1198:

Junod, _South African Tribe_, p. 100.

Footnote 1199:

Ibid., p. 102.

Footnote 1200:

Ibid., p. 101.

Footnote 1201:

Ibid., p. 125.

Footnote 1202:

Theal, _Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People_, p. 220.

Footnote 1203:

Junod, _Ba-Ronga_, p. 30.

Footnote 1204:

Werner, loc. cit., p. 129.

Footnote 1205:

Werner, loc. cit., p. 128.

Footnote 1206:

Routledge, _Prehistoric People_, p. 124.

Footnote 1207:

Roscoe, _Baganda_, p. 88. The price of course varies with varying
economic conditions, as Dundas notes for the Wawanga (_J. A. I._, vol.
xliii).

Footnote 1208:

Fabry, loc. cit., p. 221.

Footnote 1209:

Plas, loc. cit., pp. 215, 219.

Footnote 1210:

Dundas, _J. A. I._, vol. xliii, p. 516.

Footnote 1211:

Johnston, _Uganda_, vol. ii, p. 822.

Footnote 1212:

Weeks, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxix, p. 440.

Footnote 1213:

Ibid., p. 441.

Footnote 1214:

Weeks, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxix, p. 417.

Footnote 1215:

Cureau, loc. cit., p. 417.

Footnote 1216:

Talbot, loc. cit., p. 105. It will also be remembered that
contraceptive practices are of importance in Africa, and that there is
evidence that in the neighbourhood of Port Herald a young couple must
not have children until they have built a house for themselves. See p.
177.

Footnote 1217:

Carver, loc. cit., p. 373.

Footnote 1218:

Jones, _Ojebway Indians_, p. 79.

Footnote 1219:

Du Pratz, loc. cit., p. 199.

Footnote 1220:

Dorsey, loc. cit., p. 259.

Footnote 1221:

Bossu, _Voyages_, p. 247.

Footnote 1222:

Joyce, _Mexican Archaeology_, p. 162. See also Bancroft, loc. cit.,
vol. ii, p. 251.

Footnote 1223:

Schomburgk, _Reisen_, vol. ii, p. 251.

Footnote 1224:

im Thurm, loc. cit., p. 221.

Footnote 1225:

Rivero and von Tschudi, _Peruvian Antiquities_, p. 185.

Footnote 1226:

Von Martius, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 109.

Footnote 1227:

Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 93.

Footnote 1228:

See Herbert Spencer, _Principles of Biology_, vol. ii, p. 515.

Footnote 1229:

Morgulis, _American Naturalist_, vol. xlvii, p. 477.

Footnote 1230:

Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 44.

Footnote 1231:

Same authors, _Across Australia_, vol. i, p. 191.

Footnote 1232:

Ibid., vol. i, p. 197.

Footnote 1233:

Schürmann, loc. cit., p. 209.

Footnote 1234:

Curr, _Recollections_, p. 259.

Footnote 1235:

Semon, loc. cit., p. 217. See also Smyth, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 122.

Footnote 1236:

Thomas, _Natives of Australia_, p. 88. See also Eylmann, loc. cit., p.
293.

Footnote 1237:

See, for instance, Palmer, _J. A. I._, vol. xiii, p. 281.

Footnote 1238:

Burchell, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 422.

Footnote 1239:

Stow, loc. cit., p. 91.

Footnote 1240:

Ibid., p. 180.

Footnote 1241:

Theal, loc. cit., p. 36. See also Moffat, loc. cit., p. 57, and
Campbell, _Personal Narrative_, p. 88.

Footnote 1242:

Thomas (loc. cit., p. 117) speaks of storing up of food. The Kurnai do
not store up food, but the Dieri, who are closely allied to them, do
so on a small scale (Fison and Howitt, loc. cit., p. 108).

Footnote 1243:

The beginnings of this custom are found among the Fuegians. Darwin
says that ‘when they find a stranded whale, they bury large portions
in the sand, and during the often recurrent famines travel from great
distances for the remnants of the half putrid mass’ (_Voyage_, vol. i,
p. 327).

Footnote 1244:

Boas, 6th _A. R. B. E._, p. 427. See also Rink, loc. cit., p. 186.

Footnote 1245:

Crantz, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 134.

Footnote 1246:

Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 127. In the spring, when the winter
stores are exhausted, they usually experience a lean season (ibid., p.
129).

Footnote 1247:

Swan, _North-west Coast_, p. 154.

Footnote 1248:

Le Jeune, _Jesuit Relations_, vol. vi, p. 229.

Footnote 1249:

Ibid., pp. 233, 277, and 285.

Footnote 1250:

Hardisty, loc. cit., p. 311. Other accounts describe lean periods
among the northern tribes as fairly common, during which ‘they often
subsist for a great length of time upon a very little food’ (Harmon,
loc. cit., p. 284). See also Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, p. 56.

Footnote 1251:

Sproat, loc. cit., p. 53.

Footnote 1252:

Ibid., p. 22.

Footnote 1253:

Baegert, loc. cit., p. 366.

Footnote 1254:

Ibid.

Footnote 1255:

Cabeça de Vaca, p. 63.

