Chapter XLV: Appendix: II (2)

White, R. B. Races of the North-Western Provinces of South America,
_J. A. I._, vol. xiii, 1888.

Whymper, F. _Voyages et Aventures_, Paris, 1871.

Wilhelmi, J. Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives,
_Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria_, vol. v.

Wilken, G. A. _Das Matriarchat_, Leipzig, 1884.

Wilkins, W. _Modern Hinduism_, London, 1887.

William of Rubruck, Journey of, _Hakluyt Society Publications_,
London, 1905.

Williams, J. W. _Obstetrics_, London, 1912.

Williams, T. _Fiji_, London, 1858.

Williamson, R. W. _Mafulu Mountain People of British New Guinea_,
London, 1912.

—— Mekeo People, _J. A. I._, vol. xliii, 1913.

Willoughby, C. Indians of the Quinault Agency, _A. R. S. I._, 1886.

Wilson, A. _Abode of Snow_, London, 1876.

Wilson, C. T., and Felkin, R. W. _Uganda_, London, 1832.

Wilson, H. _An Account of the Pelew Islands_, London, 1878.

Wilson, J. H. _Western Africa_, London, 1856.

Woldt, A. _Kapitän Jacobsen’s Reise_, Leipzig, 1884.

Woodford, C. M. _A Naturalist among the Head Hunters_, London, 1890.

Woodward, A. S.: _see_ Dawson, C.

Y

Yarrow, H. C. Mortuary Customs of North American Indians, 1st _A. R.
B. E._, 1879.

Young, A. _Travels in France_, London, 1794.

Yule, G. U.: _see_ Greenwood, M.

INDEX

Ababua, restriction of intercourse, 175;
abortion, 179;
infanticide, 180;
property, 210.

Abipones, lactation, 138;
age at marriage, 140;
abstention from intercourse, 140;
infanticide, 149, 219;
feuds, 152;
health, 159;
treatment of children, 160;
age at marriage, 226.

Abortion, among hunting and fishing races, 145;
among agricultural races, 168, 178, 189, 196;
extent of, 215;
origin of, 216;
as regulating numbers, 222;
among historical races, 256, 268, 314.

Acheulean period, 121.

Acquired characters, not inherited, 74;
contrasted with inherited characters, 68.

Adio, restriction of intercourse, 176.

Africa, evolution of tradition in, 442.

Aged, treatment of, among hunting and fishing races, 154.

Ahts, lactation, 138;
war, 151;
treatment of aged, 155;
food, 233;
property, 296.

Ainu, lactation, 185;
fertility, 189;
war, 194.

Akamba, abortion, 179;
property, 209;
marriage customs, 228.

Akikuyu, fertility, 178;
war, 181;
property, 210;
age at marriage, 228;
health, 235.

Aleuts, fertility, 143;
infanticide, 148.

Amazon tribes, war, 171.

America, evolution of tradition in, 439;
racial characteristics, 451.

American Indians, fertility, 99.
_See also under various tribes._

Andamanese, lactation, 138;
fertility, 144;
infant mortality, 160;
intellect, 390.

Animal behaviour, evolution of, 45 ff.

Annam, abortion, 256.

Anthropoid apes, evolution of, 109;
mode of life, 110.

Apaches, contraceptive methods, 167;
abortion, 168.

Arabs, celibacy, 252;
lactation, 254;
restriction of intercourse, 254;
contraceptive methods, 255;
abortion, 256;
infanticide, 259;
over-population, 275;
migration, 302.

Aru Islands, fertility, 186;
abortion, 189.

Ashanti, restriction of intercourse, 175;
sacrifices, 180.

Asia, evolution of tradition in, 441.

Assiniens, fertility, 177.

Atonga, restriction of intercourse, 176.

Attakapas, age at marriage, 229.

Aurignacian period, 122.

Australians, fertility, 99;
early intercourse, 135;
lactation, 137;
initiation ceremonies, 138;
age at marriage, 139;
abortion, 145;
infanticide, 147, 216;
war, 149;
feuds, 152;
treatment of sick, 154;
disease, 157;
health, 158, 231;
property, 203;
division of food, 211;
marriage customs, 224;
storing of food, 232;
intellect, 389.

Awa-Wanga, restriction of intercourse, 176.

Aymaras, lactation, 165;
fertility, 168.

Azilian-Tardenoisian, 123.

Aztecs, contraceptive methods, 167;
abortion, 168.

Baganda, lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 176;
war, 181;
witchcraft, 182;
health, 183;
property, 210;
marriage customs, 228;
food, 233.

Bahamas, 396.

Bahima, war, 181.

Baholoholo, fertility, 178.

Bahuana, war, 171;
early intercourse, 173;
abortion, 179.

Bakairi, abortion, 169.

Bakalai, war, 181.

Bakene, fertility, 178.

Bambala, war, 171;
early intercourse, 173;
fertility, 178;
intellect, 391.

Bangala, early intercourse, 173;
age at marriage, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 175;
fertility, 178;
abortion, 179;
property, 209;
marriage customs, 228;
intellect, 391.

Banks Island, early intercourse, 185;
infanticide, 191.

Bantu Races, polygamy, 102;
age at marriage, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 176;
health, 183;
intellect, 390.

Banyala, war, 181.

Baringo District, early intercourse, 173;
restriction of intercourse, 176;
war, 181.

Baronga, lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 176;
age at marriage, 227.

Basonge, infanticide, 180.

Basuto, health, 183;
infant mortality, 184.

Bayaka, restriction of intercourse, 175;
fertility, 178;
war, 181;
witchcraft, 182.

Bechuanaland, property, 210.

Behaviour, evolution of, 45.

Benin, restriction of intercourse, 175;
war, 180.

Binet-Simon methods, 393.

Biometric methods, 358.

Bismarck Archipelago, lactation, 185;
restriction of intercourse, 186;
fertility, 188;
abortion, 189;
infanticide, 191.

Black Death, 248.

Blackfeet, war, 152, 170.

Boers, 450.

Bontoc Igorot, lactation, 185;
abortion, 190;
head hunting, 194;
infant mortality, 195;
marriage customs, 226.

Borneo, fertility, 191;
war, 194;
head hunting, 194, 227.

Bornu, age at marriage, 174.

Botocudos, fertility, 144;
infanticide, 149;
health, 159.

Brazilians, early intercourse, 164;
fertility, 168;
abortion, 169, 221;
health, 172, 236;
infant mortality, 172;
property, 208;
marriage customs, 230.

Bronze Age, 125.

Buddhism, celibacy, 252.

Burma, marriage, 253.

Bushmen, early intercourse, 136;
fertility, 143;
infanticide, 148;
war, 150;
treatment of aged, 154;
health, 158, 232;
property, 205;
division of food, 212.

Bushongo, early intercourse, 173;
lactation, 174;
abortion, 179;
infanticide, 180;
property, 209.

Californians, early intercourse, 126;
lactation, 138;
age at marriage, 140;
fertility, 140;
infanticide, 149;
war, 152;
treatment of aged, 155;
health, 159;
infant mortality, 160.

Cameroon district, restriction of intercourse, 175.

Caroline Islands, infanticide, 190;
marriage customs, 224.

Carrier tribes, property, 206.

Casual Labour, over-population and, 290.

Catholic Church, contraceptive practices and, 294.

Celebes, early intercourse, 185;
fertility, 189;
abortion, 190.

Celibacy, primitive races, 226;
historical races, 251, 263, 278.

Cells, nature of, 39.

Chaco Indians, abortion, 169;
infanticide, 169;
war, 171.

Chaldea, celibacy, 251.

Charruas, war, 152;
health, 236.

Chellean period, 121.

Chepewayans, lactation, 138;
fertility, 144;
infanticide, 149;
war, 152;
treatment of aged, 155.

Cheyennes, abortion, 169, 220.

Chichmics, lactation, 165.

Children, death-rate among hunting and fishing races, 159;
among agricultural races, 172, 183, 196;
among historical races, 249.

—— number of, _see_ Fertility.

Chinese, fecundity, 100;
celibacy, 252;
marriage, 253;
restriction of intercourse, 254;
contraceptive methods, 255;
fertility, 256;
abortion, 256;
infanticide, 259, 276;
over-population, 276;
organization of society, 432.

Chinooks, fertility, 99;
lactation, 138;
abortion, 146;
infanticide, 149;
war, 151.

Chiquitos, fertility, 168.

Christianity, war and, 249;
marriage and, 263;
infanticide and abortion and, 268.

Chromosomes, as physical basis of heredity, 65.

Civilization, cyclical course of, 459.

Climate, famine and, 249, 274;
migration and, 301;
head form and, 341;
tropical effects of, 342;
selection and, 371.

Comanches, early intercourse, 137;
fertility, 144;
war, 152.

Confucianism, marriage and, 253.

Congo tribes, early intercourse, 173;
lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 175;
contraceptive methods, 177;
fertility, 178;
abortion, 179;
infanticide, 180;
war, 180;
witchcraft, 182;
infant mortality, 184;
marriage customs, 229;
food, 234.

Contact, influence upon tradition, 424;
geography and, 427.

Contraceptive methods, agricultural races, 177, 186;
historical races, 255, 266, 287, 315;
Catholic Church and, 294.

Co-operation, in search for food, 211.

Copper Age, 125.

Copper River tribes, infanticide, 148.

Copulation, external, 42;
internal, 43.

Corea, celibacy, 252.

Creeks, infanticide, 169, 220.

Crees, war, 211.

Cro-Magnon man, 117.

Cross River tribes, early intercourse, 172.

Crow tribe, fertility, 99;
restriction of intercourse, 166;
abortion, 168;
war, 170.

Cytoplasm, nature of, 39;
relation to nucleus, 66.

Dacotahs, war, 170.

Dahomey, war, 170.

Damaras, health, 175.

Death, origin of, 38;
causes of, among animals, 57;
among plants, 58;
ignorance of cause among hunting and fishing races, 153.

Decreasing returns, 199.

Development of organisms, 41, 66, 325.

Disease, evolution of, 155;
among hunting and fishing races, 158;
among agricultural races, 171, 183, 195;
among historical races, 244;
tropical, 348;
twins and, 352;
inheritance of, 359;
selection and, 377.

Ductless glands, 347, 372.

Dyaks, use of metal, 163;
food, 233.

Egbas, fertility, 177.

Egypt, disease, 245, 247;
treatment of children, 250;
celibacy, 251;
lactation, 254;
restriction of intercourse, 254;
infanticide, 272;
over-population, 277.

Ekoi, fertility, 177;
property, 209;
marriage customs, 229.

Elimination, causes of among animals, 58;
among plants, 59;
under natural conditions, 75.

Enclosures, population and, 284.

Environment, influence of upon animals and plants, 325;
upon men, 336;
influence upon progress, 458.

Eoanthropus, 115.

Eoliths, 118, 130.

Eskimos, fertility, 99, 143;
early intercourse, 136;
lactation, 137;
age at marriage, 140;
abortion, 145;
infanticide, 148;
war, 150;
feuds, 153;
treatment of aged, 154;
health, 158;
infant mortality, 159;
property, 205;
division of food, 212;
marriage customs, 225;
celibacy, 226;
storing of food, 232.

Eugenics, attitude of Romans, 18;
term due to Galton, 35;
modern problems, 308.

Evolution, theory of, 17, 18, 34;
of animal behaviour, 45;
among species in a state of nature, 77;
of Primates, 109;
of man, 110, 128;
of culture, 129;
of disease, 155;
of tradition, 438.

Ewe-speaking people, lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 175;
war, 180;
property, 209;
marriage, 229.

Exercise, influence of, 329, 339.

Factory Acts, 290, 340.

Famine, climate and, 249.

Fecundity, early references to human, 25;
definition of, 51;
distinguished from fertility, 52;
among species in nature, 63;
how determined, 60;
not influenced by the male, 88;
relation to length of mature period, 90;
to interval between births, 92;
effect of captivity upon, 95;
relation to number at a birth, 95;
increase of human, 97;
of primitive races, 99;
in India and China, 100;
opinion of Darwin regarding, 101;
relation to polygamy, 102;
to lactation, 102;
to age at marriage, 103;
to early intercourse, 103;
to development of fat, 104;
among men, 105;
of pre-human ancestor, 241.

Fertility, distinguished from fecundity, 52;
among hunting and fishing races, 141;
among agricultural races, 167, 177, 183, 196;
among historical races, 255;
Indian and European compared, 256;
calculations regarding, 291;
differential, 316;
differential between classes, 316, 457;
between races, 320.

Fertilization, 40.

Feuds, among hunting and fishing races, 152;
among agricultural races, 171.

Fiji, lactation, 185;
restriction of intercourse, 186;
fertility, 188;
abortion, 189, 221;
infanticide, 191, 219;
war, 193;
obligation to work, 212;
age at marriage, 226;
food, 233.

Flores, abortion, 190.

Food, co-operation in search for, 211.

Franks, contraceptive methods, 255.

Fuegians, early intercourse, 137;
lactation, 138;
fertility, 144;
abortion, 146;
infanticide, 149;
war, 152;
treatment of aged, 155;
infant mortality, 160;
restriction of intercourse, 166;
property, 207;
marriage customs, 225.

Funafuti, infanticide, 190, 219.

Gallinomero, infanticide, 149.

Gallinas, restriction of intercourse, 175;
war, 180.

Gametes, nature of, 40.

Geological strata, time occupied by deposition of, 107.

Ghiliaks, lactation, 138;
infant mortality, 160.

Glacial epoch, duration of, 108;
subdivisions of, 109.

Gonorrhoea, effect upon fecundity, 89.

Greece, discussion regarding population in, 19;
celibacy, 251;
contraceptive methods, 255;
abortion, 256;
infanticide, 258;
malaria, 349.

Grimaldi man, 117.

Guanas, fertility, 168;
infanticide, 169;
age at marriage, 230.

Guaranis, fertility, 168;
war, 171;
abortion, 220.

Guatemala, early intercourse, 164.

Guaycurus, abortion, 146;
infanticide, 149;
war, 152.

Guiana, lactation, 165;
infanticide, 169;
feuds, 171;
marriage customs, 229;
food, 234.

Habit, inheritance of, 362;
tradition and, 414, 462.

Haidahs, abortion, 146;
infanticide, 149;
war, 151;
feuds, 154;
property, 206;
marriage customs, 225.

Hausa, lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 175;
infanticide, 180.

Hawaii, early intercourse, 185;
abortion, 189.

Head, shape of, and environment, 341.

Head hunting, 194.

Health, of primitive races, 158, 196, 231;
of historical races, 245.

Heidelberg man, 114.

Hobbés, restriction of intercourse, 175.

Hottentots, fertility, 178;
infanticide, 179, 180;
war, 182;
health, 183;
property, 208.

Housing accommodation, population and, 280.

Hualaga tribes, fertility, 168.

Hudson Bay tribes, fertility, 143;
abortion, 145.

Hungary, lactation, 263.

Hurons, early intercourse, 165.

Ibo-speaking people, early intercourse, 173.

Ice Age, _see_ Glacial epoch.

Illinois, early intercourse, 165;
restriction of intercourse, 166.

Imitation, inheritance of, 364;
tradition and, 413.

Income, average per head, 310.

Increase, possible among animals and plants, 54;
actual, 55.

India, fecundity, 100;
early intercourse, 104;
infant mortality, 250;
celibacy, 251;
early intercourse, 253;
contraceptive methods, 255;
fertility, 255;
abortion, 256;
infanticide, 260;
climate, 274;
over-population, 275;
caste system, 432.

Infant mortality, _see_ Children.

Infanticide, hunting and fishing races, 146;
agricultural races, 169, 179, 190, 196;
extent of under-estimated, 215;
origin of, 216;
importance of, in regulating numbers, 228;
among historical races, 257, 268.

Ingaliks, lactation, 138.

Inheritance, relation of, to social problems, 18;
physical basis of, 64;
biparental, 71;
environment and, 326;
in man, 356;
of physical characters, 359;
of disease, 359;
of mental characters, 361.

Initiation ceremonies, 138.

Instinct, nature of, 47;
inheritance of, 363.

Intellect, inheritance of, 364;
among prehistoric races, 387, 398;
primitive races, 389;
negroes, 393;
in the Bahamas, 396;
evolution of, 399, 409, 438;
influence upon progress, 447.

Intelligence, nature of, 47;
development among animals, 50.

Interdependence of organisms, 56.

Ireland, over-population, 284, 294.

Iron Age, 127.

Iroquois, restriction of intercourse, 166;
fertility, 167;
health, 172.

Jakun, marriage customs, 225.

Japan, rise of, 82.

Java, early intercourse, 185;
fertility, 189;
health, 343.

Jews, contraceptive methods, 255;
infanticide, 256;
civilization, 452.

Kabinapek, abortion, 146;
infanticide, 149.

Kaffirs, _see_ South Africa.

Kagero, lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 175;
infanticide, 180;
food, 234.

Kalabar, witchcraft, 182.

Kalmucks, marriage customs, 253.

Kamtchatka, age at marriage, 196;
abortion, 196;
infanticide, 196.

Kenai, marriage customs, 225.

Kingsmill Islands, restriction of intercourse, 186;
fertility, 188;
abortion, 189;
infanticide, 190, 219;
war, 192.

Kirghiz, early intercourse, 254.

Knisteneaux, abortion, 146.

Konde-land, restriction of intercourse, 176.

Koniagas, infanticide, 149.

Koryak, lactation, 196.

Kuku, lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 176;
fertility, 178;
marriage customs, 228.

Kutchins, infanticide, 148;
celibacy, 226;
health, 233.

Kwakiutl, war, 151.

Lactation, influence upon fecundity, 102;
among hunting and fishing races, 137;
among agricultural races, 165, 174, 185, 196;
among historical races, 254.

Land, claims of groups to areas of, 203;
property in, 279.

Language, tradition and, 408, 412.

Laws, encouraging population, 22.

Lenda district, infanticide, 180.

Lenguas, lactation, 165;
infanticide, 169, 220.

Liberia, lactation, 174;
fertility, 177.

Lillooets, age at marriage, 140, 226;
war, 151;
division of food, 212.

Limitation of families, views of Mill, 202.

Limitation of the surface of the world, theories of population and, 20;
influence upon evolution, 59.

Lind hinterland, 180.

Loango, restriction of intercourse, 176.

Loucheux, food, 233.

Macusis, fertility, 168.

Madagascar, fertility, 178;
abortion, 179;
witchcraft, 182.

Madi district, lactation, 174.

Magdalenian period, 123.

Makalaka, fertility, 178.

Makonde, early intercourse, 173.

Malaria, 349.

Malays, 163.

Maldive Islands, marriage customs, 226.

Malemutes, infanticide, 148;
war, 151.

Malthusian theory, anticipations of, 19, 25;
nature of, 28;
reception of, 29;
debt of Darwin and Wallace to, 34;
summary of, 197;
criticism of, 199.

Mandans, fertility, 167;
health, 172;
food, 234.

Mandingoes, fertility, 177.

Mandja, restriction of intercourse, 175;
infanticide, 180;
food, 234.

Mandrucos, war, 171;
health, 236.

Mangbetu, early intercourse, 173;
lactation, 174;
fertility, 178;
abortion, 179;
infant mortality, 184;
property, 209.

Manu, Laws of, 253.

Marquesas, fertility, 187;
infanticide, 191.

Marriage, among animals, 62;
influence of age at, 103;
among primitive races, 139;
postponement of, among hunting and fishing races, 139, 226;
disparity in age at, 140;
postponement of, among agricultural races, 165, 174, 185, 196;
customs regarding, 224, 275;
postponement of, among historical races, 251, 264, 279, 306;
prohibition of, 281, 282.

Marshall Islands, war, 193.

Masai, early intercourse, 173;
war, 181;
marriage customs, 228.

Mayombe, lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 175.

Mbayas, infanticide, 169;
health, 236.

Memory among animals, 50.

Mendelian inheritance, nature of, 71;
in man, 356.

Menstruation, relation to ovulation, 90.

Mental evolution, among animals, 45;
connexion with reproduction, 51;
among men, 50;
influence upon population problem, 80.

Mercantile theory of trade, 22.

Mexico, lactation, 165;
restriction of intercourse, 166;
abortion, 169;
war, 170;
property, 208;
age at marriage, 220.

Migration, over-population and, 297;
selection and, 381.

Minnetanes, war, 170.

Minoan civilization, 244.

Miri district, restriction of intercourse, 176.

Mitchell Islands, abortion, 190.

Mittelschmerz, 94.

Modifications, nature of, 68.

Mohammedanism, celibacy, 253;
lactation, 254.

Mohaves, infanticide, 169.

Moioa, restriction of intercourse, 175.

Monasticism, celibacy and, 279.

Mongols, marriage, 253.

Montagnais, health, 233.

Mousterian period, 121.

Moxos, restriction of intercourse, 166;
fertility, 168.

Mundas, marriage customs, 275.

Murray Islands, war, 192;
infanticide, 220.

Mutations, nature of, 68;
origin of, 73;
among men, 81, 383.

Nagas, war, 248.

Nahuas, contraceptive methods, 167;
abortion, 168.

Nandi, early intercourse, 173;
lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 176.

Nandowensis, marriage customs, 229.

Natchez, marriage customs, 229;
health, 236.

Natural Selection, among species in nature, 75;
lethal and reproductive, 367;
strength of, 369;
in intermediate period, 370;
in first and second periods, 371;
of tradition, 417.

Navahos, early intercourse, 164;
contraceptive methods, 167;
abortion, 168;
infanticide, 169;
property, 208.

Neanderthal man, 116.

Neolithic period, 118, 123.

Neomalthusianism, early history of, 31;
Bradlaugh-Besant trial, 33;
in foreign countries, 33.

New Britain, early intercourse, 185;
abortion, 222;
celibacy, 226.

New Caledonia, early intercourse, 185;
lactation, 185;
restriction of intercourse, 186;
fertility, 188;
abortion, 189;
infanticide, 191;
war, 193.

New Guinea, early intercourse, 185;
lactation, 185;
restriction of intercourse, 186;
contraceptive practices, 186;
fertility, 188;
abortion, 190;
infanticide, 191;
war, 193;
head hunting, 194;
witchcraft, 195.

New Hebrides, abortion, 189;
infanticide, 191, 221;
war, 193.

New Zealand, early intercourse, 184;
restriction of intercourse, 186;
fertility, 187;
abortion, 189;
infanticide, 190;
war, 192;
property, 211.

Nias, fertility, 189;
abortion, 190.

Nigeria, fertility, 177;
abortion, 178;
war, 180;
property, 209.

Nishinan, infanticide, 149.

Nissau, 190.

Nitrogen in the sea, 59.

Nootkas, fertility, 99;
lactation, 138;
abortion, 146;
health, 159;
infant mortality, 160.

Nucleus, nature of, 39;
function of, 66.

Oestrous cycle, 44.

Ojebway Indians, war, 170;
marriage customs, 229.

Omahas, fertility, 144;
property, 208;
age at marriage, 229.

Onolove, early intercourse, 173;
abortion, 179.

Optimum density of population, 200, 213;
approximation to, among primitive races, 230, 236, 292;
among historical races, 239, 270, 293, 309;
military needs and, 310.

Orthogenesis, 79.

Ostyaks, health, 196.

Otommi, abortion, 168.

Ovaherero, property, 210.

Over-population, fear of, in England, 23;
among historical races, 275, 283, 284, 290, 304;
migration and, 297;
war and, 304;
in the future, 308;
unemployment and, 312.

Ovulation, _see_ Menstruation.

Ovum, 40.

Palaeolithic period, 118

Patagonians, health, 159.

Pawumwa Indians, obligation to work, 213.

Payaguas, abortion, 146;
health, 236.

Pelew Islands, early intercourse, 185;
restriction of intercourse, 186;
fertility, 187;
war, 192;
property, 211.

Persia, celibacy, 251;
marriage, 253;
lactation, 254;
restriction of intercourse, 254;
abortion, 265.

Peruvian tribes, fertility, 167;
infanticide, 169;
war, 170;
age at marriage, 230.

Pimas, contraceptive methods, 167;
abortion, 168, 221;
infanticide, 169.

Pithecanthropus, 112.

Plough, invention of, 127;
use of, 162.

Polygamy, influence upon fecundity, 102;
among primitive races, 132.

Poor law, marriage and, 282.

Port Herald, contraceptive methods, 177.

Primates, evolution of, 109.

Primitive races, value of evidence regarding, 85, 131;
intellect and, 447.

Progress, definition of, 85;
rate of, 130;
in different regions, 438.

Protista, reproduction among, 39.

Pueblos, contraceptive methods, 167;
abortion, 168;
war, 170.

Puelches, lactation, 138;
fertility, 144;
infanticide, 149, 218;
war, 152;
infant mortality, 160.

Puget Sound Indians, lactation, 138;
abortion, 146.

Pure Line inheritance, 69.

Queka Indians, treatment of aged, 155.

Racial crosses, 380, 453.

Radeck, infanticide, 191, 221;
health, 235.

Rarotonga, infanticide, 190;
war, 192.

Ratios of increase of food and of population, 26, 198;
of human population, 105.

Reflex action, 45.

Religious writers, attitude to Malthus, 30.

Reproduction, necessity for, 38;
nature of, 39;
methods of, 41;
among species in nature and men, 52.

Reproductive organs, size among primitive races, 97.

Rome, discussion of population problem in, 18, 49;
expectation of life in, 246;
age at marriage in, 251;
early intercourse, 254;
contraceptive methods, 255;
abortion, 256, 272;
infanticide, 258.

Rotuma, abortion, 189;
war, 192.

Rovuma River, restriction of intercourse, 176.

Salish, lactation, 138;
age at marriage, 140;
health, 159;
property, 206.

Samoa, lactation, 185;
restriction of intercourse, 186;
fertility, 187;
abortion, 189;
infanticide, 190;
war, 192;
infant mortality, 195.

Samoyeds, fertility, 196;
infanticide, 196;
health, 196.

Sandwich Islands, infanticide, 101, 219;
fertility, 187;
war, 192;
health, 235.

Sarawak, lactation, 185;
fertility, 188;
property, 211.

Savage Island, restriction of intercourse, 186;
abortion, 189;
infanticide, 190.

Selection, _see_ Natural Selection.

Seri Indians, war, 152;
treatment of aged, 155;
division of food, 212;
marriage customs, 225;
elimination among, 375.

Sexual cycle in Mammals, 44;
former condition in man, 92;
effect of captivity upon, 94;
peculiarity of, in man, 98.

Sexual instinct, 42, 43, 51;
among primitive races, 97.

Sexual intercourse, before maturity, influence upon fecundity, 103;
among hunting and fishing races, 135;
taboo upon, among hunting and fishing races, 141;
among agricultural races, 164, 172, 184;
taboo upon, among agricultural races, 165, 175, 186;
before maturity among historical races, 253, 263;
taboo upon, among historical races, 267;
restrictions upon, 315.

Shawnees, contraceptive methods, 167;
health, 172.

Shekiani, feuds, 181.

Shoshones, war, 170.

Shushwap, lactation, 138;
age at marriage, 144;
war, 151;
health, 159.

Siam, marriage, 253;
lactation, 254.

Sierra Leone, property, 209.

Sioux, lactation, 165;
fertility, 167;
abortion, 168, 221;
infanticide, 169;
war, 170;
infant mortality, 172.

Sitkins Indians, property, 207.

Social organization, origin of, 132;
mental evolution and, 401;
organic, 401;
segmentary, 429.

Socialists, attitude to Malthus, 31.

Society Islands, age at marriage, 185.

Solomon Islands, lactation, 185;
restriction of intercourse, 186;
abortion, 189;
infanticide, 191;
war, 193.

Sound Indians, fertility, 144.

South Africa, lactation, 174;
abortion, 179;
infanticide, 180;
witchcraft, 182;
infant mortality, 184;
property, 210;
marriage customs, 227;
intellect, 392.

Spermatozoa, 40, 41.

Starvation, no evidence for, among primitive races, 231;
among animals, 58, 61;
among plants, 59.

Stature, increase of, 340.

Sterility, in males, 89;
among Australians, 99;
fat and, 104.

Suggestion, inheritance of, 364;
tradition and, 413.

Sumatra, fertility, 188;
marriage customs, 227.

Swaheli, early intercourse, 173;
restriction of intercourse, 176;
fertility, 178.

Sympathy, inheritance of, 364;
tradition and, 413.

Tahiti, infanticide, 190;
war, 192.

Tasmanians, early intercourse, 135;
lactation, 137;
fertility, 141;
abortion, 145;
infanticide, 146;
war, 149;
treatment of sick, 154;
health, 158;
infant mortality, 159;
property, 203.

Tehuelches, age at marriage, 140.

Temperament, disease and, 347;
environment and, 353, 438;
inheritance of, 361.

Tendas, lactation, 171;
abortion, 178.

Tepecanos, infanticide, 169.

Texas tribes, fertility, 167.

Thirty Years’ War, 247.

Thlinkeet, lactation, 138;
war, 151;
health, 159;
infant mortality, 160;
property, 207.

Thompson tribes, age at marriage, 140, 226;
abortion, 146;
infanticide, 149;
war, 151;
infant mortality, 160.

Thonga, restriction of intercourse, 177;
property, 210;
age at marriage, 227.

Tibet, celibacy, 251.

Tikopia, infanticide, 190, 219.

Timor Laut, health, 235.

Tinneh, early intercourse, 136;
lactation, 138;
age at marriage, 140;
fertility, 143;
war, 150;
infant mortality, 150;
property, 206.

Todas, infanticide, 222;
early intercourse, 254.

Tonga, restriction of intercourse, 186;
infanticide, 190.

Topebatos, age at marriage, 224.

Torres Straits, age at marriage, 185, 227;
restriction of intercourse, 186;
fertility, 187;
abortion, 189;
infanticide, 190, 220;
war, 192;
food, 234.

Trent, Council of, celibacy and, 264.

Tunguses, lactation, 196;
property, 211.

Turkomans, war, 248.

Turkey, lactation, 254;
restriction of intercourse, 255;
abortion, 256.

Uaupes, feuds, 171.

Uganda, lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 176;
war, 181.

Under-population, 294, 295, 297.

Unemployment, over-population and, 312.

Unit-factors, 71.

Utilitarian school, attitude to Malthus, 29, 32.

Utis, contraceptive methods, 167.

Vaitapu, infanticide, 191, 221.

Vancouver Island, fertility, 99;
age at marriage, 140;
abortion, 146.

Veddahs, early intercourse, 137;
age at marriage, 140;
fertility, 145;
infanticide, 149;
infant mortality, 160;
property, 207.

Venereal disease, 269.
_See also_ Gonorrhoea.

Wadschagga, lactation, 174;
infant mortality, 184;
abortion, 221.

Wagogo, restriction of intercourse, 176.

Wakamba, infanticide, 180.

Wamakonde, lactation, 174.

Wanika, infanticide, 180.

Wanjamuesi, early intercourse, 173;
lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 176;
fertility, 178.

Wapagoro, early intercourse, 173;
restriction of intercourse, 176;
marriage customs, 228.

War, among hunting and fishing races, 149;
among agricultural races, 169, 180, 192;
among historical races, 247;
Christian Church and, 249;
over-population and, 304;
origin of, 305;
selection and, 379.

Warega, early intercourse, 173;
restriction of intercourse, 175;
fertility, 178;
abortion, 179;
infant mortality, 184.

Warri district, restriction of intercourse, 175.

Wazaramo, lactation, 174.

Wealth, of different areas, 419;
influence upon tradition, 421;
shifting of centres of greatest, 423.

Welle district, war, 181.

West African tribes, lactation, 174.

Wheel, invention of, 127.

Witchcraft, as cause of death, 182.

Work among primitive races, obligation to, 212.

Workers’ Education Association, 239.

Woruk, infanticide, 149.

Writing, invention of, 127.

Yakuts, lactation, 196;
property, 211.

Yguazas, abstention from intercourse, 141;
infanticide, 149;
war, 152.

Yoruba-speaking people, lactation, 174;
restriction of intercourse, 175;
property, 209.

Yuchi, war, 170;
health, 172.

Zambala, marriage customs, 227.

Zaporos, treatment of aged, 155.

Zoroastrianism, marriage and, 253.

Zulus, war, 181;
infant mortality, 184;
marriage customs, 227.

Zuni, abortion, 169;
infanticide, 169;
property, 208.

PRINTED IN ENGLAND
AT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

-----

Footnote 1:

On this subject see Roper, _Ancient Eugenics_.

Footnote 2:

Roper (loc. cit., p. 12) quotes Seneca as follows: ‘We drown the
weakling and the monstrosity. It is not passion, but reason, to
separate the useless from the fit.’

Footnote 3:

Campanella, _Civitas Solis_.

Footnote 4:

Mr. Roper in his book quoted above exaggerates the attention paid in
early times to quality. He says, for instance, when speaking of
infanticide and similar practices, that ‘these barbaric eugenics ...
were concerned with questions both of quantity and of quality’ (p.
11). As will be pointed out later, these practices were in fact
primarily concerned with quantity; such bearing as they had upon
quality was incidental.

Footnote 5:

See, for instance, Mill, _Principles of Political Economy_, vol. i, p.
389. Darwin commented upon this aspect of Mill’s work (_Descent of
Man_, p. 98).

Footnote 6:

Malthus, _Essay on the Principle of Population_, vol. i, p. 5.

Footnote 7:

Plato, _Laws_, v. 737.

Footnote 8:

Plato, _Republic_, v. 460.

Footnote 9:

Plato, _Laws_, v. 740.

Footnote 10:

This is apparently a reference to a work by Varro.

Footnote 11:

Tertullian, _De Anima_ (Ante-Nicene Christian Library), p. 481.

Footnote 12:

The realization of the limitation of the surface of the
globe—following upon the circumnavigation of the world—had no doubt an
influence. The fact that the earth is spherical—or at least that it is
not flat—(as a matter of fact it is somewhat tetrahedral) was of
course known to Aristotle (_De Caelo_, ii. 14). It has been remarked
that this conception was always present to the minds of the authors of
all those speculations which have come down from antiquity (Bosanquet,
_Philosophical Theory of the State_, p. 330). But it was not forced
upon men’s notice until it was practically demonstrated.

Footnote 13:

Prov. xiv. 28.

Footnote 14:

Thus Montesquieu wrote: ‘Il n’y a que les grandes nations qui aient
des armées’ (_Grandeur et Décadence des Romains_, p. 130).

Footnote 15:

The literature has been several times reviewed. I am chiefly indebted
to Stangeland, ‘Pre-Malthusian Doctrines of Population’, _Studies in
History, Economics and Public Law_—Columbia University; vol. xxi, No.
3, 1901.

Footnote 16:

Thomas Aquinas, _De Regimine Principum_, Bk. IV, ch. ix. (The fourth
book is supposititious; nevertheless it probably represents the views
of St. Thomas.)

Footnote 17:

Bodin, _Six Books of a Commonweale_, Bk. V, ch. ii, p. 575.

Footnote 18:

Botero, _Delle Cause della Grandezza della Città_, p. 5.

Footnote 19:

Quoted by Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 103, from the _Nouveau
Dictionnaire d’Économie Politique_, article ‘Population’. According to
Vauban (_La Dîme Royale_, p. 18) ‘La grandeur des rois se mesure par
le nombre de leurs sujets’.

Footnote 20:

Petty, ‘Treatise of Taxes and Contributions’ in _Economic Writings_,
vol. i, p. 34.

Footnote 21:

Graunt, _National and Political Observations upon the Bills of
Mortality_, ch. viii, section 14.

Footnote 22:

Davenant, _Political and Commercial Works_, vol. i, p. 16.

Footnote 23:

Child, _New Discourse upon Trade_, ch. x, p. 181.

Footnote 24:

Child, loc. cit., p. 179.

Footnote 25:

Temple, _Observations upon the United Provinces_, p. 164.

Footnote 26:

Quoted by Ferdy, _Die künstliche Beschränkung der Kinderzahl_, p. 85.

Footnote 27:

Quoted by Cannan, _History of the Theories of Production and
Distribution_, p. 124.

Footnote 28:

Quoted by Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 110.

Footnote 29:

Quoted by Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 234. Brückner’s work was published
in 1769.

Footnote 30:

Young, _Travels in France_, vol. i, p. 481.

Footnote 31:

Quoted by Leroy-Beaulieu, _La Question de la Population_, p. 31.

Footnote 32:

Wallace, _Dissertation on the Numbers of Mankind_, p. 12.

Footnote 33:

Steuart, _Principles of Political Economy_, vol. i, p. 20.

Footnote 34:

Malthus, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 3.

Footnote 35:

Mirabeau, _L’Ami des Hommes_, ch ii, p. 14.

Footnote 36:

‘There is a principle in human society by which population is
perpetually kept down to the level of the means of subsistence,’ said
Godwin in 1798 (_Political Justice_, Bk. VIII, p. 518). Many similar
remarks are to be found in the writings of the Physiocrats. See, for
instance, Turgot, _Sur le Commerce_, section 7, and Quesnay, _Analyse
du Tableau Économique_, chs. xxv and xxvi.

Footnote 37:

Raleigh, _History of the World_, in collected Works, vol. ii, p. 25.

Footnote 38:

Machiavelli, _History of Florence_, Bk. I, p. 5.

Footnote 39:

Botero, loc. cit., p. 73.

Footnote 40:

Botero, loc. cit., p. 75.

Footnote 41:

Hale, _Primitive Origination of Mankind_, ch. viii, section 2.

Footnote 42:

Petty, _Essay concerning the Increase of Mankind_, p. 21.

Footnote 43:

See Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 230. There are two valuable and
important books which appeared in the eighteenth century dealing with
population. They do not lend themselves to quotation, but deserve
mention here. Benjamin Franklin, in his _Observations concerning the
Increase of Mankind and the Peopling of Countries_, pointed out the
differences in the marriage-rate as between Europe and the more
recently colonized countries and analysed the causes. It is
interesting to note that he was led to a more or less clear
recognition of the presence of the struggle for existence among all
living organisms (p. 21). The second book referred to above is Adam
Ferguson’s _Essay on the History of Civil Society_. The name of Ortes
should perhaps be mentioned. His book _Riflessioni sulla Popolazione_,
published in 1792, anticipated Malthus in almost every respect and yet
aroused practically no attention.

Footnote 44:

According to Leslie Stephen’s article in the _Dictionary of National
Biography_, the chief authorities for the life of Malthus are (1) a
notice by Otter, afterwards Bishop of Chichester, prefixed to the
second edition of the _Political Economy_ published in 1836 and (2) an
article by Empsen in the _Edinburgh Review_. Jan. 1837, p. 469 to p.
506. See also Bonar’s _Malthus and his Work_, to which in this and the
following sections I am indebted. For some personal reminiscences see
Martineau’s _Autobiography_, vol. i, p. 211. He is described as
possessing the ‘most pleasing manners and the most benevolent heart’
(Manning, _History and Antiquities of Surrey_, p. 578).

Footnote 45:

In the eighteenth century it was commonly supposed that the population
of England was decreasing. Arthur Young was one of the few who did not
share this view. (Mirabeau indeed thought that the population of the
whole of Europe was increasing.) All kinds of reasons were brought
forward to explain the supposed decrease. Price thought that it was
due to the enclosures; Horace Walpole suggested excessive drinking as
the cause.

Footnote 46:

It is not correct to say that ‘the essay attracted comparatively
little attention until 1803’ (_Political History of England_, vol. xi,
p. 421).

Footnote 47:

Bonar, loc. cit., p. 43.

Footnote 48:

Bonar, loc. cit., p. 363.

Footnote 49:

Mill, _Autobiography_, p. 105. It is interesting to note that one of
the reasons why Coleridge left the Utilitarians was the popularity of
the Essay among them. See Benn, _History of Rationalism_, vol. i, p.
238.

Footnote 50:

Shelley, Preface to the _Revolt of Islam_, p. xi.

Footnote 51:

It is thus curious to find that the Essay was highly praised by Joseph
de Maistre—one of the greatest of conservatives of this or of any age:
see _Du Pape_, Bk. III, ch. iii, section 3, where the Essay is called
‘un profond ouvrage’ ... ‘un des livres rares après lesquels tout le
monde est dispensé de traiter le même sujet’. Yet in 1856 the
_Dictionnaire de l’Économie Politique_ was put upon the Index because
it supported the conclusions of the Essay.

Footnote 52:

See, for instance, _Aitken’s Annual Review_, vol. ii, 1803, p. 292.

Footnote 53:

Quoted by Leslie Stephen, _English Utilitarians_, vol. ii, p. 255.

Footnote 54:

Bonar, loc. cit., p. 1.

Footnote 55:

Luden, _Handbuch der Staatsweisheit oder Politik_. Von Mohl gives a
useful review of the literature following upon the publication of the
Essay (_Die Geschichte und Literatur der Staatswissenschaften_, vol.
iii, p. 480, and _Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_, vol. ii,
p. 955).

Footnote 56:

Sumner, _A Treatise on the Records of Creation and the Moral
Attributes of the Creator_; Chalmers, _On Political Economy in
connexion with the Moral State and Moral Prospects of Society_.

Footnote 57:

Leslie Stephen, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 180.

Footnote 58:

Greg, _Enigmas of Life_, ch. ii.

Footnote 59:

On this subject see Soetbeer, _Die Stellung der Sozialisten zur
Malthusischen Bevölkerungslehre_. Soetbeer includes in his review the
writings of Godwin, Henry George, and others who cannot properly be
regarded as socialists.

Footnote 60:

Soetbeer, loc. cit., p. 20.

Footnote 61:

Marx, _Capital_, vol. ii, p. 629.

Footnote 62:

There does not seem to be any foundation whatever for the statement
made by Place to the effect that Malthus recognized the advocacy of
Neomalthusian methods to be the logical outcome of his position but
that he shrank from their advocacy for fear of prejudice. Place,
_Illustrations and Proofs of the Principle of Population_, p. 173.

Footnote 63:

Harriet Martineau, _Illustrations to Political Economy_, No. VI, _Weal
and Woe in Graveloch_.

Footnote 64:

On this subject see Field, ‘The Early History of the Population
Movement’, _American Economic Review_, April, 1911. I am indebted to
this valuable article in what follows.

Footnote 65:

Graham Wallas, _Life of Francis Place_, p. 169.

Footnote 66:

For the later history of this movement see Hans Ferdy, loc. cit.;
Garnier, _Du Principe de la Population_; and Leroy-Beaulieu, loc. cit.

Footnote 67:

Still more recently prosecutions have taken place in the United
States. The publications of the eminent Danish economist Pierson may
be consulted for an able advocacy of Neomalthusian methods put forward
at a time when birth-control received little scientific support. See
_Principles of Economics_, vol. ii, p. 107.

Footnote 68:

_Life and Letters of Charles Darwin_, vol. i, p. 83.

Footnote 69:

Haeckel, _History of Creation_, vol. i, p. 134.

Footnote 70:

Marchant, _A. R. Wallace, Letters and Reminiscences_, vol. i, p. 136.

Footnote 71:

Darwin, _Origin of Species_, p. 50.

Footnote 72:

Marchant, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 116.

Footnote 73:

See _Sociological Papers_, p. 45. Galton first proposed to use the
word ‘stirpiculture’.

Footnote 74:

Among many plants and not infrequently among lower animals the sexes
are not separate—both male and female generative organs being found on
the same individual. This condition occurs in some fish, though
examples of hermaphroditism are rare in the Vertebrates. As a general
rule in such cases the two generative organs found in the same
individual ripen at different times and cross-fertilization is
effected. In such cases the description given above applies. Where
self-fertilization occurs, the above account does not apply in detail;
the occurrence of self-fertilization, however, in no way invalidates
the general conclusions that will be drawn in what follows.

Footnote 75:

‘The nucleus [of the spermatozoon] is probably enclosed within sheaths
of cytoplasm, although this is not usually readily visible’
(Doncaster, _Cytology_, p. 92).

Footnote 76:

A few bony fish, e. g. Anableps, copulate internally.

Footnote 77:

Internal copulation among the flat worms is of a very primitive
type—the penis apparently, at least at times, penetrating the female
at any point.

Footnote 78:

Letourneau, _Evolution of Marriage_, p. 8.

Footnote 79:

Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 384.

Footnote 80:

Letourneau, loc. cit., p. 28.

Footnote 81:

Except in man—the importance of which fact is dealt with in Chapter
IV.

Footnote 82:

Jennings, _Behaviour of the Lower Organisms_, p. 277.

Footnote 83:

Hobhouse, _Development and Purpose_, p. 62. In this and the following
sections I am indebted to Professor Hobhouse’s review of the evolution
of animal behaviour.

Footnote 84:

McDougall, _Social Psychology_, p. 29.

Footnote 85:

McDougall, loc. cit., p. 25.

Footnote 86:

Lloyd Morgan, _Animal Behaviour_, p. 84.

Footnote 87:

Hobhouse, loc. cit., p. 76.

Footnote 88:

Thomson, _Darwinism and Human Life_, p. 81.

Footnote 89:

Bridge, _Cambridge Natural History_, vol. _Fishes_, p. 412.

Footnote 90:

Thomson, loc. cit., p. 82.

Footnote 91:

Darwin, _Origin of Species_, p. 51.

Footnote 92:

Darwin, _Origin of Species_, p. 49.

Footnote 93:

Darwin, _Origin of Species_, p. 49.

Footnote 94:

Johnstone, _Conditions of Life in the Sea_, p. 235.

Footnote 95:

For the sake of simplicity fecundity has been spoken of as though it
was fixed at a certain strength for each species. As a matter of fact
it varies within fairly wide limits—increasing with better conditions.
In this fact lies the explanation of the increase of species under
favourable conditions which has often been observed, although, when
conditions are less favourable, there is little or no evidence of
starvation among such species.

Footnote 96:

Westermarck, _History of Human Marriage_, p. 19.

Footnote 97:

Brehm, _Bird Life_, p. 285.

Footnote 98:

That the basis of the inherited qualities is wholly situated in the
chromatin cannot be considered as established beyond doubt. The
element of doubt, however, has no bearing upon the argument.

Footnote 99:

In this and the following sections I am indebted to Professor
Goodrich’s admirable treatment of these problems in his book. _The
Evolution of Living Organisms._

Footnote 100:

There is probably no actual loss—no gap in a chromosome. It may be
supposed that owing to a ‘negative variation’ a factor ceases to be
functional.

Footnote 101:

A certain amount of confusion has been introduced into the whole
question of evolution by the manner in which in recent biological
writings the function of selection has been depreciated. The followers
of Darwin undoubtedly at times exaggerated the importance of
selection. In particular selection has even been spoken of as though
it caused variation and, as it were, drew organisms along certain
paths. It is essential to remember, as has been emphasized above, that
it can only act upon what is given. But without doubt there has been
recently a tendency to under-estimate the importance of selection.
Though the process of selection is nothing more than a process of
sifting, that process is of fundamental importance; unless due weight
is given to it, evolution cannot be rendered comprehensible.

Footnote 102:

Osborn, _Evolution of Mammalian Molar Teeth_, p. 228. One of the most
valuable contributions to the discussion of orthogenesis has been made
by Plate, _Über die Bedeutung des Darwinischen Selectionsprinzips_.
Plate concludes that the evidence points to some kind of orthogenesis.

Footnote 103:

Except where otherwise stated, increase of skill—of power, that is to
say, to control the environment—is taken as the criterion of
‘progress’. Except, therefore, where otherwise stated, the terms
‘civilized’ and ‘higher’ races are merely intended to convey that
races so denominated have a greater power of controlling the
environment than ‘uncivilized’ and ‘lower’ races. The terms ‘higher’
and ‘lower’ are thus in this book merely convenient labels used in a
special sense. In a fuller sense the terms ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ would
take account of innate faculties, social organization, and moral
tradition, as well as of the tradition of skilled methods. It is
worthy of note, so far as the argument in this book is concerned, that
there is a correlation between the tradition of skilled methods and
the tradition of social organization and between both of these
traditions and the innate faculties. The result, therefore, of a
classification of races according to the special sense of the terms
‘higher’ and ‘lower’ as given above, does not conflict so directly as
might be thought with a classification according to the fuller meaning
of these terms. Further reference is made to the subject in the later
part of this book.

Footnote 104:

Marshall, _Phil. Trans._ B, cxcvi, 1904, p. 77.

Footnote 105:

Heape, _Q. J. M. S._, vol. xliv, p. 12.

Footnote 106:

Mayer, _Über Sterilität_, p. 401.

Footnote 107:

Kelly, _Medical Gynecology_, p. 354. See also Matthews Duncan,
_Sterility in Women_, p. 3.

Footnote 108:

See Mosnier-Clauzel, _De quelques Causes de Stérilité chez la Femme_,
for a summary of this question.

Footnote 109:

Except in the case of ‘identical’ twins.

Footnote 110:

Engelmann, _Trans. Amer. Gyn. Soc._, vol. xxvi, p. 87.

Footnote 111:

Krieger. _Die Menstruation_, p. 52. See also Ploss and Bartels, _Das
Weib_, vol. i, p. 421.

Footnote 112:

Engelmann, loc. cit., p. 98.

Footnote 113:

Krieger, loc. cit., p. 17.

Footnote 114:

It is a remarkable fact that the Eskimo begin to menstruate at about
thirteen years of age—at an earlier age, that is to say, than the
average for the United States (Kelly, loc. cit., p. 83).

Footnote 115:

Marshall, _Physiology of Reproduction_, p. 672.

Footnote 116:

Krieger, loc. cit., p. 21.

Footnote 117:

Ibid., p. 24.

Footnote 118:

Marshall, _Physiology of Reproduction_, p. 63. There are considerable
variations in the conditions among monkeys; the above is only
generally true.

Footnote 119:

Westermarck, _History of Human Marriage_, p. 25; Ploss and Bartels,
loc. cit., vol. i, ch. xxi; Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology
of Sex_, vol. i, p. 85.

Footnote 120:

Westermarck, loc. cit., p. 28.

Footnote 121:

See Frazer, _Golden Bough_, vol. iii, pp. 230 ff., where this subject
is discussed at length.

Footnote 122:

Heape, loc. cit., p. 34.

Footnote 123:

It may also be observed that among certain primitive races the
menstrual flow is said only to occur at long intervals (Heape, loc.
cit., p. 30). Among Eskimo women there is said to be no menstruation
in winter (ibid., p. 29).

Footnote 124:

For further details see Croom, _Trans. Edin. Obstet. Soc._, vol. xxi,
1896; Havelock Ellis, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 90; Marshall, loc. cit.,
p. 65; and Kelly, loc. cit., ch. v.

Footnote 125:

Heape, loc. cit., p. 15.

Footnote 126:

Marshall, loc. cit., p. 57.

Footnote 127:

Ibid., p. 59.

Footnote 128:

Heape, loc. cit., p. 15.

Footnote 129:

Ibid., p. 15.

Footnote 130:

This and the following examples are taken from Darwin, _Variations of
Animals and Plants under Domestication_, vol. ii, p. 90.

Footnote 131:

Marshall, loc. cit., p. 596.

Footnote 132:

Ibid., p. 597.

Footnote 133:

Heape, _Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc._, vol. x, p. 236.

Footnote 134:

The evidence is summarized by Ploss and Bartels, loc. cit., vol. i,
ch. vi.

Footnote 135:

See Ploss and Bartels, loc. cit., vol. i, ch. xix, and Havelock Ellis,
‘Studies in the Psychology of Sex’, _Analysis of the Sexual Impulse_,
p. 209. The fact is commented upon by Ratzel, _History of Mankind_,
vol. ii, p. 17. As examples of the evidence for particular races see,
for the Malays, Stevens, _Zeit. für Eth._, Bd. xxviii, 1896, p. 180;
for the Fuegians, Hyades et Deniker, _Mission scientifique du Cap
Horn_, Tome vii, p. 187; for the Andamanese, Portman, _J. A. I._, vol.
xxv, p. 369.

Footnote 136:

Mayer, loc. cit., p. 409.

Footnote 137:

Stopes, _Married Love_, p. 68.

Footnote 138:

Curr, _The Australian Race_, p. 70.

Footnote 139:

Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 52.

Footnote 140:

Ibid., p. 264.

Footnote 141:

Murdoch, _Ethnological Results of the Port Barrow Expedition_, 9th _A.
R. B. E._, p. 38.

Footnote 142:

Nansen, _Eskimo Life_, p. 150.

Footnote 143:

Holder, _Am. Jour. Obstet._, vol. xxv, 1891, p. 44.

Footnote 144:

Sproat, _Scenes and Studies of Savage Life_, p. 94.

Footnote 145:

Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, vol. i, p. 197.

Footnote 146:

Ibid., p. 242.

Footnote 147:

Catlin, _North American Indians_, vol. ii, p. 228.

Footnote 148:

Matthews Duncan, _Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility_, p. 112.

Footnote 149:

Wattal, _Population Problem in India_, p. 7.

Footnote 150:

See, for instance, Eucken, _Currents of Modern Thought_, p. 264. When
Herbert Spencer says (_Principles of Biology_, vol. ii, p. 431) that
‘advancing evolution must be accompanied by declining fertility’, he
is apparently using the term fertility as equivalent to fecundity and
is therefore misrepresenting the position. The Dean of St. Paul’s is
doubtless aware of the true state of the case: nevertheless his
reference to the subject is likely to be misleading. After remarking
upon the fact that fecundity (which he calls fertility) decreases
among animals with increasing care for the offspring, he goes on to
say that ‘man is no exception to these laws’ (_Outspoken Essays_, p.
60). As a matter of fact, man is a remarkable exception to this ‘law’;
if anything, his fecundity has increased. His position has become
assimilated to that of the animals because his fertility has
decreased—quite another matter.

Footnote 151:

Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 132.

Footnote 152:

Heape, loc. cit., p. 39. This is also the opinion of Havelock Ellis,
see ‘Studies in the Psychology of Sex’, _Analysis of the Sexual
Impulse_, p. 220.

Footnote 153:

Newsholme and Stevenson, _J. R. S. S._, vol. lix, p. 64.

Footnote 154:

Theal, _Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People of Africa_, p. 348.

Footnote 155:

Heape, loc. cit., p. 43.

Footnote 156:

Marshall, loc. cit., p. 400.

Footnote 157:

Marshall, loc. cit., p. 74. See also Heape, loc. cit., p. 43, and
Matthews Duncan, _Sterility in Women_, p. 85.

Footnote 158:

Dunlop, _J. R. S. S._, vol. lxxvi, p. 266.

Footnote 159:

Ibid., p. 267.

Footnote 160:

Quoted by Wattal, loc. cit., p. 23.

Footnote 161:

Ibid., p. 15. See also Matthews Duncan, _Fecundity, Fertility, and
Sterility_, pp. 277 ff.

Footnote 162:

Marshall, loc. cit., p. 595. The corpus luteum persists in the ovary
of fat animals and to this fact Fraenkel (_Archiv für Gynaekologie_,
Bd. lxviii, 1903) ascribes the barrenness that so often accompanies
fatness.

Footnote 163:

Jolly, _Science Progress_, 1914, No. 33, p. 41, states that there are
four methods of estimating the duration of the whole period, by
considering (1) the thickness of the sediment, (2) the mass of the
sediment, (3) the sodium contained in the sea, and (4) radioactive
transformation. (1) gives about 100 to 134 million years, (2) about 87
million years, (3) about 80 to 90 million years, and (4) a much longer
period.

Footnote 164:

Osborn, _Old Stone Age_, p. 22.

Footnote 165:

Ibid., p. 23. It is well to lay stress on the fact that all these
figures are little more than guesses founded on various observations
such as the rate of deposition of sediment by rivers. No conclusions
with regard to evolution can be drawn from the supposed length of the
whole period or from the supposed length of the subdivisions.
Nevertheless the relative length of the different subdivisions as
estimated has in all probability some approximation to fact, and thus,
whatever may be the real length of the period, the time which elapsed
between, say, the beginning of the Pleistocene and the middle of the
third genial epoch was at least twice and perhaps three times longer
than that which has elapsed since the beginning of the latter epoch to
the present day.

Footnote 166:

The extinct Lemurs of the Lower Eocene were, it may be noticed, of a
very generalized type and can only with difficulty be distinguished
from Insectivores. At this time the chief features now characteristic
of the various Mammalian classes had not yet appeared.

Footnote 167:

Sollas, ‘Presidential Address to the Geological Society’, 1910, p. 48
(_Quart Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. lxvi).

Footnote 168:

The table is based on those given by Osborn (_Old Stone Age_, pp. 18
and 41).

Footnote 169:

To show how the estimates vary it may be mentioned that Sollas
(_Ancient Hunters_, ch. xiv) only allows 27,000 years since the close
of the Chellean period.

Footnote 170:

Dubois, _Pithecanthropus erectus: eine menschenähnliche Übergangsform
aus Java_. Dubois has published several other papers and the
literature is very large. The earlier literature has been summarized
by Klaatsch (_Zoologisches Centralblatt_, vol. vi, 1899, p. 217), and
by Schwalbe (_Zeit. für Morph. und Anth._, Bd. I, 1899, p. 16). For a
concise account see Duckworth, _Morphology and Anthropology_, pp. 510
ff. The remains consist of the upper portion of a skull, a left femur,
a second left upper molar, a third right upper molar and a second left
lower pre-molar. The last tooth was not found by Dubois but by
subsequent excavators. The skull and the femur were not found together
but some fifty feet apart. The attribution of all the remains to one
individual is, however, probably justified.

Footnote 171:

Elbert (_Cent. für Min., Geol. und Pal._, Bd. 17, 1909, p. 513) holds
that the beds are on the border between the Pliocene and the
Pleistocene. Volz (_Neues Jahr. für Min., Geol. und Pal.; Festband zur
Feier des 100-jährigen Bestehens_, 1907, p. 256) places the beds in
the Middle Pleistocene. The whole problem is discussed by Selenka and
Blanckenhorn. See _Die Pithecanthropus-Schichten auf Java_.

Footnote 172:

Osborn, _Old Stone Age_, p. 83.

Footnote 173:

Schoetensack, _Der Unterkiefer des H. heidelbergensis_.

Footnote 174:

Dawson and Woodward, _Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc._, vol. lxix, 1913, p.
117.

Footnote 175:

The Gibraltar skull may have been discovered before the specimen from
Neanderthal; it aroused no interest, however, until after the
discovery of the latter.

Footnote 176:

Boule, _Ann. de Pal._, vol. vi, 1911, vol. vii, 1912, vol. viii, 1913.

Footnote 177:

In some cases the origin has not been clearly identified (e. g. the
Gibraltar skull). It is said that remains of Neanderthal man are
sometimes found associated with Acheulean instruments (in the case of
the Krapina remains, for example). See Boule, loc. cit., vol. vi, p.
120, and vol. vii, p. 227, and also Anthony, _Bull. et Mém. Soc.
d’Anth._, 1913, p. 189.

Footnote 178:

The remains found at the station of Raymonden, Chancelade, and
described by Testut (_Bull. Soc. d’Anth. de Lyon_, vol. viii, 1889),
are now generally classed with Cro-Magnon man. As Testut says,
Chancelade man possesses ‘tous les caractères propres aux races
supérieures’. The cranial capacity was 1,710 c.c. But there are
certain features in which it departs from the ordinary Cro-Magnon type
and certain features in which it resembles the modern Eskimo
type—particularly in the shape of the cranium, the sides of which tend
to slope up and meet at an angle. The possible significance of this
will be referred to later.

Footnote 179:

Thus Boule (loc. cit., vol. viii, p. 111), speaking of the Upper
Palaeolithic types in general, says: ‘Tous ces hommes fossiles ne sont
pas plus différents des hommes actuels que ceux-ci ne diffèrent entre
eux.’

Footnote 180:

Pottery stated to be Palaeolithic has been found in Belgium. There is
nothing surprising in the fact, if it is a fact, that Palaeolithic man
should have possessed this art, so far as his abilities are concerned.
In general, however, nomadic races (and the Palaeolithic races were,
of course, nomadic) have little use for pottery. See Déchelette,
_Manuel d’Archéologie_, vol. i, pp. 169 ff.

Footnote 181:

Reid Moir, _Pre-Palaeolithic Man_. Rostro-carinates are found in the
Red Crag which is a Pliocene formation. Mr. Reid Moir holds that they
were evolved from eoliths (p. 66).

Footnote 182:

Sollas, _Ancient Hunters_, ch. iii.

Footnote 183:

Breuil, _L’Anthropologie_, vol. xx, 1910.

Footnote 184:

Professor Wood Jones, basing his conclusions on comparative anatomy,
has lately put forward a view of the course of human evolution
somewhat at variance with that outlined above. He sums up his view by
saying that ‘Homo is not descended from the anthropoid apes preceded
by a series of Primate forms represented by Old World Monkeys, New
World Monkeys, and Lemurs. For we have seen that the anatomical
characters of man demand rather a recognition of the finding that his
stock branched off from the very root of the Primates; that man has
evolved entirely by generalized development of the brain, and that he
retains the bodily simplicity only found in some such far distant
progenitor as the Tarsius stock; that no matter what may be the
relation of the New World and Old World Monkeys, the human race
combines, in some instances, a blend of their characters; that the
anthropoid apes retain a certain, and a varying, amount of the basal
simplicity that belongs to man, but that the Old World Monkeys have
specialized far away from this simplicity. Regarded in this way we may
say that the line of Homo springs from the base of the (non-Lemurine)
Primate stem and not from its systematic apex’ (‘Origin of Man’, p.
126, in _Animal Life and Human Progress_, edited by Dendy). In this
view therefore the human stock has been separate from the rest of the
primate stock since early in the Tertiary period. If this conclusion
is well founded, the argument derived from the course of evolution as
outlined above is certainly weakened.

Footnote 185:

Sollas, loc. cit., p. 72.

Footnote 186:

With reference to this subject Breuil says with great force that ‘si
la nature, _exceptionnellement_ sans doute, peut produire des objets
aussi semblables à des types industriels _parfaitement définis et
connus comme tels dans leurs milieux normaux en dehors de toute
possibilité d’erreur_, à combien plus forte raison doit-on se montrer
circonspect à l’égard des manifestations les plus élémentaires de
l’activité humaine, et se montrer exigeant avant de fonder sur leur
constatation si problématique des théories dépassant si formidablement
ce qui est acquis d’une manière définitive et en toute évidence!’
(_L’Anthropologie_, vol. xxi, p. 407). For examples of the expression
of similar views see Obermaier, _Der Mensch der Vorzeit_, p. 412, and
Déchelette, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 22. The weight of expert opinion is
against the acceptance of eoliths as genuine. Among the more
distinguished supporters of the theory may be mentioned Rutot in
Belgium, Ray Lankester and Reid Moir in England, Verworn in Germany,
and de Mortillet in France. Among those who are sceptical are Boule,
Breuil, and Déchelette in France, Schmidt and Obermaier in Germany,
and Sollas in England.

Footnote 187:

Rutot, _Revue, de l’Université de Bruxelles_, 1911, p. 258.

Footnote 188:

Remains of Chellean industry are widespread and are found outside
Europe—in Africa, for example, from the Cape to the Sahara. See
Déchelette, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 88.

Footnote 189:

The admiration, justly enough aroused, for these works of art has
undoubtedly led to an exaggeration of the level of social and
intellectual development reached by Upper Palaeolithic man, whose
times are sometimes referred to as though they were a kind of Golden
Age.

Footnote 190: