Chapter I: Front Matter

A SHORT HISTORY
OF
FREETHOUGHT

ANCIENT AND MODERN

BY
JOHN M. ROBERTSON

THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND EXPANDED

IN TWO VOLUMES

Vol. I

(ISSUED FOR THE RATIONALIST PRESS ASSOCIATION, LIMITED)

London:
WATTS & CO.,
JOHNSON'S COURT, FLEET STREET, E.C.

1915

TO
SYDNEY ANSELL GIMSON

CONTENTS

VOLUME I

PAGE

Preface xi

Chap. I--Introductory

§ 1. Origin and Meaning of the word Freethought 1
§ 2. Previous histories 10
§ 3. The Psychology of Freethinking 15

Chap. II--Primitive Freethinking 22

Chap. III--Progress under Ancient Religions

§ 1. Early Association and Competition of Cults 44
§ 2. The Process in India 48
§ 3. Mesopotamia 61
§ 4. Ancient Persia 65
§ 5. Egypt 69
§ 6. Phoenicia 78
§ 7. Ancient China 82
§ 8. Mexico and Peru 88
§ 9. The Common Forces of Degeneration 91

Chap. IV--Relative Freethought in Israel

§ 1. The Early Hebrews 97
§ 2. The manipulated prophetic literature 104
§ 3. The Post-Exilic Literature 109

Chap. V--Freethought in Greece 120

§ 1. Beginnings of Ionic Culture 123
§ 2. Homer, Stesichoros, Pindar, and Æschylus 126
§ 3. The Culture-Conditions 134
§ 4. From Thales to the Eleatic School 136
§ 5. Pythagoras and Magna Graecia 148
§ 6. Anaxagoras, Perikles, and Aspasia 152
§ 7. From Demokritos to Euripides 157
§ 8. Sokrates, Plato, and Aristotle 168
§ 9. Post-Alexandrian Greece: Ephoros, Pyrrho,
Zeno, Epicurus, Theodorus, Diagoras, Stilpo,
Bion, Strato, Evêmeros, Carneades, Clitomachos;
The Sciences; Advance and Decline of Astronomy;
Lucian, Sextus Empiricus, Polybius, Strabo;
Summary 180

Chap. VI--Freethought in ancient Rome

§ 1. Culture Beginnings, to Ennius and the Greeks 194
§ 2. Lucretius, Cicero, Cæsar 201
§ 3. Decline under the Empire 207
§ 4. The higher Pagan ethics 215

Chap. VII--Ancient Christianity and its Opponents

§ 1. Freethought in the Gospels: contradictory
forces 218
§ 2. The Epistles: their anti-rationalism 224
§ 3. Anti-pagan rationalism. The Gnostics 224
§ 4. Rationalistic heresy. Arius. Pelagius.
Jovinian. Aerius. Vigilantius. The religious
wars 229
§ 5. Anti-Christian thought: its decline. Celsus.
Last lights of critical thought. Macrobius.
Theodore. Photinus. The expulsion of science.
The appropriation of pagan endowments 235
§ 6. The intellectual and moral decadence. Boethius 243

Chap. VIII--Freethought under Islam

§ 1. Mohammed and his contemporaries.
Early "Zendekism" 248
§ 2. The Influence of the Koran 252
§ 3. Saracen freethought in the East. The
Motazilites. The Spread of Culture.
Intellectual Collapse 253
§ 4. Al-Ma'arri and Omar Khayyám. Sufîism 261
§ 5. Arab Philosophy and Moorish freethought.
Avempace. Abubacer. Averroës. Ibn Khaldun 266
§ 6. Rationalism in later Islam. Sufîism. Bâbism in
contemporary Persia. Freethinking in Mohammedan
India and Africa 272