Footnote 1256:

Similar evidence is forthcoming for many other races. For the
Andamanese see Man, loc. cit., pp. 342 ff.; for the Payaguas, Azara,
loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 142; for the Ghiliaks, Deniker, _Rev. d’Eth._,
vol. ii, p. 295; and for the Fuegians, Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit.,
pp. 122, 339.

Footnote 1257:

_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. iv, p. 180.

Footnote 1258:

Ling Roth, _Sarawak_, vol. i, p. 422.

Footnote 1259:

Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 332.

Footnote 1260:

Ibid., p. 335.

Footnote 1261:

Roscoe, _Baganda_, p. 12.

Footnote 1262:

Ibid., p. 6.

Footnote 1263:

Cureau, loc. cit., p. 252.

Footnote 1264:

Werner, loc. cit., p. 181.

Footnote 1265:

Tremearne, _J. A. I._, vol. xlii, p. 180.

Footnote 1266:

Gaud, loc. cit., p. 21.

Footnote 1267:

Catlin, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 124.

Footnote 1268:

im Thurm, loc. cit., p. 253.

Footnote 1269:

Forbes, _Timor Laut_, p. 9.

Footnote 1270:

Kotzebue, loc. cit., p. 129.

Footnote 1271:

Ibid., p. 170.

Footnote 1272:

Routledge, _Prehistoric People_, p. 19.

Footnote 1273:

Anderson, _Lake Ngami_, p. 49.

Footnote 1274:

Theal, _Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People_, p. 175. See also
Ellenberger, loc. cit., p. 295.

Footnote 1275:

Catlin, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 228.

Footnote 1276:

Heriot, loc. cit., p. 350.

Footnote 1277:

Du Pratz, vol. ii, p. 161.

Footnote 1278:

Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 142.

Footnote 1279:

Ibid., p. 107.

Footnote 1280:

Ibid., p. 8.

Footnote 1281:

Wallace, _Narrative_, p. 478.

Footnote 1282:

Humboldt, _Personal Narrative_, vol. iii, p. 233.

Footnote 1283:

Spix and Martius, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 249.

Footnote 1284:

There is evidence of an Australian tribe asking for an extension of
territory. So rare, however, is evidence of this kind that it only
serves to emphasize that the strict maintenance of territories was the
normal condition.

Footnote 1285:

Knibbs, _Census of Australia_, Appendix A, vol. i, p. 31.

Footnote 1286:

There is some evidence that miscarriages are not uncommon among these
races (for Australia see Grey, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 249, and for the
Loucheux Indians see Hardisty, loc. cit., p. 312). If this is so, it
would appear also to be due to changed conditions to which primitive
races had not learnt to adapt themselves—there being no advantages in
their so doing.

Footnote 1287:

Hall,_ Ancient History of the Near East_, p. 110. So, too, Memphis was
apparently a very cramped city.

Footnote 1288:

Rogers, _Six Centuries_, vol. i, p. 336.

Footnote 1289:

On this subject see Hirsch, _Handbook of Geographical and Historical
Pathology_; Hecker, _Epidemics of the Middle Ages_; Clemow, _Geography
of Disease_.

Footnote 1290:

The famous ‘plague’ of Athens, 430 to 428 B. C., was not plague in the
technical sense; it was probably typhoid or small-pox.

Footnote 1291:

Macdonell, _Biometrika_, vol. ix, p. 369.

Footnote 1292:

Rogers, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 118.

Footnote 1293:

Ibid., p. 336.

Footnote 1294:

Theilhaber, _Das sterile Berlin_, p. 27.

Footnote 1295:

Henderson, _Mortality Laws and Statistics_, p. 3.

Footnote 1296:

Ibid., pp. 4, 110.

Footnote 1297:

_Annual Report of the Registrar-General for 1917._

Footnote 1298:

Rogers, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 332.

Footnote 1299:

Niebuhr, _Lectures in Ancient History_, vol. ii, p. 234.

Footnote 1300:

Hecker, loc. cit., p. 30. The proportion of the population which
perished is often said to have been greater. Rogers (loc. cit., vol.
ii, p. 223) puts it at one-third of the population of England.

Footnote 1301:

Vambéry, _Travels_, p. 313.

Footnote 1302:

Hodson, _Naga Tribes_, p. 113.

Footnote 1303:

Crooke, _Northern India_, p. 41.

Footnote 1304:

Ibid., p. 47.

Footnote 1305:

Thus in irrigated countries, if the system of irrigation is allowed to
fall into decay or if it is damaged directly or indirectly by war,
famine may result. See Creswell, _Man_, vol. xv, p. 68.

Footnote 1306:

Lecky, _European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 248.

Footnote 1307:

Wattal, _Population Problem_, p. 20.

Footnote 1308:

Ibid., p. 21.

Footnote 1309:

Balls, _Egypt_, p. 224. For Chinese Tibet see Wilson, _Abode of Snow_,
p. 193.

Footnote 1310:

See Rubin, _J. R. S. S._, vol. lxiii, p. 610.

Footnote 1311:

Wattal, loc. cit., p. 20.

Footnote 1312:

Westermarck, _Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, p. 403. See on this subject
Schömann, _Griechische Alterthümer_, vol. i, p. 271, and Plutarch,
_Lycurgus_, p. 15.

Footnote 1313:

Macdonell, loc. cit., p. 369.

