Chapter XIII: The Rise of Modern Freethought (2)

[68] See the article by E. J. Glave, of Stanley's force, on "Fetishism in Congoland," in the Century Magazine, April, 1891, p. 836. Compare F. Schultze, Der Fetischismus, 1871, pp. 137, 141, 142, 144, etc.; Theal, The Beginning of South African History, 1902, pp. 49, 52; Kranz, Natur- und Kulturleben der Zulus, 1880, pp. 110, 113-14; Moffat, Missionary Labours, 35th thous., pp. 69, 81-84; A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-Speaking Peoples, 1887, pp. 125-29, 137-39, 142; Sir G. S. Robertson, The Káfirs of the Hindu-Kush, ed. 1899, pp. 405, 417; E. Rae, The White Sea Peninsula, 1881, p. 149; Turner, Samoa, 1884, p. 272. It is certain that the wizards of contemporary savage races are frequently killed as impostors by their own people. See below, p. 35.

[69] Tylor, Anthropology, p. 406; Primitive Culture, 3rd ed., i, 38.

[70] The fact that this phenomenon occurs everywhere among primitives, from the South Seas to Lapland, should be noted in connection with the latterly revived claims of so-called "Mysticism."

[71] Cp. E. Rae, The White Sea Peninsula, 1881, pp. 149, 263.

[72] Glave, article cited, pp. 835-36.

[73] Cp. Max Müller, Natural Religion, 1889, p. 133; Anthropological Religion, 1892, p. 150; Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, 2nd ed. ii, 358 sq.

[74] Compare Bishop Butler's Charge to the Clergy of Durham, and Bishop Wordsworth On Religious Restoration in England, 1854, p. 75, etc.

[75] P. von Bradke, Dyâus Asura, Ahura Mazda, und die Asuras, Halle. 1885, p. 115.

[76] Rig-Veda, x, 121 (as translated by Muir, Müller, Dutt, and von Bradke); and x, 82 (Dutt's rendering). It is to be noted that the refrain "Who is the God whom we should worship?" is entirely different in Ludwig's rendering of x, 121. [Bertholet's Religionsgeschichtliches Lesebuch (1908) compiled on the principle that "the best translations are good enough for us," follows the rendering of Muir, Müller, Dutt, and von Bradke (p. 165).] Cp. Max Müller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 302, and Natural Religion, pp. 227-229, citing R. V., viii, 100, 3, etc., for an apparently undisputed case of skepticism. See again Langlois's version of vi, 7, iii, 3 (p. 459). He cannot diverge much more from the German and English translators than they do from each other.

[77] Junod, as above cited, pp. 341, 343, 350, 388. Cp. Dalton, as cited, p. 115.

[78] E. Rae, The White Sea Peninsula, 1881, pp. 146-7.

[79] On the other hand, there might be genuine defect of knowledge of the religion of others of the tribe. This is said to occur in thousands of cases in Christian countries: why not also among savages? See the express testimony of Sir G. S. Robertson, The Káfirs of the Hindu-Kush, ed. 1899, pp. 377, 409.

[80] E.g., Moffat, Missionary Labours, end of ch. xvi and beginning of ch. xix.

[81] See Dr. Gasquet, The Great Pestilence, 1893.

[82] Missionary Labours, ch. xix: stereo. ed. pp. 81, 82. It is noteworthy that the women were the first to avow unbelief in an unsuccessful rainmaker (Id. p. 84).

[83] Missionary Labours, as cited, p. 85.

[84] Cp. Schultze, Der Fetischismus, 1871, pp. 155-56; A. H. Keane, Man, Past and Present, 1900, p. 49; Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, 1909, i, 86.

[85] Travels in Southern Africa in the Years 1803-1806, 1815, ii, 61. Cp. Rev. J. Macdonald, Light in Africa, 1890, p. 192, as to the compulsion on men of superior intelligence to play the wizard, by reason of the common connection of wizardry with any display of mental power. There is no more tragical aspect in the life-conditions of primitive peoples.

[86] The Lake Regions of Central Africa, 1860, ii, 351.

[87] Turner, Samoa a Hundred Years Ago, 1884, pp. 304-305. Cp. Herodotos, iv, 68, as to the slaying of "false prophets" among the Scythians; and i, 128, as to the impaling of the Magi by Astyages.

[88] Paul Kollmann, The Victoria Nyanza, 1899, p. 168.

[89] Sir A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-Speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast, 1887, p. 127.

[90] E.g., an aged female relative of the writer, quite orthodox in all her habits, and devout to the extent of calling the Book of Esther "Godless" because the word "God" does not occur in it, yet at a pinch declared that she had "never heard of Providence putting a boll of meal inside anybody's door." Her daughter-in-law, also of quite religious habits, quoted the saying with a certain sense of its audacity, but endorsed it, as she had cause to do. Yet both regularly practised prayer and asserted divine beneficence.

[91] See B. Seeman, "Fiji and the Fijians," in Galton's Vacation Tourists, 1862, pp. 275-76, as to the terrorism resorted to by Fijian priests against unbelievers. "Punishment was sure to overtake the skeptic, let his station in life be what it might"--i.e., supernatural punishment was threatened, and the priests were not likely to let it fail. Cp. Basil Thomson, The Fijians: A Study of the Decay of Custom, 1909, introd., p. xi: "The reformers of primitive races never lived long: if they were low-born they were clubbed, and that was the end of them and their reforms; if they were chiefs, and something happened to them, either by disease or accident, men saw therein the figure of an offended deity; and obedience to the existing order of things became stronger than before." Cp. Pagan Christs, 2nd ed., pp. 60-62, as to kings who wished to put down human sacrifices.

[92] See Pagan Christs, 2nd ed., pp. 1-2.

[93] E. J. Glave, art. cited, p. 825. Cp. Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, pp. 582, 594.

[94] Cp. the Rev. J. Macdonald, Light in Africa, 1890, pp. 222-23, as to the "universal suspicion" which falls upon tribesmen of rationalistic and anti-superstitious tendencies, making them "almost doubt their own sanity."

[95] Sir H. H. Johnston, The River Congo, ed. 1805, p. 289. Cp. Moffat, as cited above.

[96] Colenso, The Pentateuch, vol. i, pref. p. vii; introd. p. 9.

[97] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, iii, § 583.

[98] W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, 1831, iv, 30-31, 126-28.

[99] Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands, compiled from the communications of W. Mariner, by John Martin, M.D., 3rd ed. 1827, i, 289-300, 306-307, 338-39; ii, 27-28, 83-86, 134. Mariner, who saw much of the priests, found no reason to suspect them of any systematic deception. See ii, 129. But his narrative leaves small room for doubt as to the procedure of the priest of Toobo Totai.

[100] Dr. A. Kropf, Das Volk der Xosa-Kaffern in östlichen Südafrika, Berlin, 1899, pp. 203-204. Dr. Kropf, a missionary of forty years' experience, states that many of the Kaffirs latterly disbelieve in their sorcerers; but this may be partly a result of missionary teaching--not so much the religious as the scientific. See the testimony of the Rev. J. Macdonald, Life in Africa, 1890, pp. 47-48.

[101] Rev. J. Macdonald, Life in Africa, pp. 225-26.

[102] It is clear that in the Christianization of Europe much use was made of the argument that the best lands had fallen to the Christian peoples. See the epistle of Bishop Daniel of Winchester to St. Boniface (Ep. lxvii) cited in Schlegel's note to Mosheim, Reid's ed. of Murdock's translation, p. 262.

[103] Bede, Eccles. Hist., ii, 13.

[104] Cp. A. H. Mann in Social England, illustr. ed., i, 217.

[105] Teutonic Mythology, Eng. trans. 1882, i, 7.

[106] Crichton and Wheaton, Scandinavia, 1837, i, 198, note. Compare Dr. Ph. Schweitzer, Geschichte der Skandinavischen Litteratur, i, 25: "In the higher circles [in the pagan period] from an early date (schon lange) unbelief and even contempt of religion flourished ... probably never reaching the lower grades of the people." See also C. F. Allen, Histoire de Danemark, French trans., Copenhagen, 1878, i, 55.

[107] Æneid, vii, 648; x, 773, 880. Mezentius does not deny that Gods exist: see x, 743.

[108] Sir G. S. Robertson, The Káfirs of the Hindu-Kush, ed. 1899, p. 379.

[109] Professor T. Clifford Allbutt, Harveian Oration on Science and Medieval Thought, 1901, p. 82.

[110] Mr. Basil Thomson, in the able introduction to his excellent work on The Fijians, speaks of primitive reformers (p. xi) as "rare souls born before their time." But there is no special "time" for reformers, who, as such, must be in advance of their average contemporaries.

[111] Garcilasso, 1. viii, c. 8; 1. ix, c. 10; Herrera, Dec. v, 1. iv, c. 4. See the passages in Réville's Hibbert Lectures, pp. 162-65.

[112] Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, Kirk's ed., pp. 81 sq., 91-93, 97; H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, v, 427-29; Clavigero, History of Mexico, Eng. tr. ed. 1807, B. iv, §§ 4, 15; vii. § 42.

[113] See the author's Pagan Christs, 2nd ed. pp. 60-62, 361. Cp. Lafcadio Hearn, Japan, 1904, pp. 313-14.

[114] Cp. T. Williams, Fiji and the Fijians, ed. 1870, i, 231; Turner, Samoa a Hundred Years Ago, 1884, p. 202.

[115] "A long time elapses between each step that their [missionaries'] stations advance: and when they do it invariably is under the influence of some chief that they are even then led on." Dalton, Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa, ed. 1891, p. 102.

[116] See Professor Sully's Studies of Childhood, 1895.

[117] Rev. S. Smith, Church Work among the Deaf and Dumb, 1875, cited by Spencer, Principles of Sociology, iii, § 583. Cp. the testimony cited there from Dr. Kitto, Lost Senses, p. 200.

[118] Die griechischen Culte und Mythen, 1887, pp. 263, 276, 277, etc. What is true as regards the thesis is that some of the central insanities of religion, such as the cult of human sacrifice, seem to have been propagated in all directions from an Asiatic centre. See the author's Pagan Christs, 2nd ed. pp. 273, 292, 343, 354, 362, etc. Cp. the Rev. D. Macdonald's Asiatic Origin of the Oceanic Languages, Luzac & Co., 1894; the Nubische Grammatik of Lepsius, 1880; and Terrien de Lacouperie, Western Origin of the Early Chinese Civilization, 1894, pp. 134, 362-63.

[119] Dr. Andrew White, A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, 1896, i, 23.

[120] Dr. B. Seeman, Viti, 1862, pp. 179-82.

[121] Cp. Lang (Myth, Ritual, and Religion, i, 91) as to the contemptuous disbelief of savages in Christian myths. Mr. Lang observes that this shows savages and civilized men to have "different standards of credulity." That, however, does not seem to be the true inference. Each order of believer accepts the myths of his own creed, and derides others.

[122] Cp. Decharme, La Critique des trad. relig. chez les Grecs, 1904, p. 121.

[123] The same process will be recorded later in the case of the intercourse of Crusaders and Saracens; and in the seventeenth century it is noted by La Bruyère (Caractères, ch. xvi, Des esprits forts, par. 3) as occurring in his day. The anonymous English author of an essay on The Agreement of the Customs of the East Indians with those of the Jews (1705, pp. 152-53) naïvely endorses La Bruyère. Macaulay's remark to the Edinburgh electors, on the view taken of sectarian strifes by a man who in India had seen the worship of the cow, is well known.

[124] Cp. Sayce, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 96, 121-22; Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 74; Tiele, Egyptian Religion, p. 36; and Outlines, p. 52.

[125] Cp. Tiele, Outlines, pp. 109-110, and Fischer, Heidenthum und Offenbarung, p. 59. Professor Max Müller's insistence that the lines of Vedic religion could not have been "crossed by trains of thought which started from China, from Babylon, or from Egypt" (Physical Religion, p. 251), does not affect the hypothesis put above. The Professor admits (p. 250) the exact likeness of the Babylonian fire-cult to that of Agni.

[126] But cp. Müller, Anthropolog. Relig., p. 164, as to possible later developments; and see above, pp. 45-47, as to the many cases in which conquering races have actually adopted the Gods of the conquered.

[127] Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, ii (2nd ed.), 372, 379, 384.

[128] Id. p. 395.

[129] Max Müller, Selected Essays, 1881, ii, 207-208.

[130] Cp. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda, 1894, pp. 94, 98-99; Ghosha, Hist. of Hindu Civ. as illust. in the Vedas, Calcutta, 1889, pp. 190-91; Max Müller, Phys. Relig., 1891, pp. 197-98.

[131] Max Müller, Selected Essays, ii, 237.

[132] Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, v, 268.

[133] Max Müller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 302, citing R. V., viii, 100, 3; and ii, 12, 5. The first passage runs: "If you wish for strength, offer to Indra a hymn of praise: a true hymn, if Indra truly exist; for some one says, Indra does not exist! Who has seen him? Whom shall we praise?" The hymn of course asseverates his existence.

[134] Cp. Rig-Veda, i, 164, 46; x, 90 (cited by Ghosa, pp. 191, 198); viii, 10 (cited by Müller, Natural Religion, pp. 227-29); and x, 82, 121, 129 (cited by Romesh Chunder Dutt, Hist. of Civ. in Anc. India, ed. 1893, i, 95-97); Muir, Sanskrit Texts, v, 353 sq.; Tiele, Outlines, p. 125; Weber, Hist. of Ind. Lit., Eng. trans., p. 5; Max Müller, Hibbert Lectures, ed. 1880, pp. 298-304, 310, 315; Phys. Relig., p. 187; Barth, Religions of India, Eng. trans., p. 8; Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii, 354.

[135] Barth, Religions of India, pp. 26, 31, citing Rig-Veda, v, 3, 1; i, 164, 46; viii, 68, 2. The phrase as to Agni is common in the Brâhmanas, but is not yet so in the Vedas. The second text cited is rendered by Müller: "That which is one the sages speak of in many ways--they call it Agni, Yama, Mâtarisvan" (Selected Essays, 1881, ii, 240).

[136] Colebrooke's Miscellaneous Essays, ed. 1873, i, 375-76. Weber (Ind. Lit., pp. 27, 137, 236, 284-85) has advanced the view that the adherents of this doctrine, who gradually became stigmatized as heretics, were the founders or beginners of Buddhism. But the view that the universe is a self-existent totality appears to enter into the Brahmans' Sankhya teaching, which is midway between the popular Nyaya system and the esoteric Vedânta (Ballantyne, Christianity Contrasted with Hindu Philosophy, 1859, pp. xviii, 59, 61). As to the connection between the Sankhya system and Buddhism, see Oldenberg, Der Buddha, sein Leben, seine Lehre, seine Gemeinde, 3te Aufl., Excurs, pp. 443.

[137] H. H. Wilson, Works, 1862-71, ii, 346.

[138] Weber, Hist. Ind. Lit., p. 236.

[139] Ballantyne, pp. 58, 61; Major Jacob, Manual of Hindu Pantheism, 1881, p. 13.

[140] Cp. Max Müller, Chips from a German Workshop, ed. 1880, i, 228-232, and Banerjea's Dialogues on the Hindu Philosophy, p. 73, cited by Major Jacob, Hindu Pantheism, p. 13.

[141] Jacob, as cited, p. 3.

[142] Max Müller, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 340-41. Cp. Barth, Religions of India, p. 81.

[143] Müller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 139.

[144] Cp. Weber, Hist. Ind. Lit., p. 28.

[145] Id. pp. 28, 220-22.

[146] Max Müller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 139, note, citing Panini, iv, 4, 60.

[147] Apparently belonging to the later or middle Buddhist period. Müller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 141.

[148] On these cp. Müller, p. 139, note; Garbe, Philos. of Anc. India, Eng. tr. 2nd ed. Chicago, 1899, p. 25; and Weber, Ind. Lit. p. 246, note, with the very full research of Professor Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, 1899, pp. 166-72.

[149] Müller, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 140-41. Cp. Garbe. p. 28.

[150] Garbe, as cited.

[151] Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, p. 171.

[152] Id. pp. 169-71.

[153] Id. p. 172.

[154] Id. ib.

[155] Trans. in English by Cowell and Gough, 1882.

[156] Garbe, as cited, p. 25.

[157] See Müller, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 141-42, citing Burnouf.

[158] Müller, Hibbert Lectures, p. 310.

[159] Bk. I, Stories ii, 7, 8, 16; vii. 180.

[160] Bk. I, 11, 40; St. ii, 32.

[161] St. vi. 162.

[162] Major Jacob, as cited, preface.

[163] Müller, Psychol. Relig., pp. 95, 97, 126; Lect. on the Vedânta Philos., 1894, p. 32.

[164] Chunder Dutt, Hist. of Civ. in Anc. India, as cited, i, 112-13.

[165] Rhys Davids, trans. of Dialogues of the Buddha, p. 166. Cp. his Buddhism, p. 143, as to Buddhist censures of an extravagant skepticism which denied every religious theory. In one of the Dialogues (ii, 25, p. 74) a contemporary sophist is cited as flatly denying a future state. Mr. Lillie, however (Buddhism in Christendom, 1887, p. 187), contends as against Professor Rhys Davids that the Upanishads were only "whispered to pupils who had gone through a severe probation."

[166] Prof. Weber (Hist. Ind. Lit., p. 4) says the peoples of the Punjaub never at all submitted to the Brahmanical rule and caste system. But the subject natives there must at the outset have been treated as an inferior order. Cp. Tiele, Outlines, p. 120 and refs.; and Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 23.

[167] Cp. Weber, Hist. Ind. Lit., pp. 236, 284-85; Max Müller, Chips, i, 228-32; Kuenen, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 258-64; and the general discussion of the problem in the author's Pagan Christs, 2nd ed. pp. 239-63.

[168] Brahmanism had itself been by this time influenced by aboriginal elements, even to the extent of affecting its language. Weber, as cited, p. 177. Cp. Müller, Anthrop. Relig., p. 164.

[169] Major Jacob, as cited, p. 12.

[170] I.e., "the enlightened," a title given to sages in general. Weber, p. 284.

[171] Weber, Hist. Ind. Lit., pp. 179, 299; Müller, Natural Religion, p. 299.

[172] See Senart, Essai sur la légende de Buddha, 2e édit., p. 297 ff.

[173] Cp. Weber, pp. 286-87, 303.

[174] See Weber, pp. 301, 307; also Rhys Davids, Buddhism, pp. 43, 83, etc.

[175] Tiele, Outlines, p. 117.

[176] Cp. Weber, Hist. Ind. Lit., pp. 27, 284-87; Max Müller, Natural Religion, p. 555; Jacobi, as there cited; Tiele, Outlines, pp. 135-36; Rhys Davids, American Lectures on Buddhism, pp. 115-16; Buddhism, p. 84; and the author's Pagan Christs, pt. ii, ch. ii, §§ 8-13.

[177] Weber, Hist. Ind. Lit., pp. 4, 39.

[178] Barth, Religions of India, p. 146.

[179] Rhys Davids, Buddhism, pp. 35, 79, 99.

[180] Cp. Pagan Christs, pp. 248-50.

[181] Rhys Davids, trans. of Dialogues, pp. 188-89; Amer. Lec. on Buddhism, 1896, pp. 127-34; Hibbert Lectures, 1881, p. 109; Buddhism, pp. 95, 98-99.

[182] Max Müller, Selected Essays, 1881, ii, 295.

[183] As the context in Professor Müller's work shows, these phrases are inaccurate.

[184] Cp. Weber, Ind. Lit., p. 289, note; and Banerjea, Dialogues on the Hindu Philosophy, p. 520, cited by Major Jacob, pp. 29-30.

[185] See Muir, Sanskrit Texts, iv, 50 (cited by Jacob, pp. 30-31), as to the Brahman view of the licence ascribed to Krishna. And see iii, 32 (cited by Jacob, p. 14), as to a remarkable disparagement of Vedism in the Bhagavat Gita.

[186] Müller, Selected Essays, ii, 363: H. H. Wilson, as last cited, ii, 368 sq.

[187] See this brought out in a strikingly dramatic way in Mr. Dennis Hird's novel, The Believing Bishop.

[188] Cp. Dr. A. Jeremias, Monotheistische Strömungen innerhalb der Babylonischen Religion, 1904, p. 44--a very candid research.

[189] The Hammurabi Code, by Chilperic Edwards, 1904, pp. 67, 68, 70 (§§ 240, 249, 266). The invocations of named Gods by Hammurabi at the close of the code, however, suggest that the force of the word was "a God." Cp. p. 76 with what follows; and see note on p. 93. On this question compare Jeremias, as cited, pp. 39, 43.

[190] Maspero, Hist. anc. des peup. de l'orient, 4e éd. p. 139; Sayce, Hib. Lect., pp. 121, 213, 215; E. Meyer, Gesch. des Alt., i (1884), 161 (§ 133); iii (1901), 167 sq. (§ 103).

[191] Sayce, pp. 219, 344; Lenormant, Chaldean Magic, Eng. ed. p. 127.

[192] Jastrow, Religions of Babylonia and Assyria, 1898, p. 318.

[193] Jastrow, p. 187; Sayce, pp. 128, 267-68. Cp. Kuenen, Religion of Israel, Eng. tr., i, 91; Menzies, History of Religion, 1895, p. 171; Gunkel, Israel und Babylonien, 1903, p. 30; Jeremias, as cited, pp. 5-6.

[194] Meyer, iii, 168; Jastrow, p. 79; Sayce, p. 331 sq., 367 sq.; Lenormant, Chaldean Magic, p. 112; Jeremias, pp. 7-23.

[195] Sayce, p. 305. Cp. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 452.

[196] Jastrow, p. 190, note, p. 319; Sayce, pp. 191-92, 367; Lenormant, pp. 112, 113, 119, 133; Jeremias, p. 26.

[197] Tiele, Outlines, p. 78; Sayce, Ancient Empires of the East, pp. 152-53; Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies, 2nd ed. iii, 13; Maspero, p. 139.

[198] Strabo, xvi, c. 1, § 6.

[199] Cp. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies, i, 110; iii, 12-13.

[200] Hibbert Lectures, p. 385.

[201] Meyer, iii, § 103; Sayce, pp. 192, 345.

[202] Cp. Jastrow, p. 662; Sayce, p. 78; and Tiele, Hist. Comparée, p. 209. It seems probable that human sacrifice was latterly restricted to the case of criminals.

[203] Cp. Meyer, iii, 173.

[204] Meyer, i, 187, and note.

[205] Cp. T. G. Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of the Hist. Records of Assyria and Babylonia, 1902, pp. 161-63.

[206] Jastrow, pp. 187, 256; Sayce, pp. 316, 320, 322, 327; Meyer, i, 183; Lenormant, p. 110; Jeremias, p. 5.

[207] Sayce, pp. 326, 341; cp. Jastrow, p. 317.

[208] Meyer, i, 599; Sayce, Hib. Lect., pp. 85-91; Anc. Emp. of the East, p. 245.

[209] Meyer, iii, § 57.

[210] Herod. i, 131.

[211] Jer. xi, 13, etc.

[212] Ezek. chs. vi, viii.

[213] Cp. the recent literature on the recovered Code of Hammurabi.

[214] Herod. i, 101.

[215] Id. iii, 79.

[216] Cp. Grote, History of Greece, pt. ii, ch. 33 (ed. 1888, iii, 442), note.

[217] Meyer, Gesch. des Alt., i, 505 (§ 417), 542 (§ 451), 617 (§ 515); Tiele, Outlines, p. 164.

[218] Herod. i, 130.

[219] Cp. Herod. iii, 94, 98; Grote, vol. iii, p. 448.

[220] Meyer, as cited, i, 505, 530 (§ 439); Tiele, Outlines, pp. 163, 165.

[221] Meyer, i, 528 (§ 438).

[222] Darmesteter, The Zendavesta (S. B. E. ser.), vol. i, introd., p. lx (1st ed.).

[223] Rawlinson, Religions of the Anc. World, p. 105; Meyer, §§ 417, 450-51.

[224] Meyer, i, 507 (§ 418).

[225] Cp. Meyer, i, 506-508; Renan, as cited by him, p. 508; Darmesteter, as cited, cc. iv-ix, 2nd ed.; Tiele, Outlines, p. 165.

[226] Meyer, i, 520 (§ 428).

[227] Meyer, i, 524 (§ 433); Tiele, Outlines, p. 178; Darmesteter, Ormazd et Ahriman, 1877, pp. 7-18.

[228] Meyer, i, § 450 (p. 541).

[229] Tiele, Outlines, p. 167. Cp. Lenormant (Chaldean Magic, p. 229), who attributes the heresy to immoral Median Magi; and Spiegel (Avesta, 1852, i, 271), who considers it a derivation from Babylon.

[230] Le Page Renouf, Hibbert Lectures on Relig. of Anc. Egypt, 2nd ed. p. 92; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, Eng. tr. 1897, p. 109. Cp. p. 260. Renouf (pp. 93-103) supplies an interesting analysis.

[231] Meyer, Gesch. des Alt. i, 83; Wiedemann, as cited, p. 103 sq.

[232] Cp. Major Glyn Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes, 1906, pp. 354, 417, 433.

[233] Wiedemann, as cited, p. 136.

[234] Meyer, p. 81 (§ 66); Tiele, Hist. of the Egypt. Relig. Eng. tr., pp. 119, 154.

[235] Le Page Renouf, Hibbert Lectures, 2nd ed. p. 240.

[236] Meyer, Geschichte des Alten Egyptens, in Oncken's series, 1877, B. iii, Kap. 3, p. 249; Gesch. des Alt. i. 109; Tiele, Egypt. Relig. pp. 149, 151, 157; Maspero, Hist. anc. des peuples de l'orient, 4é ed., pp. 278-80; Le Page Renouf, as cited, pp. 215-30; Wiedemann, pp. 12, 13, 301; Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion, Eng. tr. 1907, p. 57.

[237] Erman, pp. 59, 60.

[238] Tiele, Egypt. Rel. pp. 153, 155, 156.

[239] Tiele, p. 157.

[240] Brugsch, Religion und Mythologie der alten Aegypter, 1884; 1 Hälfte, pp. 90-91; Kuenen, Religion of Israel, Eng. trans. i, 395-97; Tiele, pp. 226-30; Erman, pp. 71, 103-105.

[241] Cp. Wiedemann, p. 302.

[242] Tiele, pp. 114, 118, 154. Cp. Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums, i, 101-102 (§ 85). Wiedemann, p. 260.

[243] Dr. Wallis Budge, Egyptian Magic, 1899, end.

[244] Tiele, p. 157. Cp. p. 217.

[245] Cp. Maspero, as cited, pp. 274-76.

[246] Meyer, i, 72.

[247] Maspero's spelling.

[248] Von Bissing's spelling.

[249] De Garis Davies, The Tombs of Amarna.

[250] Maspero (Hist. anc. des peuples de l'orient, ed. 1905, p. 251) says he respected also Osiris and Horus.

[251] Brugsch, Egypt under the Pharaohs, ed. 1891, p. 216. Maspero (as cited, p. 250) recognizes no such revolt.

[252] Maspero, Hist. anc. de l'orient, 7e éd. pp. 248-54; Brugsch, Hist. of Egypt under the Pharaohs, Eng. trans. ed. 1891, ch. x; Meyer, Geschichte des alten Aegyptens, B. iii, Kap. 4, 5; Gesch. des Alterthums, i, 271-74; Tiele, pp. 161-65; Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt, iii (1905), 10; Wiedemann, pp. 35-39; Erman, pp. 61-70; L. W. King and H. H. Hall, Egypt and Western Asia in the Light of Recent Discoveries, 1907, pp. 383-87; F. W. von Bissing, Geschichte Aegyptens in Umriss, 1904, pp. 52-53.

[253] Tiele, p. 144; Meyer, Gesch. des Alt. i, 135.

[254] "We do not find magic predominant [in the tales] until the Ptolemaic age. At that time the physical magic of the early times reappears in full force" (Petrie, Religion and Conscience in Ancient Egypt, 1898, p. 29. Cp. Maspero, p. 286; Budge, Egyptian Magic, pp. 64, 233).

[255] Petrie, Hist. iii, 174-75, 180.

[256] Tiele, pp. 180-82; Meyer, Gesch. des Alt. i, 140-43.

[257] Tiele, pp. 184-85, 196, 217.

[258] Herodotos, ii, 48, 60-64, etc. Cp. Maspero, p. 286.

[259] "The Osiride and Cosmic Gods rose in importance as time went on, while the Abstract Gods continually sank on the whole. This agrees with the general idea that the imported Gods have to yield their position gradually to the older and more deeply-rooted faiths" (Petrie, as last cited, p. 95).

[260] The familiar narrative of Herodotos is put in doubt by the monuments. Sayce, Ancient Empires, p. 246. But cp. Meyer, i, 611 (§ 508).

[261] Tiele, p. 158.

[262] See figures 209, 212, 221, 235, 242, 249, 250, in Sharpe's Hist. of Egypt, 7th ed.

[263] Cp. Sharpe, ii, 287-95; Budge, Egyptian Magic, p. 64.

[264] Compare the orthodox view of Bishop Westcott, Essays in the History of Religious Thought in the West, 1891, pp. 197-200.

[265] These fights had not ceased even in the time of Julian (Sharpe, ii, 280). Cp. Juvenal, Sat. xv, 33 sq.

[266] Metamorphoses, B., xi.

[267] Cp. Lane, Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, passim.

[268] Cp. Meyer, Gesch. des Alt. i, 232-33.

[269] Meyer, i, 237.

[270] Put by Canon Rawlinson, History of Phoenicia, 1889, p. 321.

[271] As to the universality of this tendency, see Meyer, ii, 97.

[272] Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums, i, 251, § 209; Tiele, Outlines, p. 84; Histoire comparée des anciennes religions, Fr. tr. pp. 320-21.

[273] Rawlinson, Phoenicia, p. 340; Sayce, Anc. Emp. p. 204; Menzies, Hist. of Relig. p. 168.

[274] Præparatio Evangelica, B. i, c. 9-10.

[275] Meyer, i, 249.

[276] Cp. Sayce, Hibbert Lectures, p. 159, as to Persian methods of the same kind.

[277] Div. Inst. i, 23.

[278] E. Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums, ii, 104, 105.

[279] As to Greek instances, cp. Bury, Hist. of Greece, ed. 1906, pp. 53, 55, 65, 92, 104; and as to Roman, see Ettore Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman History, Eng. trans. 1906, ch. x, where it is shown that Virginia and Lucretia are primarily ancient Latin divinities; and (ch. vii) that both Numa and Servius Tullius are probably in the same case, Servius Rex being in all likelihood the servus rex Nemorensis of the Arician grove, round whom turns the research of Dr. J. G. Frazer's Golden Bough; while tullius is an old Latin word for a spring. See also ch. iv as to Acca Larentia, another Goddess reduced by the historians to the status of a hetaira, as was Flora. Horatius Cocles (id. p. 157) is also a God reduced to a hero.

[280] So Sayce, Ancient Empires, p. 204.

[281] Sayce, Ancient Empires, p. 202.

[282] Legge, Religions of China, 1880, pp. 11, 16; Douglas, Confucianism and Taouism, 1879, pp. 12, 82.

[283] Menzies, History of Religion, p. 158.

[284] Legge, pp. 12, 19, 23, 25, 26; Tiele, Outlines, p. 27; Douglas, p. 79.

[285] Legge, Religions of China, p. 142.

[286] See the citations made by Legge, p. 5.

[287] Id. p. 139; cp. Menzies, p. 109.

[288] Legge, p. 140; cp. p. 117; Douglas, p. 81.

[289] Legge, Religions, p. 117; Life and Teachings of Confucius, 4th ed. p. 101; Douglas, p. 68; Tiele, Outlines, p. 29.

[290] Tiele, p. 31; Legge, Religions, p. 143.

[291] Tiele, pp. 31-32; Douglas, pp. 68, 84. But cp. Legge, Religions, pp. 123, 127.

[292] Legge, Life and Teachings, pp. 100-101.

[293] Douglas, pp. 179, 184.

[294] See the author's Pagan Christs, pp. 214-22.

[295] Pauthier, Chine Moderne, p. 351. There is a tradition that Lao-Tsze took his doctrine from an ancient sage who flourished before 1120 B.C.; and he himself (Tau Teh King, trans. by Chalmers, The Speculations of Lao-Tsze, 1868, ch. 41) cites doctrine as to Tau from "those who have spoken (before me)." Cp. cc. 22, 41, 62, 65, 70.

[296] Cp. E. J. Simcox, Primitive Civilizations, 1894, ii, 18.

[297] Pauthier, p. 358; Chalmers, pp. 14, 37.

[298] Legge, Religions, p. 137.

[299] Tau Teh King, as cited, pp. 38. 49, ch. 49, 63; Pauthier, p. 358; Legge, p. 223.

[300] Analects, xxv, 36; Legge, Religions, p. 143; Life and Teachings, p. 113; Douglas, p. 144.

[301] Legge, Religions, p. 164. We do find, however, an occasional allusion to deity, as in the phrase "the Great Architect" (Chalmers' trans. 1868. ch. lxxiv, p. 57), and "Heaven" is spoken of in a somewhat personalized sense. Still, Mr. Chalmers complains (p. xv) that Lao-Tsze did not recognize a personal God, but put "an indefinite, impersonal, and unconscious Tau" above all things (ch. iv).

[302] F. H. Balfour, Art. "A Philosopher who Never Lived," in Leaves from my Chinese Scrap-book, 1887, p. 83 sq.

[303] Id. pp. 86-90.

[304] Id. p. 134.

[305] Legge, Religions of China, p. 147; Tiele, Outlines, p. 33.

[306] Legge, Life and Works of Mencius, 1875, pp. 29, 50, 77, etc.

[307] Tiele, p. 33.

[308] Legge, Life and Works of Mencius, pp. 44, 47, 56, 57, etc.

[309] Miss Simcox, Primitive Civilizations, ii, 36-37, following Chavannes.

[310] Legge's Mencius, p. 49; cp. p. 48.

[311] Cp. Legge's Mencius, pp. 47, 131; Chalmers' Lao-Tsze, pp. 23, 28, 53, 58 (chs. xxx, xxxi, xxxvi, lxvii, lxxiv); Douglas, Taouism, chs. ii, iii.

[312] Legge, Religions of China, p. 147. The ruler in question seems to have been of non-Chinese descent. E. H. Parker, China, 1901, p. 18.

[313] Legge, Religions of China, p. 159.

[314] Id. p. 60.

[315] Tiele, p. 37.

[316] Douglas, p. 222.

[317] Id. p. 239.

[318] Tiele, p. 35; Douglas, p. 287. Taouism, however, has a rather noteworthy ethical code. See Douglas, ch. vi. It has to be noted that the translations of the Tâo Têh King have varied to a disquieting degree. Cp. Drews, Gesch. des Monismus, p. 121.

[319] Details are given in the author's Pagan Christs, pt. iv.

[320] Nadaillac (L'Amérique préhistorique, 1883, pp. 273-84) gives them little of this credit, pronouncing them at once cruel and degenerate. He credits them, however, with being the first makers of roads and aqueducts in Central America, and cites the record of their free public hospitals, maintained by the sacerdotal kings. Prescott, on the other hand, overstated the bloodlessness of their religion (Conquest of Mexico, Kirk's ed. 1890, p. 41 and ed. note).

[321] Réville, Hibbert Lectures, On the Native Religions of Mexico and Peru, 1884, pp. 62-67.

[322] J. G. Müller, Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen, ed. 1867, pp. 577-90; H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, iii, 279. (Passage cited in author's Pagan Christs, pp. 402-403; where is also noted Dr. Tylor's early view, discarded later, that Quetzalcoatl was a real personage.)

[323] Cp. Prescott, as cited.

[324] Réville, p. 66.

[325] J. G. Müller, as cited, pp. 473-74; Réville, p. 46. Dr. Réville speaks of the worship of the unifying deity as pretty much "effaced" by that of the lower Gods. It seems rather to have been a priestly effort to syncretize these. Still, such an effacement did take place, as we have seen, in Central Asia in ancient times, after a syncretic idea had been reached (above, p. 45). As to the alleged monotheism of King Netzahuatl (or Netzahualcoyotl), of Tezcuco, mentioned above, p. 39, see Lang, Making of Religion, p. 270, note, and p. 282; Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, as cited, p. 92; and J. G. Müller, as cited, pp. 473-74, 480.

[326] As to the capabilities of the Aztec language, see Bancroft, Native Races, ii, 727-28 (quoted in Pagan Christs, p. 416, note).

[327] Refs. above, p. 41. Cp. Lang, Making of Religion, p. 270, note, and p. 282; J. G. Müller, as cited, pp. 473-74; and Nadaillac, as cited, p. 289.

[328] The Christianized descendant of the Tezcucan kings, Ixtilxochitl, who wrote their history, adds the words, "Cause of Causes"--a very unlikely formula in the place and circumstances.

[329] Above, p. 41. Cp. Lang, as last cited, pp. 263, 282.

[330] Cp. Kirk's ed. of Prescott's Conquest of Peru, 1889, p. 44; Réville, p. 189-90; Lang, as cited below.

[331] Réville, p. 152, citing Garcilasso. See same page for a story of resistance to the invention of an alphabet.

[332] Réville, p. 50. citing Torquemada, 1. viii, c. 20. end.

[333] History of the Affairs of New Spain, French trans. 1880, 1. vi, ch. 7, pp. 342-43. Cp. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, Kirk's ed. pp. 31, 33.

[334] Prescott, p. 34.

[335] "The priest says, 'the spirit is hungry.' the fact being that he himself is hungry. He advises the killing of an animal" (Max Müller, Anthropological Religion, p. 307).

[336] On the general tendency cp. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Manual of the Science of Religion, pp. 77-84.

[337] In the windows of the shop of the S. P. C. K., in London, may be often seen large displays of reproduced Madonna-pictures, by Catholic artists, at popular prices.

[338] Compare the author's Pagan Christs, pp. 66-95.

[339] Jud. xvii, xviii.

[340] Gen. xxxi, 19, 34, 35.

[341] Compare Hugo Winckler, Geschichte Israels, i, 56-58.

[342] Compare Tiele, Outlines, p. 87; Hist. comp. des anc. relig. p. 342 sq.; Kuenen, Relig. of Israel, iii, 35, 44, 398. Winckler (Gesch. Israels, i, 34-38) pronounces the original Semitic Yahu, and the Yahweh evolved from him, to have been each a "Wetter-Gott."

[343] The word is applied to the apparition of Samuel in the story of the Witch of Endor (1 Sam. xxviii, 13).

[344] The unlearned reader may here be reminded that in Gen. i the Hebrew word translated "God" is "Elohim" and that the phrase in Gen. ii rendered "the Lord God" in our versions is in the original "Yah-weh-Elohim." The first chapter, with its plural deity, is, however, probably the later as well as the more dignified narrative, and represents the influence of Babylonian quasi-science. See, for a good general account of the case, The Witness of Assyria, by C. Edwards, 1893, ch. ii. Cp. Wellhausen, Proleg. to Hist. of Israel, Eng. tr. pp. 196-308; E. J. Fripp, Composition of the Book of Genesis, 1892, passim; Driver, Introd. to the Lit. of the Old Test. 1891, pp. 18-19.

[345] Winckler, Gesch. Isr. i, 29-30.

[346] Cp. Meyer, Gesch. des Alt. i, 398.

[347] See the myth of the offerings put in it by the Philistines (1 Sam. vi).

[348] 1 Sam. iii, 3. Cp. ch. ii, 12-22. Contrast Lev. xvi, 2, ff.

[349] 1 Sam. iv, 3-11. Cp. v. vii, 2.

[350] 2 Sam. vi.

[351] 1 Kings xii, 28; Hosea viii, 4-6. Cp. Jud. viii. 27; Hosea viii, 5.

[352] Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 196. But see above, p. 79.

[353] 11th cent. B.C.

[354] 2 Kings xviii, 4, 22; xxiii, 48.

[355] 2 Kings xxiii.

[356] Jer. i, 18; iii, 16; vi, 13; vii, 4-22; viii, 8; xviii, 18; xx, 1, 2; xxiii, 11.

[357] Jer. ii, 28; xi, 13.

[358] So Kuenen, vol. i. App. i to Ch. 1.

[359] Amos v, 21, 22.

[360] Hosea ii, 11; vi, 6.

[361] Isa. i, 11-14.

[362] Mic. vi, 6-8.

[363] Cp. M. Müller, Nat. Rel. pp. 560-61; Psychol. Rel. pp. 30-32; Wellhausen, Israel, p. 465. If the Moabite Stone be genuine--and it is accepted by Stade (Gesch. des Volkes Israel, in Oncken's Series, 1881, i, 86) and by most contemporary scholars--the Hebrew alphabetic writing is carried back to the ninth century B.C. An account of the Stone is given in The Witness of Assyria, by C. Edwards, ch. xi. See again Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, bk. i, ch. 14, Eng. tr. 1894, i, 280, for a theory of the extreme antiquity of the alphabet.

[364] Dr. Cheyne (Art. Amos in Encyc. Biblica) gives some good reasons for attaching little weight to such objections, but finally joins in calling Amos "a surprising phenomenon."

[365] Driver, Introd. to Lit. of Old Test. ch. vi, § 2 (p. 290, ed. 1891). Cp. Kuenen, Relig. of Israel, i, 86; and Robertson Smith, art. Joel, in Encyc. Brit.

[366] Cp. Wellhausen, Israel, p. 501; Driver, ch. vii (1st ed. pp. 352 sq., esp. pp. 355, 361, 362, 365); Stade, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, i, 85.

[367] E.g. Ps. l, 8-15; li, 16-17, where v. 19 is obviously a priestly addition, meant to countervail vv. 16, 17.

[368] Cp. Kuenen, i, 156; Wellhausen, Prolegomena, p. 139; Israel, p. 478.

[369] As to a possible prehistoric connection of Hebrews and Perso-Aryans, see Kuenen, i, 254, discussing Tiele and Spiegel, and iii, 35, 44, treating of Tiele's view, set forth in his Godsdienst van Zarathustra, that fire-worship was the original basis of Yahwism. Cp. Land's views, discussed by Kuenen, p. 398; and Renan, Hist. des langues sémit. p. 473.

[370] Cheyne, Introd. to Isaiah, Prol. pp. xxx, xxxviii, following Kosters.

[371] There is a cognate dispute as to the condition of the Samaritans at the time of the Return. Stade (Gesch. den Volkes Israel, i, 602) holds that they were numerous and well-placed. Winckler (Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen, 1892, p. 107) argues that, on the contrary, they were poor and unorganized, and looked to the Jews for help. So also E. Meyer, Gesch. des Alt. iii (1901), 214.

[372] Cp. Rowland Williams, The Hebrew Prophets, ii (1871), 38. This translator's rendering of the phrase cited by Zephaniah runs: "Neither good does the eternal nor evil."

[373] Cp. E. Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums, iii, 216.

[374] Mal. ii, 17; iii, 13. Cp. ii, 8, 11.

[375] Cp. Jer. xxxiii, 24; xxxviii, 19.

[376] Eccles. iii, 19-21.

[377] Ch. v. Renan's translation lends lucidity.

[378] Driver, Introduction, p. 378. Prof. Dillon (Skeptics of the Old Testament, p. 155) goes so far as to pronounce Agur a "Hebrew Voltaire," which is somewhat of a straining of the few words he has left. Cp. Dr. Moncure Conway, Solomon and Solomonic Literature, 1899, p. 55. In any case, Agur belongs to an age of "advanced religious reflection" (Cheyne, Job and Solomon, p. 152).

[379] Driver, Introduction, p. 378.

[380] Biscoe, Hist. of the Acts of the Apostles, ed. 1829, p. 80, following Selden and Lightfoot.

[381] S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism, 1896, p. 189, citing Sanhedrin, 386, and Pseudo-Jonathan to Gen. iv, 8. Cp. pp. 191-92, citing a mention of Epicurus in the Mishna.

[382] The familiar phrase in the Psalms (xiv, i; liii, 1), "The fool hath said in his heart, there is no God," supposing it to be evidence for anything, clearly does not refer to any reasoned unbelief. Atheism could not well be quite so general as the phrase, taken literally, would imply.

[383] Cp. W. R. Sorley, Jewish Christians and Judaism, 1881, p. 9; Robertson Smith, Old Test. in the Jewish Ch. ed. 1892, pp. 48-49. These writers somewhat exaggerate the novelty of the view they accept. Cp. Biscoe, History of the Acts, ed. 1829, p. 101.

[384] Wisdom, c. 2.

[385] Cp. the implications in Ecclesiasticus, vi, 4-6; xvi, 11-12, as to the ethics of many believers.

[386] Kuenen, ii, 242-43.

[387] Kalisch, Comm. on Leviticus, xxv, 8, pt. ii, p. 548.

[388] In the Wisdom of Solomon, iii, 13; iv, 1, the old desire for offspring is seen to be in part superseded by the newer belief in personal immortality.

[389] Schechter, Studies in Judaism, 1896, p. 216. Compare pp. 193-94.

[390] See Supernatural Religion, 6th ed. i, 97-100, 103-21; Mosheim, Comm. on Christ. Affairs before Constantine, Vidal's tr. i, 70; Schürer, Jewish People in the Time of Jesus, Eng. tr. Div. II, vol. iii, p. 152.

[391] Sat. xiv, 96-106.

[392] Cp. Horace, 1 Sat. v, 100.

[393] Rev. A. Edersheim, History of the Jewish Nation after the Destruction of Jerusalem, 1856, p. 462, citing the Avoda Sara, a treatise directed against idolatry! Other Rabbinical views cited by Dr. Edersheim as being in comparison "sublime" are no great improvement on the above--e.g., the conception of deity as "the prototype of the high priest, and the king of kings,"--"who created everything for his own glory." With all this in view, Dr. Edersheim thought it showed "spiritual decadence" in Philo Judæus to speak of Persian magi and Indian gymnosophists in the same laudatory tone as he used of the Essenes, and to attend "heathenish theatrical representations" (p. 372).

[394] See Ps. xc, 2; Prov. viii, 22, 26.

[395] This is seen persisting in the lore of the Neo-Platonist writer Sallustius Philosophus (4th c.), De Diis et Mundo, c. 7, though quite unscientifically held.

[396] Cp. Tiele, Outlines, pp. 205, 207, 212.

[397] Cp. E. Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums, ii, 533.

[398] Cp. K. O. Müller, Literature of Ancient Greece, ed. 1847, p. 77.

[399] Duncker, Gesch. des Alterth. 2 Aufl. iii, 209-10, 252-54, 319 sq.; E. Meyer, Gesch. des Alterth. ii, 181, 365, 369, 377, 380, 535 (see also ii, 100, 102, 105, 106, 115 note, etc.); W. Christ, Gesch. der griech. Lit. 3te Aufl. p. 12; Gruppe, Die griech. Culte und Mythen, 1887, p. 165 sq.

[400] E. Curtius, Griech. Gesch. i, 28, 29, 35, 40, 41, 101, 203, etc.; Meyer, ii, 369.

[401] See the able and learned essay of S. Reinach, Le Mirage Orientate, reprinted from L'Anthropologie, 1893. I do not find that its arguments affect any of the positions here taken up. See pp. 40-41.

[402] Meyer, ii. 369; Benn, The Philosophy of Greece, 1898, p. 42.

[403] Cp. Bury, History of Greece, ed. 1906, pp. vi, 10, 27, 32-34, 40, etc.; Burrows, The Discoveries in Crete, 1907, ch. ix; Maisch, Manual of Greek Antiquities, Eng. tr. §§ 8, 9, 10, 60; H. R. Hall, The Oldest Civilization of Greece, 1901, pp. 31, 32.

[404] Cp. K. O. Müller, Hist. of the Doric Race, Eng. tr. 1830, i, 8-10; Busolt, Griech. Gesch. 1885, i, 33; Grote, Hist. of Greece, 10-vol. ed. 1888, iii, 3-5, 35-44; Duncker, iii, 136, n.; E. Meyer, Gesch. des Alterthums, i, 299-310 (§§ 250-58); E. Curtius, i, 29; Schömann, Griech. Alterthümer, as cited, i, 2-3, 89; Burrows, ch. ix.

[405] Cp. Meyer, ii, 97; and his art. "Baal" in Roscher's Ausführl. Lex. Mythol. i, 2867.

[406] The fallacy of this tradition, as commonly put, was well shown by Renouvier long ago--Manuel de philosophie ancienne, 1844, i, 3-13. Cp. Ritter, as cited below.

[407] Cp. on one side, Ritter, Hist. of Anc. Philos. Eng. tr. i, 151; Renan, Études d'hist. religieuse, pp. 47-48; Zeller, Hist. of Greek Philos. Eng. tr. 1881, i, 43-49; and on the other, Ueberweg, Hist. of Philos. Eng. tr. i, 31, and the weighty criticism of Lange, Gesch. des Materialismus, i, 126-27 (Eng. tr. i, 9, note 5).

[408] Cp. Curtius, i, 125; Bury, introd. and ch. i.

[409] Cp. Bury, as cited.

[410] As to the primary mixture of "Pelasgians" and Hellenes, cp. Busolt, i, 27-32; Curtius, i, 27; Schömann, i, 3-4; Thirlwall, Hist. of Greece, ed. 1839, i, 51-52, 116. K. O. Müller (Doric Race, Eng. tr. i, 10) and Thirlwall, who follows him (i, 45-47), decide that the Thracians cannot have been very different from the Hellenes in dialect, else they could not have influenced the latter as they did. This position is clearly untenable, whatever may have been the ethnological facts. It would entirely negate the possibility of reaction between Greeks, Kelts, Egyptians, Semites, Romans, Persians, and Hindus.

[411] Murray, Four Stages of Greek Religion, 1912, p. 59.

[412] Cp. Meyer, Gesch. des Alt. ii, 583.

[413] The question is discussed at some length in the author's Evolution of States, 1912.

[414] Lit. of Anc. Greece, pp. 41-47. The discussion of the Homeric problem is, of course, alien to the present inquiry.

[415] Introd. to Scientif. Mythol. Eng. tr. pp. 180, 181, 291. Cp. Curtius, i, 126.

[416] Cp. Curtius, i, 107, as to the absence in Homer of any distinction between Greeks and barbarians; and Grote, 10-vol. ed. 1888, iii, 37-38, as to the same feature in Archilochos.

[417] Duncker, Gesch. des Alt., as cited, iii. 209-10; pp. 257, 319 sq. Cp. K. O. Müller, as last cited, pp. 181, 193; Curtius, i, 43-49, 53, 54, 107, 365, 373, 377, etc.; Grote, iii, 39-41; and Meyer, ii, 104.

[418] Duncker, iii, 214; Curtius, i, 155, 121; Grote, iii, 279-80.

[419] Busolt, Griech. Gesch. 1885, i, 171-72. Cp. pp. 32-34; and Curtius, i, 42.

[420] On the general question cp. Gruppe, Die griechischen Culte und Mythen, pp. 151 ff., 157, 158 ff., 656 ff., 672 ff.

[421] Preller, Griech. Mythol. 2 Aufl. i, 260; Tiele, Outlines, p. 211; R. Brown, Jr., Semit. Influ. in Hellenic Mythol. 1898, p. 130; Murray, Hist. of Anc. Greek Lit. p. 35; H. R. Hall, Oldest Civilization of Greece, 1901, p. 290.

[422] See Tiele, Outlines, pp. 210, 212. Cp., again, Curtius, Griech. Gesch. i, 95, as to the probability that the "twelve Gods" were adjusted to the confederations of twelve cities; and again p. 126.

[423] "Even the title 'king' (Anax) seems to have been borrowed by the Greek from Phrygian.... It is expressly recorded that tyrannos is a Lydian word. Basileus ('king') resists all attempts to explain it as a purely Greek formation, and the termination assimilates it to certain Phrygian words." (Prof. Ramsay, in Encyc. Brit. art. Phrygia). In this connection note the number of names containing Anax (Anaximenes, Anaximandros, Anaxagoras, etc.) among the Ionian Greeks.

[424] iv, 561 sq.

[425] It is now agreed that this is merely a guess. The document, further, has been redacted and interpolated.

[426] Prehist. Antiq. of the Aryan Peoples, Eng. tr. p. 423. Wilamowitz holds that the verses Od. xi, 566-631, are interpolations made later than 600 B.C.

[427] Tiele, Outlines, p. 209; Preller, p. 263.

[428] Meyer says on the contrary (Gesch. des Alt. ii, 103, Anm.) that "Kronos is certainly a Greek figure"; but he cannot be supposed to dispute that the Greek Kronos cult is grafted on a Semitic one.

[429] Sayce, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 54, 181. Cp. Cox, Mythol. of the Aryan Nations, p. 260, note. It has not, however, been noted in the discussions on Semelê that Semlje is the Slavic name for the Earth as Goddess. Ranke, History of Servia, Eng. tr. p. 43.

[430] Iliad, xiv, 201, 302.

[431] Sayce, Hibbert Lectures, p. 367 sq.; Ancient Empires, p. 158. Note p. 387 in the Lectures as to the Assyrian influence, and p. 391 as to the Homeric notion in particular. Cp. W. Christ, Gesch. der griech. Literatur, § 68.

[432] It is unnecessary to examine here the view of Herodotos that many of the Greek cults were borrowed from Egypt. Herodotos reasoned from analogies, with no exact historical knowledge. But cp. Renouvier, Manuel, i, 67, as to probable Egyptian influence.

[433] Cp. Meyer, ii, §§ 453-60, as to the eastern initiative of Orphic theology.

[434] It is noteworthy that the traditional doctrine associated with the name of Orpheus included a similar materialistic theory of the beginning of things. Athenagoras, Apol. c. 19. Cp. Renouvier, Manuel de philos. anc. i, 69-72; and Meyer, ii, 743.

[435] Cp. Meyer, ii, 726. As to the oriental elements in Hesiod see further Gruppe, Die griechischen Culte und Mythen, 1887, pp. 577, 587, 589, 593.

[436] Cp. however, Bury (Hist. of Greece, pp. 6, 65), who assumes that the Greeks brought the hexameter with them to Hellas. Contrast Murray, Four Stages, p. 61.

[437] Mahaffy, History of Classical Greek Literature, 1880, i, 15.

[438] Id. p. 16. Cp. W. Christ, as cited, p. 79.

[439] Mahaffy, pp. 16-17.

[440] Od. xviii, 352.

[441] Od. vi, 240; Il. v, 185.

[442] Od. xxii, 39.

[443] In Od. xiv, 18, antitheoi means not "opposed to the Gods," but "God-like," in the ordinary Homeric sense of noble-looking or richly attired, as men in the presence of the Gods. Cp. vi, 241. Yet a Scholiast on a former passage took it in the sense of God-opposing. Clarke's ed. in loc. Liddell and Scott give no use of atheos, in the sense of denying the Gods, before Plato (Apol. 26 C. etc.), or in the sense of ungodly before Pindar (P. iv, 288) and Æschylus (Eumen. 151). For Sophocles it has the force of "God-forsaken"--Oedip. Tyr. 254 (245), 661 (640), 1360 (1326). Cp. Electra, 1181 (1162). But already before Plato we find the terms apistos and atheos, "faithless" or "infidel" and "atheist," used as terms of moral aspersion, quite in the Christian manner (Euripides, Helena, 1147), where there is no question of incredulity.

[444] Cp. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion, 2nd ed. i, 14-15. and cit. there from Professor Jebb.

[445] Cp. Meyer, Gesch. des Alterthums, ii, 724-27; Grote, as cited, i, 279-81.

[446] Meyer, ii, 724, 727.

[447] The tradition is confused. Stesichoros is said first to have aspersed Helen, whereupon she, as Goddess, struck him with blindness: thereafter he published a retractation, in which he declared that she had never been at Troy, an eidolon or phantasm taking her name; and on this his sight was restored. We can but divine through the legend the probable reality, the documents being lost. See Grote, as cited, for the details. For the eulogies of Stesichoros by ancient writers, see Girard, Sentiment religieux en Grèce, 1869, pp. 175-79.

[448] Cp. Meyer (1901), iii. § 244.

[449] Ol. i, 42-57, 80-85.

[450] Ol. ix, 54-61.

[451] He dedicated statues to Zeus, Apollo, and Hermes. Pausanias, ix, 16, 17.

[452] Herodot. ii. 53.

[453] A ruler of Libyan stock, and so led by old Libyan connections to make friends with Greeks. He reigned over fifty years, and the Greek connection grew very close. Curtius, i, 344-45. Cp. Grote, i, 144-55.

[454] Grote, 10-vol. ed. 1888, i, 307, 326, 329, 413. Cp. i, 27-30; ii, 52; iii, 39-41, etc.

[455] K. O. Müller, Introd. to Mythology, p. 192.

[456] "Then one [of the Persians] who before had in nowise believed in [or, recognized the existence of] the Gods, offered prayer and supplication, doing obeisance to Earth and Heaven" (Persae, 497-99).

[457] Agamemnon, 370-372. This is commonly supposed to be a reference to Diagoras the Melian (below, p. 159).

[458] Agam. 170-72 (160-62).

[459] So Whittaker, Priests, Philosophers, and Prophets, 1911, pp. 42-43.

[460] So Buckley, in Bohn trans. of Æschylus, p. 100. He characterizes as a "skeptical formula" the phrase "Zeus, whoever he may be"; but goes on to show that such formulas were grounded on the Semitic notion that the true name of God was concealed from man.

[461] Grote, ed. 1888, vii, 8-21. See the whole exposition of the exceptionally interesting 67th chapter.

[462] Cp. Meyer, ii, 431; K. O. Müller, Introd. to Mythol. pp. 189-92; Duncker, p. 340; Curtius, i, 384; Thirlwall, i, 200-203; Burckhardt, Griech. Culturgesch. 1898, ii. 19. As to the ancient beginnings of a priestly organization, see Curtius, i, 92-94, 97. As to the effects of its absence, see Heeren, Polit. Hist. of Anc. Greece, Eng. tr. 1829, pp. 59-63; Burckhardt, as cited, ii, 31-32; Meyer, as last cited; Zeller, Philos. der Griechen, 3te Aufl. i, 44 sq. Lange's criticism of Zeller's statement (Gesch. des Materialismus, 3te Aufl. i, 124-26, note 2) practically concedes the proposition. The influence of a few powerful priestly families is not denied. The point is that they remained isolated.

[463] Cp. K. O. MÜller, Introd. to Mythol. p. 195; Curtius, i, 387, 389, 392; Duncker, iii, 519-21, 563; Thirlwall, i, 204; Barthélemy St. Hilaire, préf. to tr. of Metaphys. of Aristotle, p. 14. Professor Gilbert Murray, noting that Homer and Hesiod treated the Gods as elements of romance, or as facts to be catalogued, asks: "Where is the literature of religion: the literature which treated the Gods as Gods? It must," he adds, "have existed"; and he holds that we "can see that the religious writings were both early and multitudinous" (Hist. of Anc. Greek Lit. p. 62; cp. Meyer and Mahaffy as cited above, pp. 125-26. "Writings" is not here to be taken literally; the early hymns were unwritten). The priestly hymns and oracles and mystery-rituals in question were never collected; but perhaps we may form some idea of their nature from the "Homeridian" and Orphic hymns to the Gods, and those of the Alexandrian antiquary Callimachus. It is further to be inferred that they enter into the Hesiodic Theogony. (Decharme, p. 3, citing Bergk.)

[464] Meyer, ii, 426; Curtius, i, 390-91, 417; Thirlwall, i, 204; Grote, i, 48-49.

[465] Meyer, ii, 410-14.

[466] Cp. Curtius, i, 392-400, 416; Duncker, iii, 529.

[467] Curtius, i, 112; Meyer, ii, 366.