Chap. IX--Christendom in the Middle Ages 277

§ 1. Heresy in Byzantium. Iconoclasm. Leo. Photius.
Michael. The early Paulicians 277
§ 2. Critical Heresy in the West. Vergilius.
Claudius. Agobard. John Scotus. The case of
Gottschalk. Berengar. Roscelin. Nominalism and
Realism. Heresy in Florence and in France 282
§ 3. Popular Anti-Clerical Heresy. The Paulicians
(Cathari) in Western Europe: their anticipation
of Protestantism. Abuses of the Church and
papacy. Vogue of anti-clerical heresy. Peter
de Brueys. Eudo. Paterini. Waldenses 291
§ 4. Heresy in Southern France. The crusade against
Albigensian heresy. Arrest of Provençal
civilization: Rise and character of the
Inquisition 299
§ 5. Freethought in the Schools. The problem set to
Anselm. Roscelin. Nominalism and Realism.
Testimony of Giraldus Cambrensis: Simon of
Tournay. William of Conches. Abailard. John of
Salisbury 307
§ 6. Saracen and Jewish Influences. Maimonides. Ibn
Ezra. Averroïsts. Amalrich. David of Dinant.
Thomas Aquinas. Unbelief at Paris University.
Suppressive action of the Church. Judicial
torture 315
§ 7. Freethought in Italy. Anti-clericalism in
Florence. Frederick II. Michael Scotus. Dante's
views. Pietro of Abano. Brunetto Latini. Cecco
Stabili. Boccaccio. Petrarch. Averroïsm 322
§ 8. Sects and Orders. Italian developments. The
Brethren of the Free Spirit. Beghards, etc.
Franciscans. Humiliati. Abbot Joachim.
Segarelli and Dolcino 331
§ 9. Thought in Spain. Arab influences. Heresy under
Alfonso X. The first Inquisition. Arnaldo of
Villanueva. Enrique IV. Pedro do Osma. The New
Inquisition. The causes of Spanish evolution 337
§ 10. Thought in England. Roger Bacon. Chaucer.
Items in Piers Ploughman. Lollardry. Wiclif 342
§ 11. Thought in France. François de Rues. Jean de
Meung. Reynard the Fox. Paris university. The
sects. The Templars. William of Occam. Marsiglio.
Pierre Aureol. Nominalism and Realism. "Double
truth." Unbelief in the Paris schools 351
§ 12. Thought in the Teutonic Countries. The
Minnesingers. Walter der Vogelweide. Master
Eckhart. Sects. The Imitatio Christi 361

Chap. X--Freethought in the Renaissance

§ 1. The Italian Evolution. Saracen Sources.
Anti-clericalism. Discredit of the Church.
Lorenzo Valla. Masuccio. Pulci. Executions
for blasphemy. Averroïsm. Nifo. Unbelief at
Rome. Leonardo da Vinci. Platonism. Pico della
Mirandola. Machiavelli. Guicciardini. Belief
in witchcraft. Pomponazzi. Pomponio Leto. The
survival of Averroïsm. Jewish freethought 365
§ 2. The French Evolution. Desperiers. Rabelais.
Dolet. The Vaudois massacres. Unbelieving
Churchmen. Marguerite of Navarre. Ronsard.
Bodin. Vallée. Estienne. Pleas for tolerance.
Revival of Stoicism 379
§ 3. The English Evolution. Reginald Pecock. Duke
Humphrey. Unbelief in immortality 393
§ 4. The Remaining European Countries. Nicolaus of
Cusa. Hermann van Ryswyck. Astrology and
science. Summary 398

Chap. XI--The Reformation Politically Considered

§ 1. The German Conditions. The New Learning.
Economic Causation 403
§ 2. The Problem in Italy, Spain, and the
Netherlands. Savonarola. Catholic reaction.
The New Inquisition. Heresy in Italy. Its
suppression. The Index Expurgatorius. Italian
and northern "character" 407
§ 3. The Hussite Failure in Bohemia. Early
anti-clericalism. Militz and his school. Huss
and Jerome. The Taborite wars. Helchitsky 415
§ 4. Anti-Papalism in Hungary. Early
anti-clericalism. Rapid success of the
Reformation. Its decline. New heresy.
Socinianism. Biandrata. Davides. Recovery
of the Church 419
§ 5. Protestantism in Poland. Early anti-clericalism.
Inroad of Protestantism. Growth of Unitarianism.
Goniondzki. Pauli. Catholic reaction 422
§ 6. The Struggle in France. Attitude of King
Francis. Economic issues. Pre-Lutheran
Protestantism. Persecution. Berquin. Protestant
violences. Fortunes of the cause in France 427
§ 7. The Political Process in Britain. England not
specially anti-papal. The causation. Henry's
divorce. Spoliation 431

Chap. XII--The Reformation and Freethought

§ 1. Germany and Switzerland. Mutianus. Crotus.
Bebel. Rise of Unitarianism. Luther and
Melanchthon. Their anti-democratic politics.
Their dogmatism. Zwingli. Calvin and his
victims. Gruet. The Libertini. Servetus.
Gripaldi. Calvin's polity. Ochino. Anthoine.
Moral failure of Protestantism 434
§ 2. England. Henry and Wolsey. Advanced heresy.
Persecution. Sir Thomas More 458
§ 3. The Netherlands. Calvinism and Arminianism.
Reaction towards Catholicism. Barneveldt.
Grotius 461
§ 4. Conclusion. The intellectual failure. Indirect
gains to freedom 464

Chap. XIII.--The Rise of Modern Freethought

§ 1. The Italian Influence. Deism. Unitarianism.
Latitudinarianism. Aconzio. Nizolio. Pereira 466
§ 2. Spain. Huarte 470
§ 3. France. Treatises against atheism: De Mornay.
New skepticism: Sanchez. Montaigne. Charron.
The Satyre-Menippée. Garasse on the Beaux
Esprits. Mersenne's attack 473