Footnote 1314:

Müller, _Das Sexuelle Leben_, p. 7.

Footnote 1315:

Ibid., p. 14.

Footnote 1316:

Westermarck, _Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, p. 407. In China there is a
Golden Orchid Society, the girl members of which swear never to marry
(Giles, _China_, p. 69).

Footnote 1317:

Monier-Williams, _Buddhism_, p. 269.

Footnote 1318:

Polak, _Persien_, vol. i, p. 205.

Footnote 1319:

Fustel de Coulanges, _Cité antique_, p. 50.

Footnote 1320:

Doughty, _Travels_, vol. i, p. 321. See also Bertherand, _Médecine et
Hygiène des Arabes_.

Footnote 1321:

Gardner, _Journ. Eth. Soc._, new series, vol. ii, p. 19.

Footnote 1322:

Ross, _Corea_, p. 313.

Footnote 1323:

Kerr, _Natives of India_, p. 202.

Footnote 1324:

Wattal, loc. cit., p. 3.

Footnote 1325:

Westermarck, _Moral Ideals_, vol. ii, p. 400.

Footnote 1326:

Ibid., p. 400.

Footnote 1327:

Monier-Williams, _Buddhism_, pp. 363, 364.

Footnote 1328:

Dubois, _Hindu Manners_, p. 214.

Footnote 1329:

Gray, _China_, vol. i, p. 186. See also Douglas, _China_, p. 85, and
Giles, _China_, p. 189.

Footnote 1330:

Leong and Tao, _Life in China_, p. 10.

Footnote 1331:

Crawford, _Journal_, vol. ii, p. 240.

Footnote 1332:

Bock, _Temples and Elephants_, p. 186.

Footnote 1333:

Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 201.

Footnote 1334:

Hue, _Souvenirs_, vol. i, p. 297.

Footnote 1335:

Pallas, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 305.

Footnote 1336:

Crooke, _North-Western Provinces_, p. 228.

Footnote 1337:

Risley, _People of India_, p. 185.

Footnote 1338:

Leopold and Weise, _Sexual-Ordnung_, p. 347. In the Vedic Age,
however, child marriages were apparently unknown (see Bennet,
_Antiquities of India_, p. 114).

Footnote 1339:

Eram, _Accouchements en Orient_, p. 69.

Footnote 1340:

Wassilief, _Zentralblatt für Anthropologie_, vol. x.

Footnote 1341:

Mondière, _Mém. Soc. Anth._, vol. ii, p. 465.

Footnote 1342:

Rivers, _Todas_, p. 503.

Footnote 1343:

Lenormant, _Histoire ancienne_, vol. iii, p. 142.

Footnote 1344:

Doughty, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 237; Burckhardt, _Notes on the
Bedouins_, p. 96.

Footnote 1345:

Koran, ch. ii.

Footnote 1346:

Faulds, _Nine Years_, p. 285. See also Warnick, _Archiv für
Gynaekologie_, vol. x, p. 574. For China see Matignon, _Dix Ans_, p.
318.

Footnote 1347:

Polak, loc. cit., p. 216.

Footnote 1348:

Bock, _Temples and Elephants_, p. 260.

Footnote 1349:

Rigler, _Die Türkei_, vol. i, p. 212.

Footnote 1350:

Müller, _Das Sexuelle Leben_, p. 6.

Footnote 1351:

Ibid., p. 29.

Footnote 1352:

Ibid., p. 37.

Footnote 1353:

Gray, _China_, vol. i, p. 185.

Footnote 1354:

Smith, _Kinship_, p. 283.

Footnote 1355:

Rigler, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 212.

Footnote 1356:

It is possible that there are traces of this custom in Persia (see
Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 216).

Footnote 1357:

Theilhaber, _Das sterile Berlin_, p. 10. See also Theilhaber, ‘Die
Geburten-Beschränkung’, _Neue Generation_, 1913.

Footnote 1358:

Collineau, _Revue Mensuelle de l’ École d’ Anthropologie_, 1899.

Footnote 1359:

Webb, _Pathologia Indica_, p. 258.

Footnote 1360:

Wattal, loc. cit., p. 28.

Footnote 1361:

Aristotle, _Politics_, ii. 9.

Footnote 1362:

Wattal, loc. cit., p. 7.

Footnote 1363:

Lecky, _European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 21.

Footnote 1364:

Ibid., p. 21.

Footnote 1365:

Westermarck, _Moral Ideals_, vol. i, p. 415.

Footnote 1366:

Theilhaber, _Das sterile Berlin_, p. 11. See also von Siebold,
_Versuch einer Geschichte der Geburtshilfe_.

Footnote 1367:

Eram, loc. cit., p. 45. It was forbidden by the Laws of Manu (viii.
37).

Footnote 1368:

Wilkins, _Hinduism_, p. 429. See also Shortt, _Transactions
Obstetrical Society_, vol. ix; Webb, loc. cit., p. 259; and
Jellinghaus, _Zeit. für Eth._, vol. iii, p. 365.

Footnote 1369:

Matignon, _Dix Ans au Pays du Dragon_, p. 318. See also the same
author’s _La Superstition, le Crime et la Misère en Chine_, and
Collineau, loc. cit., p. 352.

Footnote 1370:

Mondière, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 487.

Footnote 1371:

Warnick, loc. cit., p. 574. See also MacLennan’s quotations from Miss
Bird, loc. cit., p. 105.

Footnote 1372:

Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 217.

Footnote 1373:

Ploss and Bartels, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 846.

Footnote 1374:

Rique, _Gaz. Méd._, vol. xviii, p. 161. For the Tartars see
Niemojowski, _Siberian Pictures_, vol. i, p. 161.

Footnote 1375:

Rigler, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 206, and vol. ii, p. 229.

Footnote 1376:

Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 218.

Footnote 1377:

Sutherland, _Moral Instinct_, vol. i, p. 139.

Footnote 1378:

Buckle, _Miscellaneous Works_, vol. ii, p. 240.

Footnote 1379:

Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 132.

Footnote 1380:

Glotz, _Études sociales_, p. 187.

Footnote 1381:

Ibid., p. 188.

Footnote 1382:

Ibid., p. 191. Possibly, however, there was no public ceremony unless
the father had decided to keep the child.

Footnote 1383:

Ibid., p. 212.

Footnote 1384:

Ibid., p. 224.

Footnote 1385:

Lecky, _European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 26.

Footnote 1386:

Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 136.

Footnote 1387:

Ibid., p. 137.

Footnote 1388:

Smith, _Kinship_, p. 279. See also Doughty, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 239,
and Wilken, _Das Matriarchat_, p. 53.

Footnote 1389:

Smith, _Kinship_, p. 129. For evidence of infanticide in Mingrelia see
Chardin, _Travels_, p. 144. The Gagas put all children to death and
stole others (Battel, _Strange Adventures_, p. 326).

Footnote 1390:

Norman, _Peoples and Politics_, p. 290.

Footnote 1391:

Gray, _China_, vol. ii, p. 50.

Footnote 1392:

Douglas, _China_, p. 106.

Footnote 1393:

Abeel, _Journal_, p. 108.

Footnote 1394:

Ibid., p. 109. Douglas, however, says that infanticide scarcely exists
in Pekin (_Society in China_, p. 353).

Footnote 1395:

Moule, _New China_, p. 179.

Footnote 1396:

Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 142.

Footnote 1397:

Giles, _China_, p. 97.

Footnote 1398:

Leong and Tao, loc. cit., p. 91.

Footnote 1399:

Faulds, loc. cit., p. 285. For Tonquin see Richard, _History of
Tonquin_, p. 757.

Footnote 1400:

Wilkins, _Hinduism_, p. 431.

Footnote 1401:

Risley, loc. cit., pp. 166 and 168; Dubois, _Hindu Manners_, vol. ii,
p. 612; Crooke, loc. cit., p. 136; Browne, _Indian Infanticide_, p.
612; Wilkins, loc. cit., p. 431; Russell, _Central Provinces_, vol.
iv, p. 419.

Footnote 1402:

Wilkins, loc. cit., p. 432.

Footnote 1403:

Godden, _J. A. I._, vol. xxvi, p. 179; Risley, loc. cit., p. 165.

Footnote 1404:

Hodson, _Man_, vol. xiv, p. 98.

Footnote 1405:

Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes_, p. 504.

Footnote 1406:

Macpherson, _Memorials of Service_, p. 132; Campbell, _Personal
Narrative_, p. 139.

Footnote 1407:

Macpherson, _Religion of the Khonds_, p. 65.

Footnote 1408:

Rivers, _Todas_, p. 478.

Footnote 1409:

Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 144.

Footnote 1410:

Wilkins, loc. cit., p. 431.

Footnote 1411:

Dubois, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 612. Infanticide was sometimes
committed by the Kandyans (Bailey, _Trans. Eth. Soc._, vol. ii, p.
296), by the Koulous (Ujfalvy, _Bull. Soc. Anth._, vol. v, p. 227), by
the Belochis (Barton, _Sindh_, p. 244), and in Svanetia
(Phillipps-Wolley, _Savage Svanetia_, vol. ii, p. 92).

Footnote 1412:

Stricker, _Arch. für Anth._, vol. v, p. 451. It was practised in the
Vedic age (Kaegi, _Rigveda_, p. 16).

Footnote 1413:

Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 138. See Grimm, _Deutsche
Rechtsalterthümer_, pp. 455 ff.

Footnote 1414:

Ibid., p. 138.

Footnote 1415:

Lubbock, _Prehistoric Times_, p. 176.

Footnote 1416:

Infanticide was practised by the extinct Guanches of the Canary
Islands (Ploss, _Das Kind_, vol. ii, p. 259). Dasent says of the
Norsemen that it was the father’s right to rear his children or not at
his will. ‘As soon as it was born the child was laid upon the bare
ground; and until the father came and looked at it ... its fate hung
in the balance’ (_Story of Burnt Njal_, vol. i, p. xxv).

Footnote 1417:

Gönezi, ‘Die auf die Geburt und das Säugen der Kinder bezughabenden
Gebräuche’, _Zentralblatt für Anthropologie_, vol. xii.

Footnote 1418:

Tertullian, _First Book to His Wife_, p. 414.

Footnote 1419:

Augustine, _On the Good of Marriage_, p. 285.

Footnote 1420:

Lea, _Sacerdotal Celibacy_, vol. i, p. 62.

Footnote 1421:

Ibid., pp. 260 and 301.

Footnote 1422:

Ibid., p. 105.

Footnote 1423:

Schönberg, _Volkswirtschaftslehre_, p. 868.

Footnote 1424:

Lea, loc. cit., p. 107.

Footnote 1425:

_Concilium Tridentinum_, Sessio 24, Can. 10. ‘Si quis dixerit statum
coniugalem anteponendum esse statui virginitatis vel coelibatus, et
non esse melius ac beatus manere in virginitate aut coelibatu, quam
iungi matrimonio, anathema sit’ (quoted by Lea, loc. cit., vol. ii, p
204).

Footnote 1426:

Rubin, loc. cit., p. 598.

Footnote 1427:

Ibid., p. 606.

Footnote 1428:

Ibid., p. 608.

Footnote 1429:

Ibid., p. 609.

Footnote 1430:

Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, p. 145.

Footnote 1431:

Popenoe and Johnson, _Applied Eugenics_, p. 136.

Footnote 1432:

See, for instance, Albertus Magnus, _De Secretis Mulierum_, p. 233.

Footnote 1433:

Rubin, loc. cit., p. 614.

Footnote 1434:

_The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 20.

Footnote 1435:

Lecky, _European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 21.

Footnote 1436:

_The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 58. Leroy-Beaulieu gives a very high
estimate of the number of abortions which occur yearly in France
(_Question de la Population_, p. 330).

Footnote 1437:

Glotz, loc. cit., p. 223.

Footnote 1438:

Lecky, _European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 27.

Footnote 1439:

The fact that penance was imposed upon the mother who killed her child
by the Council of Mentz in 852 suggests that the practice was not
uncommon at that time (Westermarck, _Moral Ideas_, vol. i, p. 411).

Footnote 1440:

See _The Declining Birth-rate_, pp. 58–62.

Footnote 1441:

Among these races the evolution of the capitalist system had begun and
in Babylonia had gone a considerable distance (Sayce, _Babylonians and
Assyrians_, p. 127).

Footnote 1442:

Myres, _Eug. Rev._, vol. vii, p. 30.

Footnote 1443:

There are often a limited number of families in each village (Barnett,
_Antiquities of India_, p. 105).

Footnote 1444:

For particulars see Gray, _China_, vol. ii, p. 108.

Footnote 1445:

Leong and Tao, loc. cit., p. 10.

Footnote 1446:

Giles, loc. cit., p. 189.

Footnote 1447:

Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Early Marriage_, p. 36.

Footnote 1448:

For Tartar tribes see William de Rubruck, _Journey_, pp. 53 and 188.

Footnote 1449:

Dickson, _Climate and Weather_, p. 148. For a study of somewhat
similar conditions in Australia see Taylor, _The Australian
Environment_.

Footnote 1450:

Roy, _Mundas_, p. 346.

Footnote 1451:

Wattal, loc. cit., ch. v.

Footnote 1452:

Moule, _New China and Old_, p. 179. See also Bland, _Recent Events and
Present Policies in China_.

Footnote 1453:

See p. 260.

Footnote 1454:

See Marshall, _Principles of Economics_, p. 186.

Footnote 1455:

Rogers, _Six Centuries_, vol. i, p. 47.

Footnote 1456:

Ibid., p. 45.

Footnote 1457:

Vinogradoff, _Villeinage in England_, p. 246.

Footnote 1458:

Pollard, _Factors in Modern History_, p. 135.

Footnote 1459:

Marshall, _Principles of Economics_, p. 186.

Footnote 1460:

Froude, _Henry VIII_, p. 3, note.

Footnote 1461:

Davies, _Life in an English Village_, p. 31.

Footnote 1462:

Rogers, _Six Centuries_, vol. i, p. 106.

Footnote 1463:

Tawney, _Agrarian Problem_, p. 105, note.

Footnote 1464:

Rubin, loc. cit., p. 598.

Footnote 1465:

Rubin, loc. cit., p. 597.

Footnote 1466:

_Report for Inquiry into the Administration and Practical Operation of
the Poor Laws_, Appendix F, p. 283.

Footnote 1467:

Ibid., p. 520. For further information on this subject see the
_Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_, Article ‘Eheschliessung’.
The Danish Poor Law Act of 1891 prohibits the marriage of the poor
under certain circumstances.

Footnote 1468:

Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_, vol. i, p. 442.

Footnote 1469:

Pollard, loc. cit., p. 144.

Footnote 1470:

_Two Centuries of Irish History_, edited by Bryce, p. 21. Sir Horace
Plunkett estimates that Ireland can now support about 2,500,000
agriculturalists or 500,000 families (_Ireland in the New Century_, p.
30). The population in 1790 was estimated at over 4,000,000. In the
sixteenth century it was probably less than 1,000,000.

Footnote 1471:

Quoted by J. A. Hobson in evidence before the National Birth-Rate
Commission, _The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 285.

Footnote 1472:

Bowley, _Distribution of National Income_, p. 18.

Footnote 1473:

The decline in Austria dates from 1883, in Germany, Hungary, and
Italy, from 1885, in Norway from 1900.

Footnote 1474:

Thus the mean age for marriage of all husbands in England only
increased from 28·43 years in 1896 to 28·88 years in 1909, while the
mean age for all wives only increased from 26·21 in 1896 to 26·69 in
1909.

Footnote 1475:

For evidence that the decrease in fertility is due to artificial
restraint see Stevenson, _J. R. S. S._, vol. lxxxiii, p. 431. There
are reasons for thinking that contraceptive methods play a smaller,
and restraint from intercourse a larger, part than is generally
supposed (see Dr. Greenwood’s remarks on the paper quoted above, p.
440, and also Dudfield, _J. R. S. S._, vol. lxxi, 1908, p. 25).

Footnote 1476:

Rubin, loc. cit., p. 606.

Footnote 1477:

Hammond, _Village Labourer_, ch. vii.

Footnote 1478:

See Pigou, _Wealth and Welfare_, p. 28.

Footnote 1479:

Hobson, ‘Evidence before the National Birth-Rate Commission’, _The
Declining Birth-rate_, p. 289.

Footnote 1480:

Myres, _Eugenics Review_, vol. vii, p. 21.

Footnote 1481:

Also abortion, as we have seen, is not uncommon.

Footnote 1482:

The excessive practice of infanticide in Tahiti and elsewhere in
Oceania may be regarded as an example of selfish indulgence. See p.
190. So, too, the Gagas put all children to death and stole others
(Battel, _Strange Adventures_, p. 326).

Footnote 1483:

Keynes, _Economic Consequences of the Peace_, p. 215.

Footnote 1484:

Ibid., loc. cit., p. 12.

Footnote 1485:

Haddon, _Wanderings of Peoples_, p. 1.

Footnote 1486:

_The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 43.

Footnote 1487:

Myres, _Eugenics Review_, vol. vii, p. 31. These authors are only
repeating what has often been said in former times, as, for instance,
by Bacon in the following passage: ‘Look when the world has fewest
barbarous people but such as commonly will not marry, or generate,
except they know means to live (as is almost everywhere at this day
except Tartary) there is no danger of inundations of people. But when
there be great shoals of people which go on to populate, without
foreseeing means of life and sustentation, it is of necessity that
once in an age or two they discharge a portion of their people upon
other nations’ (_Essay on the Vicissitude of Things_).

Footnote 1488:

These remarks also apply to those cases in which countries at times
appear to be empty. Attention is, for example, sometimes drawn to the
fact that England appears to have been an ‘empty’ country in the
Middle Ages. The emptiness is only apparent. Relative to the available
skill and all other relevant circumstances England was fully populated
in the Middle Ages; the tendency was rather towards over- than
under-population.

Footnote 1489:

Except perhaps in the case of the so-called Irish migration to America
after the famine in the middle of the last century. Without doubt,
however, there was in this migration a large political element—the
nature of which is referred to below. Further there were many peculiar
features in the position, and the migration was scarcely a migration
in the broad historical sense.

Footnote 1490:

Haddon, _Wanderings of Peoples_, p. 3.

Footnote 1491:

See especially his _Pulse of Asia_, and _Civilization and Climate_,
ch. xi.

Footnote 1492:

See Gregory, _Geographical Journal_, vol. xliii.

Footnote 1493:

Peisker, _Cambridge Mediaeval History_, vol. i, p. 328.

Footnote 1494:

Frequently, no doubt, such driftings were directed towards regions
previously uninhabited and uninhabitable.

Footnote 1495:

Hogarth, _Ancient East_, p. 78.

Footnote 1496:

Quoted by Mitchell, _Evolution and the War_, p. 3.

Footnote 1497:

It is only fair to say that at least one German author has recently
demonstrated the falsity of this view (see Nicolai, _Biology of War_,
p. 34).

Footnote 1498:

Mitchell, loc. cit., ch. i.

Footnote 1499:

Comte, _Philosophie positive_, vol. iv, p. 506.

Footnote 1500:

Nicolai, loc. cit., p. 34.

Footnote 1501:

Holland Rose, _Origins of the War_, p. 47.

Footnote 1502:

Evidence has lately been brought forward to show that not only is war
a custom but also that it is a custom of relatively late origin
(Perry, ‘Ethnological Study of Warfare’, _Mem. and Proc. Man. Lit. and
Phil. Soc._, vol. lxi). It is suggested that it is bound up with
organization under kings and chiefs, and that it was introduced at a
more or less definite time by a certain race. The evidence adduced
would seem not to be adequate. The theory belongs to a series of
attempts to show that very many customs and social institutions now
widespread evolved in some one centre and spread thence. Though
Professor Elliot Smith and his school may with justice insist on the
fact that the multiple origin of similar customs has been too lightly
assumed, it is equally unreasonable to insist upon tracing all similar
customs and institutions to the same source. Those who are acquainted
with the numerous and wonderful examples of convergence in the animal
kingdom—the independent evolution of tracheae in the Arachnids and in
the Insects, to take only one example—will have little difficulty in
accepting the view that, in response to similar environmental
conditions, similar customs may from time to time have been
independently evolved. Other authors have urged that the apparent
absence of weapons among the cultural remains of early races is
evidence that they did not practise warfare (Havelock Ellis,
_Philosophy of Conflict_, p. 49). But when so much doubt surrounds the
question as to how the most common implements were used, it is
dangerous to attribute much weight to this argument.

Footnote 1503:

It has been remarked that those countries which began the war were on
the whole the countries with the highest birth-rate. The conclusion
has been drawn that pressure of population brings about war. On the
same lines as above, this conclusion may be shown to be unacceptable.

Footnote 1504:

Voltaire, _Candide_—the opinion of the Anabaptist Jacques.

Footnote 1505:

As an example of this increase in skill it may be noted that between
1840 and 1895 the quantity of product of various crops in America per
unit of labour increased fivefold (Quaintance, _American Economic
Association Publications_, 3rd Series, vol. v, 1904, p. 21).

Footnote 1506:

Knibbs, _Scientia_, vol. xii, p. 495.

Footnote 1507:

Mr. J. A. Hobson’s opinion, which is in conformity with that of the
great majority of economists, may be noted: ‘there is’, he says, ‘no
evidence that the world’s population is outrunning the natural
resources; but on the contrary the presumption is that for their
fuller utilization a larger population is necessary and thereby could
be maintained with a higher standard of living’ (_The Declining
Birth-rate_, p. 75).

Footnote 1508:

Bowley, _Division of the Product of Industry_, p. 49.

Footnote 1509:

Harrison, _Description of England_, Bk. II, ch. x, p. 215.

Footnote 1510:

Nicolai, loc. cit., p. 48.

Footnote 1511:

_Problems of Population and Parenthood_, p. 73. A French historian
says that ‘la densité de la population fait la force des nations’ (de
Morgan, _Premières Civilisations_, p. 111).

Footnote 1512:

Holdich, _Political Frontiers_, p. 256. It is interesting to note that
the wheat-eating population of the world increased less rapidly in the
twenty-five years preceding 1906 than the wheat area of the world. At
the beginning of this period there were 283 people (more or less
wheat-eaters) for every hundred acres of wheat, whereas in 1906 there
were 264 such people for the same area (_Agricultural Statistics_, Cd.
3832, vol. xvi, part 4).

Footnote 1513:

Beveridge, _Unemployment_, ch. i.

Footnote 1514:

The average income per head in 1914 is given by Stamp as follows (_J.
R. S. S._, vol. lxxxii, p. 491):

£
United States 72
United Kingdom 50
Germany 30
France 38
Italy 23
Austria-Hungary 21
Spain 11
Australia 54
Canada 40
Japan 6

The figures are only approximate. The most accurate—those for the
United Kingdom and for Australia—are not likely to be inaccurate to a
greater extent than 10 per cent., while the least accurate—those for
Japan—may be inaccurate to a greater extent than 40 per cent.
Rowntree, commenting upon the low wages in Belgium as compared with
England, attributes them, not to over-population, but to a low
standard of education, low degree of efficiency and productivity, to
the fact that only a small proportion of workers are engaged in the
production of high-class goods, and to the feebleness of the trade
unions (_Land and Labour_, pp. 75 ff.).

Footnote 1515:

Newsholme and Stevenson, loc. cit., p. 55.

Footnote 1516:

Leroy-Beaulieu, _Question de la Population_, p. 55.

Footnote 1517:

The high birth-rate in certain parts of Ireland—said to be due to the
influence of the Roman Catholic Church in discouraging the use of
contraceptive methods—may be leading to over-population.

Footnote 1518:

Thus Marro found that children of older parents were more melancholy
than those of younger parents (_La Pubertà studiata nell’ uomo e nella
donna_).

Footnote 1519:

_The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 63.

Footnote 1520:

The arguments for and against are fully and fairly set out in
_Problems of Population and Parenthood_, pp. 44–8.

Footnote 1521:

Personally I agree with the views of the Dean of St. Paul’s on this
matter. Speaking of the use of these methods, ‘it seems’, he says, ‘a
_pis aller_ which high-minded persons should avoid if they can
practise self-restraint. Whatever injures the feeling of
“sanctification and honour” with which St. Paul bids us regard these
intimacies of life, whatever tends to profane or degrade the
sacraments of wedded love, is so far an evil. But this is emphatically
a matter in which every man and woman must judge for themselves, and
must refrain from judging others’ (_Outspoken Essays_, p. 74).

Footnote 1522:

Heron, _Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs_, No. 1, 1906. See also
Stevenson, loc. cit.

Footnote 1523:

_The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 9.

Footnote 1524:

It is also noticeable in India (Wattal, loc. cit., p. 24). It will be
remembered that in Denmark in the latter part of the mediaeval period
there was some slight tendency according to Rubin for marriage to be
postponed among the very highest social class; among the independent
class generally marriage in those days, however, not only took place
earlier than now but earlier than in the lower grades of society.

Footnote 1525:

Among the industrial classes conception before marriage is not
uncommon. It is said that many men are not desirous of legal marriage
until it is probable that they will have children. This is not to be
regarded as evidence of loose sexual morality so much as evidence of
foresight and of thought for old age when, if they have children, they
will be more or less secure against extreme poverty.

Footnote 1526:

Hill, _Am. Stat. Ass._, vol. xiii, p. 590. An allied problem is that
connected with the proportion of various racial elements among the
immigrants into a new country. Thus between 1900 and 1913 Great
Britain contributed roughly one-third and the United States and
continental Europe two-thirds of the immigrants into Canada.

Footnote 1527:

Tucker, _Progress of the U.S.A._, p. 98.

Footnote 1528:

Leroy-Beaulieu estimates that, if the degree of skill in production
now found in Western Europe was extended throughout the world, the
population economically desirable would be from two to three times
that of the present population of the world (_Question de la
Population_, p. 174).

Footnote 1529:

These experiments have been summarized by Jenkinson (_Experimental
Embryology_, pp. 141 ff.).

Footnote 1530:

Jenkinson, loc. cit., p. 151.

Footnote 1531:

Ibid., p. 157.

Footnote 1532:

Klebs, ‘Influence of the Environment’, in _Darwinism and Modern
Science_, p. 227.

Footnote 1533:

MacLeod, _Quantitative Method_, p. 12.

Footnote 1534:

Vernon, _Variation in Animals and Plants_, p. 312.

Footnote 1535:

Quoted from Henslow by Vernon, ibid.

Footnote 1536:

Thomson, _Animal Life_, p. 407.

Footnote 1537:

Morgan, _Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity_, p. 38.

Footnote 1538:

Stockard, _Journal of Experimental Zoology_, vol. vi, p. 334.

Footnote 1539:

Jenkinson, loc. cit., p. 132.

Footnote 1540:

Agar, _Phil. Trans._, Series B, vol. cciii, p. 319.

Footnote 1541:

Tower, _Investigation of Evolution_, pp. 168 ff.

Footnote 1542:

Morgan, loc. cit., p. 39.

Footnote 1543:

Vernon, loc. cit., p. 219.

Footnote 1544:

Thomson, _Animal Life_, p. 383.

Footnote 1545:

Vernon, loc. cit., p. 294.

Footnote 1546:

Thomson, _Animal Life_, p. 391. In the case of the Porto Santo rabbit
examined by Darwin the change in colour was found to be due to the
environment.

Footnote 1547:

Ibid., p. 383.

Footnote 1548:

Lock, _Recent Progress_, p. 317.

Footnote 1549:

Shinji, ‘Wing Development in Aphids’, _Biol. Bull._, vol. xxxv.

Footnote 1550:

Quoted by Vernon, loc. cit., p. 242.

Footnote 1551:

Gemmill, _Teratology of Fishes_, p. 44. The cyclopia found was
attributed by Gemmill only partly to environmental causes.

Footnote 1552:

Vernon, loc. cit., p. 213.

Footnote 1553:

Ibid., p. 215. Similarly the snail, _Helix aspersa_, has a variety
(_tenuis_) with a thin shell which is found where calcareous material
is scarce.

Footnote 1554:

Vernon, loc. cit., p. 261.

Footnote 1555:

Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 33.

Footnote 1556:

Mitchell, loc. cit., p. 47.

Footnote 1557:

Hansen, ‘Increase in Stature’, p. 23, in _Problems in Eugenics_.

Footnote 1558:

Ewart, ‘The Influence of Parental Age on Offspring’, _Eugenics
Review_, vol. iii.

Footnote 1559:

Boas, _Changes in Immigrants_, p. 5.

Footnote 1560:

Sergi, ‘Variation and Heredity’, p. 18 (in _Problems in Eugenics_).
Few anthropologists, it may be added, accept Boas’s conclusions.

Footnote 1561:

See Ammon, _Natürliche Auslese beim Menschen_ and _Zur Anthropologie
der Badener_.

Footnote 1562:

Levi, _Anthropometria Militare_.

Footnote 1563:

Huntington, _World Power and Evolution_, p. 173.

Footnote 1564:

Fishberg, _Mem. Am. Anth. Ass._, vol. i, 1905.

Footnote 1565:

Nystrom has elaborated a theory according to which the habits and
customs of races profoundly affect the shape of the head, but it
cannot be said that he brings forward any convincing evidence (‘Über
die Formenveränderungen des menschlichen Schädels’, _Arch. für Anth._,
Bd. 27).

Footnote 1566:

Boas, loc. cit., p. 76.

Footnote 1567:

_System of Medicine_, edited by Allbutt and Rolleston, vol. ii, part
ii, p. 2.

Footnote 1568:

See Kohlbrugge, ‘Influence of a Tropical Climate on Europeans’, _Eug.
Rev._, vol. iii.

Footnote 1569:

Huntingdon, _Civilization and Climate_. See also the same author’s
‘Climate and Evolution of Civilization’, in _Evolution of the Earth
and its Inhabitants_, edited by Lull.

Footnote 1570:

Thus Montesquieu remarked upon the fact that greatest vigour is found
in the colder climates (_Esprit des Lois_, Part III, Bk. XIV, ch. ii).

Footnote 1571:

Gregory, _Geog. Journ._, vol. xliii. There have been many studies of
the influence of climate upon temperament. See, for instance, Dexter,
_Weather Influences_.

Footnote 1572:

Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 35.

Footnote 1573:

Acton and Harvey, ‘Increase in the Number of Erythrocytes’,
_Biometrika_, vol. viii. See also the results of the Monte Rosa and
Pike’s Peaks Expeditions, _Phil. Trans._, vols. cciii and ccvi.

Footnote 1574:

Barrington and Pearson, _Eug. Lab. Mem._, No. 5, 1909.

Footnote 1575: